Lecture Notes 3 by Prof. Kaushik Pal

Metrology:
IL"1dth
definition: Surface
Metrology is a science of measurement of six Depth
fundamental quantities: Length, Mass, Time, Roughness
Temperature, Electric Current, and Light Roundness Thickness
Radiation.
Manufacturing
Metrology
Manufacturing Metrology.• Straightness Diameter
Mainly concerned With measurement of

length quantity in many ways in which it Flatness Taper
manifests itself in a manufactured part or product Angle
such as.
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Objective of Metrology:
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Basic
objective
" 7bprovide the required accuracy in measurement at of
00 metrology>
minimum cost".
Need of Metrology:
- Modern Industrial mass production system is
based on interchangeable manufacture, hen articles
are to be produced on a large scale.
- mass production the production of complete
article is broken up into \ various component parts
and production of each component pan becomes
an Independent process.
- Different component parts are made in large
quantities m different shops.
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Some parts are purchased from other factories also
and then assembled together at one place.
- Therefore, it becomes essential that any part
chosen at random should fit properly with any
other mating parts that too selected at random.
- This is possible only dimensions of component
parts are made with close dimensional tolerances.
- This is only achieved parts are inspected at
various stages during manufacturing.
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Principles of Metrology:
• In design, design engineer should not only
check his design from the point of view
of the strength or economical production,
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but he should also keep in mind how the
dimensions specified can be checked or
measured
Higher productivity and accuracy can be
achieved by properly understood,
introduced the Metrology We can
improve the measuring accuracy and
dimensional and geometrical accuracies
of the product.
Proper gauges should be designed and used
for rapid and effective inspection.
Also, automation and automatic control,
which are the modern trends for future
developments, are based on
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measurement. Digital instruments also
we can used for inspection.
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Different Ways of Metrological Inspection:
It is the examination of a part or product characteristic to determine Whether or not it conforms to
the design specifications. It Simple and •requires use of unskilled labour
can be done in two

cm
Inspection by Attributes Inspection by Variables

Using Gauges to determine whether the part or product Part or product characteristic of Interest IS measured
characteristic of interest is within the tolerance limit. numerically by means of a calibrated instrument,
Most commonly known as Gauging or Gaging. Measurement is generally accepted industrial term for
inspection by variables.
Results can be Yes or No: Acceptable or Not; Go or Not-
go; Good or Bad Gives the numerical value of the inspected characteristics,
Quick. less expensive. and less informative. Slow, costly, and more Informative.
Complex and requires use of skilled labour.
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Characteristics of a Measuring Instrument:
Various specific terms which describe the characteristics and quality of measuring
Instruments are:
l) Accuracy and Precision

2) Resolution or Sensitivity (Least Count)
3) Calibration 4) Speed of Response 5) Stability 6)
Operating Range
7) Reliability
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Accuracy of the Instrument is maintained by proper and regular calibration.
1) Accuracy vs. Precision:
Degree of repeatability of the measurement process
Degree to which the measured value A measurement process is precise when Random Errors m the measurement is minimized,
agrees with true value of the quantity
A measurement procedure is accurate Random errors are usually associated with the human participation in the measurement process.
when Systematic Errors are absent
Human contributor to random errors: Non-human contributors to random errors:
Variations in the setup Changes in temperature
Imprecise reading of the scale Gradual wear of working elements of the device
Round-off approximations Misalignment of working elements of the device
Systematic errors are positive or negative Random errors are assumed to obey normal distribution with zero mean
deviations from the true value that are
consistent from one measurement to the Precision of an Instrument is achieved by selecting the proper and regular calibration technology
next for the application
High Accuracy Low Accuracy
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High Precision high Precision
High Accuracy Low Accuracy

Low Precision Low
Precision
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Determination of Right Level of Precision:
• Rule of 1() is often used to determine the right les el of precision. Rifle
o/• 10 or Gage capability (Gage Maker 's Rule):
v/ An instrument or gage should be 10 times more precise than the tolerance to be measured. This
rule applies to all stages in the inspection sequence.
Example:
A company manufactures ball point pens with a ball outer diameter of 0.35 mm and acceptable
balls range from 0.34 to 0.36 mm.
Process tolerance = (0.36 — 0.34) mm = 0.02 mm
Using the Rule of Tens,
10% of the process tolerance = 0.10 x 0.02 = 0.002 mm
This means our gage must be able to detect a difference of at least 0.002 mm between balls.
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2) Resolution or Sensitivity (Least Count):

