420 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices

Find the conjugate transpose A* of a complex matrix A.
Determine if a matrix A is unitary.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian matrix, and
diagonalize a Hermitian matrix.

CONJUGATE TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

Problems involving diagonalization of complex matrices and the associated eigenvalue
problems require the concepts of unitary and Hermitian matrices. These matrices
roughly correspond to orthogonal and symmetric real matrices. In order to define
unitary and Hermitian matrices, the concept of the conjugate transpose of a complex
matrix must first be introduced.

Definition of the Conjugate Transpose of a Complex Matrix

The conjugate transpose of a complex matrix A, denoted by A*, is given by
A*  A T
where the entries of A are the complex conjugates of the corresponding entries
of A.

Note that if A is a matrix with real entries, then A*  AT. To find the conjugate
transpose of a matrix, first calculate the complex conjugate of each entry and then take
the transpose of the matrix, as shown in the following example.

Finding the Conjugate Transpose

of a Complex Matrix
Determine A* for the matrix
3  7i
冤 冥
0
A .
2i 4i
SOLUTION

A 冤3  7i
2i
0
4i
 冥
3  7i
2i 冤
0
4i 冥
3  7i 2i
A*  AT  冤 0 4i 冥
Several properties of the conjugate transpose of a matrix are listed in the following
theorem. The proofs of these properties are straightforward and are left for you to
supply in Exercises 47–50.

THEOREM 8.8 Properties of the Conjugate Transpose

If A and B are complex matrices and k is a complex number, then the following
properties are true.
1. 共A*兲*  A 2. 共A  B兲*  A*  B*
3. 共kA兲*  kA* 4. 共AB兲*  B*A*
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 421

UNITARY MATRICES
Recall that a real matrix A is orthogonal if and only if A1  AT. In the complex
system, matrices having the property that A1  A* are more useful, and such matrices
are called unitary.

Definition of Unitary Matrix

A complex matrix A is unitary when
A1  A*.

A Unitary Matrix

Show that the matrix A is unitary.

1 1i 1i
A 冤
2 1i 1i 冥
SOLUTION
Begin by finding the product AA*.
1i 1i 1 1i 1i
冤1  i 冥冤 冥
1
AA* 
2 1i 2 1i 1i

冤0 4冥
1 4 0

4
冤
0 1冥
1 0

Because

冤0 1冥  I
1 0
AA*  2

it follows that A*  A1. So, A is a unitary matrix.

Recall from Section 7.3 that a real matrix is orthogonal if and only if its row
(or column) vectors form an orthonormal set. For complex matrices, this property
characterizes matrices that are unitary. Note that a set of vectors
再v1, v2, . . . , vm冎
in C n (a complex Euclidean space) is called orthonormal when the statements below
are true.
1. 储vi储  1, i  1, 2, . . . , m
2. vi  vj  0, i  j
The proof of the next theorem is similar to the proof of Theorem 7.8 presented in
Section 7.3.

THEOREM 8.9 Unitary Matrices

An n  n complex matrix A is unitary if and only if its row (or column) vectors
form an orthonormal set in C n.
422 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

The Row Vectors of a Unitary Matrix

Show that the complex matrix A is unitary by showing that its set of row vectors forms
an orthonormal set in C 3.

冤 冥
1 1i 1

2 2 2
i i 1
A 
冪3 冪3 冪3
5i 3i 4  3i
2冪15 2冪15 2冪15
SOLUTION
Let r1, r2, and r3 be defined as follows.
1 1i 1
冢 2, 冣 冢 冣
i i 1
r1  ,  , r2   , , ,
2 2 冪3 冪3 冪3
3  i 4  3i
冢2冪15, 2冪15, 冣
5i
r3 
2冪15
Begin by showing that r1, r2 , and r3 are unit vectors.
1i
冤 冢2冣冢2冣  冢 冣冢1 2 i冣  冢 12冣冢 21冣冥 冤 4  42  14冥
1 1 1兾2 1 1兾2
储r1储   1
2

冤冢 冪3冣冢 冪3冣  冢冪3冣冢冪3冣  冢冪3冣冢冪3冣冥

i i i i 1 1 1兾2
储r2 储 

冤   冥
1 1 1 1兾2

3 3 3
1
3i 3i 4  3i 4  3i
冤冢2冪15冣冢2冪15冣  冢2冪15冣冢2冪15冣  冢 2冪15 冣冢 2冪15 冣冥
5i 5i 1兾2
储r3储 

冤 
60 60 60冥
25 10 25 1兾2

1
Then show that all pairs of distinct vectors are orthogonal.

r1  r2  冢12冣冢 冪i 3冣  冢1 2 i冣冢冪i 3冣  冢 12冣冢冪13冣

i i 1 1
   
2冪3 2冪3 2冪3 2冪3
0

r1  r3  冢12冣冢2冪5i15冣  冢1 2 i冣冢23冪15i 冣  冢 21冣冢42冪153i冣

5i 4  2i 4  3i
  
4冪15 4冪15 4冪15
0

REMARK
r2  r3   冢 冪3
i
冣冢2冪5i15冣  冢冪i 3冣冢23冪15i 冣  冢冪13冣冢42冪153i冣
Try showing that the column 5 1  3i 4  3i
  
vectors of A also form an 6冪5 6冪5 6冪5
orthonormal set in C 3. 0
So, 再r1, r2, r3冎 is an orthonormal set.
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 423

HERMITIAN MATRICES
A real matrix is symmetric when it is equal to its own transpose. In the complex
system, the more useful type of matrix is one that is equal to its own conjugate
transpose. Such a matrix is called Hermitian after the French mathematician Charles
Hermite (1822–1901).

Definition of a Hermitian Matrix

A square matrix A is Hermitian when
A  A*.

As with symmetric matrices, you can recognize Hermitian matrices by inspection.

To see this, consider the 2  2 matrix A.
a1  a2i b1  b2i
A 冤c 1  c2i d1  d2i 冥
The conjugate transpose of A has the form
A*  A T

冤 冥
a1  a2i c1  c2i

b1  b2i d1  d2i
a  a2i c1  c2i
 1 冤
b1  b2i d1  d2i
. 冥
If A is Hermitian, then A  A*. So, A must be of the form
a1 b1  b2i
A 冤b 1  b2i d1 冥
.

Similar results can be obtained for Hermitian matrices of order n  n. In other words,
a square matrix A is Hermitian if and only if the following two conditions are met.
1. The entries on the main diagonal of A are real.
2. The entry aij in the ith row and the jth column is the complex conjugate of the
entry aji in the jth row and the ith column.

Hermitian Matrices

Which matrices are Hermitian?

3i 3  2i
冤3  i 冥 冤3  2i 冥
1 0
a. b.
i 4

冤 冥 冤 冥
3 2i 3i 1 2 3
c. 2  i 0 1i d. 2 0 1
3i 1  i 0 3 1 4
SOLUTION
a. This matrix is not Hermitian because it has an imaginary entry on its main diagonal.
b. This matrix is symmetric but not Hermitian because the entry in the first row and
second column is not the complex conjugate of the entry in the second row and first
column.
c. This matrix is Hermitian.
d. This matrix is Hermitian because all real symmetric matrices are Hermitian.
424 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

REMARK One of the most important characteristics of Hermitian matrices is that their
Note that this theorem implies
eigenvalues are real. This is formally stated in the next theorem.
that the eigenvalues of a real
symmetric matrix are real, as
stated in Theorem 7.7. THEOREM 8.10 The Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix
If A is a Hermitian matrix, then its eigenvalues are real numbers.

PROOF
Let  be an eigenvalue of A and let
a1  b1i

冤 冥
a bi
v 2 . 2
..
an  bni
be its corresponding eigenvector. If both sides of the equation Av  v are multiplied
by the row vector v*, then
v*Av  v*共v兲  共v*v兲  共a12  b12  a22  b22  . . .  an2  bn2兲.
Furthermore, because
共v*Av兲*  v*A*共v*兲*  v*Av
it follows that v*Av is a Hermitian 1  1 matrix. This implies that v*Av is a real
number, so  is real.

To find the eigenvalues of complex matrices, follow the same procedure as for real
matrices.

Finding the Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix

Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A.

冤 冥
3 2i 3i
A 2i 0 1i
3i 1  i 0
SOLUTION

ⱍ ⱍ
The characteristic polynomial of A is
  3 2  i 3i
ⱍ I  Aⱍ  2  i  1  i
3i 1  i 
 共  3兲共  2兲  共2  i兲关共2  i兲  共3i  3兲兴
2
 3i 关共1  3i兲  3i兴
 共  3  2  6兲  共5  9  3i兲  共3i  9  9兲
3 2

 3  32  16  12
 共  1兲共  6兲共  2兲.
So, the characteristic equation is 共  1兲共  6兲共  2兲  0, and the eigenvalues of A
are 1, 6, and 2.
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 425

To find the eigenvectors of a complex matrix, use a procedure similar to that used
for a real matrix. For instance, in Example 5, to find the eigenvector corresponding to
the eigenvalue   1, substitute the value for  into the equation

冤 冥冤 冥 冤 冥
  3 2  i 3i v1 0
2  i  1  i v2  0
3i 1  i  v3 0
to obtain

冤 冥冤 冥 冤 冥
4 2  i 3i v1 0
2  i 1 1  i v2  0 .
3i 1  i 1 v3 0
Solve this equation using Gauss-Jordan elimination, or a graphing utility or software
program, to obtain the eigenvector corresponding to 1  1, which is shown below.
TECHNOLOGY
1
Some graphing utilities and
software programs have built-in
programs for finding the
冤 冥
v1  1  2i
1
eigenvalues and corresponding
eigenvectors of complex
Eigenvectors for 2  6 and 3  2 can be found in a similar manner. They are
matrices. 1  21i 1  3i

冤 冥
6  9i
13
and
冤 冥
2  i , respectively.
5

LINEAR Quantum mechanics had its start in the early 20th century
ALGEBRA as scientists began to study subatomic particles and light.
APPLIED Collecting data on energy levels of atoms, and the rates of
transition between levels, they found that atoms could be
induced to more excited states by the absorption of light.
German physicist Werner Heisenburg (1901–1976) laid a
mathematical foundation for quantum mechanics using
matrices. Studying the dispersion of light, he used vectors to
represent energy levels of states and Hermitian matrices to
represent “observables” such as momentum, position, and
acceleration. He noticed that a measurement yields precisely
one real value and leaves the system in precisely one of a set
of mutually exclusive (orthogonal) states. So, the eigenvalues
are the possible values that can result from a measurement
of an observable, and the eigenvectors are the corresponding
states of the system following the measurement.
Let matrix A be a diagonal Hermitian matrix that represents
an observable. Then consider a physical system whose
state is represented by the column vector u. To measure the
value of the observable A in the system of state u, you can
find the product

冤 冥冤 冥
a11 0 0 u1
u*Au  关u1 u2 u3兴 0 a22 0 u2
0 0 a33 u3
 共u1 u1兲a11  共u2 u2兲a22  共u3u3兲a33.

Because A is Hermitian and its values along the diagonal

are real, u*Au is a real number. It represents the average
of the values given by measuring the observable A on a
system in the state u a large number of times.
Jezper/Shutterstock.com
426 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

Just as real symmetric matrices are orthogonally diagonalizable, Hermitian

matrices are unitarily diagonalizable. A square matrix A is unitarily diagonalizable
when there exists a unitary matrix P such that
P1AP
is a diagonal matrix. Because P is unitary, P1  P*, so an equivalent statement is
that A is unitarily diagonalizable when there exists a unitary matrix P such that P*AP
is a diagonal matrix. The next theorem states that Hermitian matrices are unitarily
diagonalizable.

THEOREM 8.11 Hermitian Matrices and Diagonalization

If A is an n  n Hermitian matrix, then
1. eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
2. A is unitarily diagonalizable.

PROOF
To prove part 1, let v1 and v2 be two eigenvectors corresponding to the distinct (and
real) eigenvalues 1 and 2. Because Av1  1v1 and Av2  2v2, you have the
equations shown below for the matrix product 共Av1兲*v2.
共Av1兲*v2  v1*A*v2  v1*Av2  v1*2v2  2v1*v2
共Av1兲*v2  共1v1兲*v2  v1*1v2  1v1*v2
So,
 2v1*v2  1v1*v2  0
共 2  1兲v1*v2  0
v1*v2  0 because 1 2
and this shows that v1 and v2 are orthogonal. Part 2 of Theorem 8.11 is often called the
Spectral Theorem, and its proof is left to you.

The Eigenvectors of a Hermitian Matrix

The eigenvectors of the Hermitian matrix shown in Example 5 are mutually orthogonal
because the eigenvalues are distinct. Verify this by calculating the Euclidean inner
products v1  v2, v1  v3, and v2  v3. For example,
v1  v2  共1兲共1  21i兲  共1  2i兲共6  9i兲  共1兲共13兲
 共1兲共1  21i兲  共1  2i兲共6  9i兲  13
 1  21i  6  9i  12i  18  13
 0.
The other two inner products v1  v3 and v2  v3 can be shown to equal zero in a
similar manner.

The three eigenvectors in Example 6 are mutually orthogonal because they

correspond to distinct eigenvalues of the Hermitian matrix A. Two or more eigenvectors
corresponding to the same eigenvalue may not be orthogonal. Once any set of linearly
independent eigenvectors is obtained for an eigenvalue, however, the Gram-Schmidt
orthonormalization process can be used to find an orthogonal set.
 8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices 427

Diagonalization of a Hermitian Matrix

Find a unitary matrix P such that P*AP is a diagonal matrix where

冤 冥
3 2i 3i
A 2i 0 1i .
3i 1i 0
SOLUTION
The eigenvectors of A are shown after Example 5. Form the matrix P by normalizing
these three eigenvectors and using the results to create the columns of P.
储v1储  储共1, 1  2i, 1兲储  冪1  5  1  冪7
储v2储  储共1  21i, 6  9i, 13兲储  冪442  117  169  冪728
储v3储  储共1  3i, 2  i, 5兲储  冪10  5  25  冪40
So,

冤 冥
1 1  21i 1  3i

冪7 冪728 冪40
1  2i 6  9i 2  i
P .
冪7 冪728 冪40
1 13 5
冪7 冪728 冪40

Try computing the product P*AP for the matrices A and P in Example 7 to see that
1

冤 冥
0 0
P*AP  0 6 0
0 0 2
where 1, 6, and 2 are the eigenvalues of A.
You have seen that Hermitian matrices are unitarily diagonalizable. It turns out
that there is a larger class of matrices, called normal matrices, that are also unitarily
diagonalizable. A square complex matrix A is normal when it commutes with its
conjugate transpose: AA*  A*A. The main theorem of normal matrices states that
a complex matrix A is normal if and only if it is unitarily diagonalizable. You are asked
to explore normal matrices further in Exercise 56.
The properties of complex matrices described in this section are comparable to the
properties of real matrices discussed in Chapter 7. The summary below indicates the
correspondence between unitary and Hermitian complex matrices when compared with
orthogonal and symmetric real matrices.

Comparison of Symmetric and Hermitian Matrices

A is a symmetric matrix A is a Hermitian matrix
(real) (complex)
1. Eigenvalues of A are real. 1. Eigenvalues of A are real.
2. Eigenvectors corresponding 2. Eigenvectors corresponding
to distinct eigenvalues are to distinct eigenvalues are
orthogonal. orthogonal.
3. There exists an orthogonal 3. There exists a unitary matrix P
matrix P such that such that
PTAP P*AP
is diagonal. is diagonal.
428 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8.5 Exercises

冤 冥
Finding the Conjugate Transpose In Exercises 1– 4, i i i
determine the conjugate transpose of the matrix. 
冪2 冪3 冪6
i 1  2i 2  i i i i
冤 冥 冤 冥
i 16. A 
1. 2. 冪2 冪3 冪6
2 3i 1 1
i i
0 

冤 冥 冤 冥
0 5  i 冪2i 2 i 冪3 冪6
3. 5i 6 4 4. 5 3i
 冪2i 4 3 0 6i Row Vectors of a Unitary Matrix In Exercises 17–20,
(a) verify that A is unitary by showing that its rows are
Finding the Conjugate Transpose In Exercises 5 and orthonormal, and (b) determine the inverse of A.
6, use a software program or graphing utility to find the

冤 冥 冤 冥
conjugate transpose of the matrix. 4 3 1  i 1  i
i
5 5 2 2
17. A  18. A 

冤 冥
1i 0 1 i 3 4 1 1
2i 1 0 2i 5 5
i
冪2 冪2
5.
1i i 2 4i
i 2i 1 0
19. A  冤
1 冪3  i 1  冪3 i
2冪2 冪3  i 1  冪3 i 冥
冤 冥
2i 1 1 2i

冤 冥
0 2i 2i 1i 0 1 0
6.
i 2i i 1 1  i 1i
20. A  0
1  2i 4 0 2i 冪6 冪3
2 1
Non-Unitary Matrices In Exercises 7–10, explain why 0
冪6 冪3
the matrix is not unitary.
Identifying Hermitian Matrices In Exercises 21–26,
冤0 冥 冤i 冥
i 0 1 i
7. A  8. A  determine whether the matrix is Hermitian.
0 1

冤i 0冥 冤0 冥
0 i i 0

冤 冥
1i 0  i 21. 22.
9. A  冪2 冪2
i

冤 冥 冤 冥
0 1 0 0 2i 1 0 i 1
23. 2  i i 0 24. 2  i i 0

冤 冥
1 1 1i
 1 0 1 0 1 0
2 2 2
i 1 i
10. A   2i 3i
冪3
1
冪3
1
冪3
1i
25. 冤2  1i 2 3i 冥
 

冤 冥
2 2 2 1 冪2  i 5
26. 冪2  i 2 3i
Identifying Unitary Matrices In Exercises 11–16,
5 3i 6
determine whether A is unitary by calculating AA*.
1i 1i 1i 1i Finding Eigenvalues of a Hermitian Matrix In
11. A  冤1  i 1i 冥 12. A  冤1  i 1i 冥 Exercises 27–32, determine the eigenvalues of the matrix A.

冤i 0冥 冤i 3冥
冤 冥
i i 0 i 3 i
27. A  28. A 
i
冤 冥 冪2 冪2
0
13. A  14. A 
0 i i i 1i 2i
冤1  i 冥 冤2  i 冥
 3 0
冪2 冪2
29. A  30. A 
2 4

冤 冥
4 3

冤 冥
 1 4 1i
5 5
15. A  31. A  0 i 3i
3 4
i i 0 0 2i
5 5
 8.5 Exercises 429

冤 冥
i i Unitary Matrices In Exercises 45 and 46, use the result of
2  Exercise 44 to determine a, b, and c such that A is unitary.
冪2 冪2
i

冤 冥
32. A  2 0 6  3i
1 1 a 1 a
冪2
i
45. A 
冪2 冤
b c 冥 46. A 
冪2
冪45
 0 2 b c
冪2
Proof In Exercises 47– 50, prove the formula, where A
Finding Eigenvectors of a Hermitian Matrix In and B are n ⴛ n complex matrices.
Exercises 33 – 36, determine the eigenvectors of the 47. 共A*兲*  A 48. 共A  B兲*  A*  B*
matrix in the indicated exercise.
49. 共kA兲*  kA* 50. 共AB兲*  B*A*
33. Exercise 27 34. Exercise 30
51. Proof Let A be a matrix such that A*  A  O. Prove
35. Exercise 31 36. Exercise 28 that iA is Hermitian.
Diagonalization of a Hermitian Matrix In Exercises 52. Show that det共A兲  det共A兲, where A is a 2  2 matrix.
37–41, find a unitary matrix P that diagonalizes the
Determinants In Exercises 53 and 54, assume that the
matrix A.
result of Exercise 52 is true for matrices of any size.
2i
冤i 0冥 冤2  i 冥
0 i 0 53. Show that det共A*兲  det共A兲.
37. A  38. A 
4
54. Prove that if A is unitary, then ⱍdet共A兲ⱍ  1.

冤 冥
i i
2  55. (a) Prove that every Hermitian matrix A can be written as
冪2 冪2
the sum A  B  iC, where B is a real symmetric
i
39. A  2 0 matrix and C is real and skew-symmetric.
冪2
(b) Use part (a) to write the matrix
i
 0 2
1i
冪2
冤1  i 冥
2
A
3
4 2  2i
40. A  冤
2  2i 6 冥 as the sum A  B  iC, where B is a real symmetric
matrix and C is real and skew-symmetric.

冤 冥
1 0 0
(c) Prove that every n  n complex matrix A can be
41. A  0 1 1  i
written as A  B  iC, where B and C are
0 1  i 0
Hermitian.
(d) Use part (c) to write the complex matrix
42. Consider the following matrix.
冤2  i 冥
i 2

冤 冥
2 3  i 4  i A
1  2i
A 3i 1 1i
4i 1i 3 as the sum A  B  iC, where B and C are
Hermitian.
(a) Is A unitary? Explain.
56. (a) Prove that every Hermitian matrix is normal.
(b) Is A Hermitian? Explain.
(b) Prove that every unitary matrix is normal.
(c) Are the row vectors of A orthonormal? Explain.
(c) Find a 2  2 matrix that is Hermitian, but not unitary.
(d) The eigenvalues of A are distinct. Is it possible
to determine the inner products of the pairs of (d) Find a 2  2 matrix that is unitary, but not
eigenvectors by inspection? If so, state the Hermitian.
value(s). If not, explain why not. (e) Find a 2  2 matrix that is normal, but neither
(e) Is A unitarily diagonalizable? Explain. Hermitian nor unitary.
(f) Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors
of your matrix in part (e).
43. Show that A  In is unitary by computing AA*.
(g) Show that the complex matrix
44. Let z be a complex number with modulus 1. Show that

冤0 i冥
the matrix A is unitary. i 1

冤 冥
1 z z
A
冪2 iz iz is not diagonalizable. Is this matrix normal?
430 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8 Review Exercises
Operations with Complex Numbers In Exercises Converting to Polar Form In Exercises 31– 36,
1–6, perform the operation. determine the polar form of the complex number.
1. Find u  z: u  2  4i, z  4i 31. 4  4i 32. 2  2i
2. Find u  z: u  4, z  8i 33. 冪3  i 34. 1  冪3i
3. Find uz: u  4  2i, z  4  2i 35. 7  4i 36. 3  2i
4. Find uz: u  2i, z  1  2i
Converting to Standard Form In Exercises 37– 42,
u find the standard form of the complex number.
5. Find : u  6  2i, z  3  3i
z
u
6. Find : u  7  i, z  i
冤 冢 6 冣  i sin冢 6 冣冥
37. 5 cos 
z

Finding Zeros In Exercises 7–10, use the given zero to
冤 冢 3 冣  i sin冢 3 冣冥
38. 2 cos 

find all zeros of the polynomial function. 5 5 2 2

7. p共x兲  x 3  2x 2  2x  4 Zero: 冪2i 冢
39. 4 cos
4
 i sin
4 冣 40. 6 cos冢 3
 i sin
3 冣
8. p共x兲  x3  2x  4 Zero: 1  i 3 3
9. p共x兲  x  x  3x  5x  10
4 3 2
Zero:  冪5i 冢
41. 7 cos
2
 i sin
2 冣 42. 4关cos  i sin 兴

10. p共x兲  x4  x3  x2  3x  6 Zero: 冪3i

Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form In Exercises
Operations with Complex Matrices In Exercises 43 – 46, perform the indicated operation. Leave the result
11–18, perform the operation using in polar form.

Aⴝ
4ⴚi
冤 3 3ⴙi
2
冥
and B ⴝ
1ⴙi
冤
i
2i 2 ⴙ i
. 冥 冤冢
43. 4 cos
2
 i sin
2 冣冥冤3冢cos 6  i sin 6 冣冥
11. A  B 12. A  B
冤 2 冢cos 2  i sin 2 冣冥冤2 冢cos 冢 2 冣  i sin 冢 2 冣冣冥
1
44.
13. 2iB 14. iA
15. det共A  B兲 16. det共A  B兲 9 关cos共 兾2兲  i sin 共 兾2兲兴
45.
17. 3BA 18. 2AB 6 关cos共2 兾3兲  i sin 共2 兾3兲兴
4 关cos 共 兾4兲  i sin 共 兾4兲兴
Operations with Conjugates and ModuliIn Exercises 46.
19 – 24, perform the operation using w ⴝ 2 ⴚ 2i, 7 关cos 共 兾3兲  i sin 共 兾3兲兴
v ⴝ 3 ⴙ i, and z ⴝ ⴚ1 ⴙ 2i.
Finding Powers of Complex Numbers In Exercises
19. z 20. v 21. ⱍwⱍ 47– 50, find the indicated power of the number and
22. ⱍvzⱍ 23. wv 24. ⱍzwⱍ express the result in polar form.
47. 共1  i兲4 48. 共2i兲3
Dividing Complex Numbers In Exercises 25 –28,

冤 冢 冣冥 冤冢 冣冥
7 4
perform the indicated operation. 49. 冪2 cos  i sin 50. 5 cos  i sin
6 6 3 3
2i 1i
25. 26.
2i 1  2i Finding Roots of Complex Numbers In Exercises
共1  2i兲共1  2i兲 5  2i 51– 54, express the roots in standard form.
27. 28.
3  3i 共2  2i兲共2  3i兲 2 2
51. Square roots: 25 cos 冢 3
 i sin
3 冣
Finding the Inverse of a Complex Matrix In Exercises

29 and 30, find Aⴚ1 (if it exists).
3i 1  2i
52. Cube roots: 27 cos冢 6
 i sin
6 冣
29. A  冤 23
5  5i
11
2  3i 冥 53. Cube roots: i

30. A  冤0
5 1i
i 冥 54. Fourth roots: 16 cos 冢 4
 i sin
4 冣
 Review Exercises 431

Vector Operations in C n

冤 冥
In Exercises 55 – 58, find the 9 2i 2
indicated vector using u ⴝ 冇4i, 2 ⴙ i冈, v ⴝ 冇3, ⴚi 冈, and 76. 2  i 0 1  i
w ⴝ 冇3 ⴚ i, 4 ⴙ i冈. 2 1  i 3
55. 7u  v 56. 3iw  共4  i兲v
57. iu  iv  iw 58. 共3  2i兲u  共2i兲w Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors In Exercises
77 and 78, find the eigenvalues and corresponding
Finding the Euclidean Norm In Exercises 59 and 60, eigenvectors of the matrix.
determine the Euclidean norm of the vector.

冤 冥
2 0 i
2i
冤 冥
4
59. v  共3  5i, 2i兲 60. v  共3i, 1  5i, 3  2i兲 77. 78. 0 3 0
2i 0
i 0 2
Finding the Euclidean Distance In Exercises 61 and
62, find the Euclidean distance between the vectors. 79. Proof Prove that if A is an invertible matrix, then A*
61. v  共2  i, i兲, u  共i, 2  i兲 is also invertible.
62. v  共2  i, 1  2i, 3i兲, u  共4  2i, 3  2i, 4兲 80. Determine all complex numbers z such that z  z.
81. Proof Prove that if z is a zero of a polynomial
Finding Complex Inner Products In Exercises 63 – 66,
equation with real coefficients, then the conjugate of z
use the inner product 具u, v典 ⴝ u1v1 ⴙ 2u2v2 to find 具u, v典.
is also a zero.
63. u  共i, 3i兲 and v  共2i, 2i兲
82. (a) Find the determinant of the Hermitian matrix
64. u  共i, 2  i兲 and v  共5  i, i兲

冤 冥
3 2i 3i
65. u  共1  i, 1  2i兲 and v  共2  i, 1  2i兲 2i 0 1i .
66. u  共2  2i, 1兲 and v  共3  4i, 2兲 3i 1i 0
Finding the Conjugate Transpose In Exercises 67–70, (b) Proof Prove that the determinant of any
determine the conjugate transpose of the matrix. Hermitian matrix is real.
1  4i 3i 83. Proof Let A and B be Hermitian matrices. Prove that
67. A  冤 3i 2i 冥 AB  BA if and only if AB is Hermitian.
84. Proof Let u be a unit vector in C n. Define
2i 2i
68. A  冤
2  2i 冥
H  I  2uu*. Prove that H is an n  n Hermitian and
1  2i
unitary matrix.

冥
2i 3  2i

冤
5
85. Proof Use mathematical induction to prove
69. A  2  2i 3  2i i
DeMoivre’s Theorem.
3i 2i 1  2i
86. Proof Show that if z1  z2 and z1z2 are both nonzero

冤 冥
2 1i i real numbers, then z1 and z2 are both real numbers.
70. A  i 2  2i 0
87. Proof Prove that if z and w are complex numbers,
1 1i 2i then
Identifying Unitary Matrices In Exercises 71–74, ⱍz  wⱍ
ⱍzⱍ  ⱍwⱍ.
determine whether the matrix is unitary. 88. Proof Prove that for all vectors u and v in a complex

冤 冥 冤 冥
i  1 2i 1i inner product space,
冪2 冪2 4 4 具u, v典  14 关 储u  v储2  储u  v储2  i储u  iv储2
71. 72.
i 1 i 冪2  i储u  iv储2兴.
冪2 冪2 冪3 冪3
True or False? In Exercises 89 and 90, determine

冤 冥
1 0 1
冪2 冪2
whether each statement is true or false. If a statement is
true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from
冤 冥
1 0
73. 74. 0 i 0 the text. If a statement is false, provide an example that
i i
1i 1  i shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
0
2 2 appropriate statement from the text.
89. A square complex matrix A is called normal if it
Identifying Hermitian Matrices In Exercises 75 and
commutes with its conjugate transpose so that
76, determine whether the matrix is Hermitian.
AA*  A*A.

冤 冥
1 1  i 2  i
90. A square complex matrix A is called Hermitian if
75. 1  i 3 i
A  A*.
2i i 4
432 Chapter 8 Complex Vector Spaces

8 Project

1 Population Growth and Dynamical Systems (II)

In the projects for Chapter 7, you were asked to model the populations of two
species using a system of differential equations of the form
y 1 共t兲  ay1共t兲  by2共t兲
y 2 共t兲  cy1共t兲  dy2共t兲.
The constants a, b, c, and d depend on the particular species being studied. In
Chapter 7, you looked at an example of a predator-prey relationship, in which
a  0.5, b  0.6, c  0.4, and d  3.0. Now consider a slightly different model.
y 1 共t兲  0.6y1共t兲  0.8y2共t兲, y1共0兲  36
y 2 共t兲  0.8y1共t兲  0.6y2共t兲, y2共0兲  121
1. Use the diagonalization technique to find the general solutions y1共t兲 and y2共t兲 at
any time t > 0. Although the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

A 冤0.8
0.6 0.8
0.6 冥
are complex, the same principles apply, and you can obtain complex exponential
solutions.
2. Convert the complex solutions to real solutions by observing that if   a  bi
is a (complex) eigenvalue of A with (complex) eigenvector v, then the real and
imaginary parts of etv form a linearly independent pair of (real) solutions. Use
the formula ei  cos   i sin .
3. Use the initial conditions to find the explicit form of the (real) solutions of the
original equations.
4. If you have access to a graphing utility or software program, graph the solutions
obtained in part 3 over the domain 0
t
3. At what moment are the two
populations equal?
5. Interpret the solution in terms of the long-term population trend for the two
species. Does one species ultimately disappear? Why or why not? Contrast this
solution to that obtained for the model in Chapter 7.
6. If you have access to a graphing utility or software program that can numerically
solve differential equations, use it to graph the solutions of the original system
of equations. Does this numerical approximation appear to be accurate?
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