The smallest unit of scale or smallest variation of the variable that can be detected 3)
Calibration:
Procedure of checking a measuring instrument against a standard
Adjusting or setting an instrument to give readings that are accurate within a reference standard.
Calibration should be quick and uncomplicated
4) Speed of Response:
I low long the instrument takes to measure the variable
5) Stability:
Capability of an instillment to retain Its calibration over a period of time.
As devices become more accurate, they often lose stability and become more sensitive to small changes in
temperature and
6) Operating Range:
Capability to Measure the physical variable throughout the entire span of practical interest to the user7)
Reliability
Absence of frequent failures of the device.
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Linear Measurement:
Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths, diameters, heights, and thickness
including external and Internal measurements.
Non-precision Measuring
Linear Measuring Instruments: Instruments
Linear measuring instruments consists of series Precision Measuring

of accurately spaced painted or marked lines on Instruments
them.
These instruments can be categorized as:
Electrical Measuring devices
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Non-precision Measuring Instruments:
These instruments are limited to the measurements are parts to a Visible line graduation on the
instrument used.
They are used here high measurement accuracy is not required.
Depth Telescopic
Rules Calipers I)dividers
Gauge Gauge
a) Rules: Front
Simplest and most common measuring instrument in inspection.
Rule must be graduated uniformly throughout its length
There are rules that have got some attachment and special features with them to make their use
more versatile steel Rule
They may be made in folded form so that they can be kept in
pockets. 1 234567
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Degree of accuracy when measurements are made by a rule part of a millimetre. Measuring the Length of a Bolt
Retractable Flexible Rule
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Precautions•
Inaccurate Measuring
Accurate Measuring
14. IS 1
Read the measurement from directly above the rule.
Accurate Measuring Inaccurate Measuring
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Whenever there are several measurements to be made along a straight line, the rule should not be
raised until all are made, for with each placing of the rule errors are likely to occur
cm
b) Calipers:
The} are used for measurement of parts, which cannot be measured directly with the scale.
Generally used as accessories to scales and consist of two legs hinged at top, and the ends of
legs span part to be inspected.
This span is maintained and transferred to the scale.
Calipers are of two types:
Spring Type
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Calipers Firm Joint Type
Calipers
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c
i. Spring type Calipers: m
- legs are attached with spring m this t} pe of calipers. Working Spring Type Calipers
ends of each leg of a spring calipers should be identical in shape and has
e contact points equally distant from the fulcrum. Fulcrum Spnng roller
Solid nut
- Cross-section of the legs is either rectangular or circular m shape. washer solid nut
- Calipers are adjusted to set dimensions by mean of either knurled solid Ball
Adjusting SCtew
nut or a knurled quick action release nut operating in a finely threaded
adjusting screw. Leg
- Top portions of the legs are located in a flanged fulcrum roller and held
in position by a spring in order to maintain the alignment of the ends. parts ofan Outside Caliper
- Spring provides sufficient tension to hold the legs rigid at all points of Types of Spring
the adjustment.
Type Calipers:
Separate under the nut minimizes the friction between the adjusting nut FulC
and the leg.
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Inside caliper in use to measure the
Outside Spring Calipers: tonerSold nut internal diameter ofthe cylinder
waShet nut
It is designed to measure outside dimensions. Ban

Adjusting screw
For accurate settings, the distance between the outside

calipers may be set by slip gauges or by micrometer
anvils. Outside Spring Caliper Inside Spring Calipers:
They are designed to measure the inside dimensions.
An inside spring caliper is exactly similar to an outside
caliper with its legs bent outward.
v/ They are used for comparing or measuring hole diameters, distances
between shoulders, or other parallel surfaces of any inside dimensions.
Inside Spr)ng Caliper
Outside caliper being used to inspect the external diameter ofa machined component
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b
i. Firm Joint Type Calipers:
They work on the friction created at the junction of the legs.
The legs are identical in shape with the contact points equally distant from the fulcrum and are
joined together by a ct.
The component parts of the calipers should be free from seams, cracks and must 11m e smooth
bright finish.
Friction Joint Friction Joint
Firm joint calipers are of following types:

I Outside Firm Joint Caliper Legs
2. Inside Firm Joint Caliper
Legs
3. Transfer Caliper
4. Hermaphrodite Caliper Firm Joint Type
Calipers
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1. ()outside Finn Joint Caliper:
Unlike spring type outside calipers. it does not have any spring.
The construction is quite simple with two identical legs held firmly by the
fulcrum.
2. Inside Firm Joint Caliper:
Inside firm joint calipers are almost similar to inside spring joint caliper
the exception that it does not have any spring to hold the legs.
Inside Firm Joint Calipers Outside Firm Joint Calipers
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3. Transfer Caliper:
These are used for measuring recessed areas from the legs of calipers cannot be removed directly
but must be collapsed after the dimension has been measured.
Therefore, an auxiliary arm is provided with two legs so that it can preserve the original setting
after the legs are collapsed.
Nut is first locked and the caliper opened or closed against the work.
Nut is then loosened and the leg is swung to clear the obstruction leaving the auxiliary arm in
position. Leg can be moved back to the auxiliary leg, it show the size previously measured.
Nut
Nut
Auxiliary Arm
Auxiliary Arm
Transfer Caliper (Inside Type) cm
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Transfer Caliper (Outside Type)
4. Hermaphrodite 'caliper:
It is also known as odd leg caliper consisting of one divider and one caliper leg.
It is used for layout work like scribing lines parallel to the edge of the and for finding the centre
of a cylindrical work.
It can be with two 5 pes of legs, viz. notched leg or curve ed leg.
Examples:
Curved Leg Hermaphrodite Caliper
Notched Leg Hermaphrodite Caliper
Fixed Joint
Fixed Joint
Lock Nut
Adjustable
Notch Scriber Leg
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Marking Out using Odd Leg Calipers
(5 Cal,
c) Divider:
A divider is similar in construction to a caliper except that both legs are straight ith
sharp hardened points at the end. Nominal Size
These are used for scribing arcs and circles and general la} out
The distance between the fulcrum roller centre and the extreme end
of one of legs is ki10iN11 as the nominal size. Divider
A steel scale must be used with this instrument.
Depth Gauge:
This tool is used to measure the depth of blind holes. grooves- slots, the heights
of shoulders m holes and dimensions of similar character.
Screw clamp
This is essentially a steel rule to a sliding head is clamped at the right angles to
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the rule.
The head forms a convenient marker m places
the rule must be held a
distance from the point being measured. Depth Gauge
e) Telescopic Gauge: Next, the plunger
end is inserted in the hole
Telescopic gauge is used for the measurement of internal and allowed to expand the
diameter of a hole during machining operation. opposite edges.
It consists of a handle and two plungers, one telescopic into the Finally, they are
other and both under spring tension. locked in place. taken out of
the hole and measured bv an
Ends of the plungers lune spherical contacts.
outside micrometer,
The plungers can be locked m position by turning a knurled Telescopic Rods /
Plungers
screw at the end of the handle.
Handle
Measuring Procedure:
Step-I: To measure the diameter of a hole, the plungers are first compressed and
Internal Spring
locked in position.
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Locking Screw
Telescope Gauge
Using Telescope Gauge to measure Internal dia.
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Precision Measuring Instruments:
Since modern production processes IS concerned with interchangeable products, precise
dimensional control is required in industry.
Precision measurement instillments are different techniques and phenomena to measure distance
mth . J ernier Caliper Some mostl> used precision measuring msuuments are:
Micrmneter Height Gauge
i. Vernier Caliper: Slip Gauge

v/ Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments that
generally give an accuracy of 0.1 mm to 0.01 mm.
v/ The mam scale carries the fixed graduations, one of measuring jaws. a vernier
head having a vernier scale engraved on.
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Modern calipers are digital and have an LCD display on which the reading appears —
there is no possibility of human error in reading the scale. Different Types of
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Vernier Caliper Parts and their Functions:

1 lower Jaws or External Jaws:
They allow the vernier caliper to measure outer dimensions of objects such as the length, width or diameter
Upper jaw or Internal Jaws:
Used for measuring Inside dimensions of hollow objects such as Inside diameters of pipes, lengths and widths of
boxes etc.
Depth Rod:
It is used to measure the depths of holes or steps
Locking Screw'
Lock screw IS used to fix the position of the jaws once the object is positioned properly so that readings can be
taken without the fear of spoiling the position
Screw
Main Scale Depth
main Scale: Rod
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It is the large scale runs along the body of the vernier caliper. The
main scale IS stationary.
vernier Scale:
It is a smaller scale attached to the main scale and can move along the
Vernier Caliper
mam scale as the Jaws are opened or closed.
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Working Principle of Vernier Caliper:

Principle: When two scales or divisions slightly different in size are used, the difference between them
can be utilized to enhance the accuracy of measurement.
Example to understand the working principle of a vernier caliper:

Consider that the Vernier scale has got 20 divisions which equals to 19 divisions of the main scale.
One smallest division of the vernier scale < smallest division of the main scale
This difference between I main scale division and I Vernier scale division is called Fernier Constant (VC) for that particular
vernier caliper.
When VC is multiplied with the smallest unit of the main scale, it gives the Least Count (LC) of that vernier.
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Now as considered,
20 vernier scale divisions (VSD) = 19 main scale divisions (MSD)
1 VSD = 21 MSD
20
19
Vernier Constant (VC) = 1 MSD — 1 VSD = 1 MSD MSD = MSD
20 20
Now, if the smallest unit of the main scale be I mm, the least count of the vernier scale,
1
LC = VC x one smallest unit of the main scale = — x 1 mm = 0.05 mm
20
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How to Read a Vernier Caliper?
To read a measurement from a N vernier caliper. first the main scale reading (MSR) up to the zero of
the vernier scale IS noted down. It will give accuracy up to the smallest division of the mam scale.
Next. read the graduation (or vernier coinciding division. VCD) graduation lines on main and
vermer scale perfectly match.
where, the final
reading is obtained as: Final Reading = MSR + (VCD x LC) MSR = mam scale reading,
va e • LC — least counts and
VC — vernier coinciding division,
Imperial Scale MSR=. 13 mm VCD=21
6
3 5 6
-•UUUULUUIU.UUULUULUUUI,UUWUW- For the given Vernier caliper,
Least Count = 0.02 mm The final
Metric Scale
21 Divisions
reading is:
Main Metric Scale Vernier Scale
= 13 + 21 x 0.02
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= 13.42 mm
ii. Micrometers:
Most widely used precision instillments
Primarily used to measure external dimensions like diameters of shafts, thickness of parts etc. to an
accuracy of 0.01 mm. ANVIL SPINDLE SPINOUE LOCK SLEEVE
FACE
NUT Parts and their Functions:
.Anvil:
Small stationary cylindrical part of micrometer located in far end of c-frame.
VRAMC Acts as one holding point for measuring objects.
Parts of a Micrometer Spindle:
Cylindrical long part is mounted through all other parts sleeve lock nut and thimble
It is moveable part and has a connection with ratchet
As Nye rotate the ratchet clockwise counter clockwise the spindle slides out] inward to adjust it with compare to
measuring object size.
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Anvil Face and Spindle Face:
Faces of both anvil and spindle which are opposite to each other are the measuring points of micrometer. They
hold the measuring object collectively
Lock nut:
The knurled component that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as when momentarily holding a
measurement
sleeve:
The stationary barrel type cylindrical component with the linear scale (main scale) engraved on it. sometimes with
vernier markings
Thimble rotates around that sleeve and spindle FACE SPINOUE FACESPINDLE NUTLOCK
SLEEVE
Thimble.'
Thimble is also mounted on spindle and a scale is engraved around
Its perimeter (circular scale).
Scale of thimble is to show the measurement value in fraction
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Ratchet:
It’s a knurled thumb grip to rotate the spindle into desired direction for measuring process
It is provided with ratchet action to avoid over tightening of Micrometer across the measuring object and also ensures
equal pressure force of each measurement.
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Working Principle of Micrometer:
Micrometer works on the principle of screw and nut to amplify small distances.
The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw can be directly and precisely corelated to a certain amount of
axial movement (and vice versa), through the constant known as the screw's lead or pitch.
v/ A 's lead or pitch is the distance It moves forward axially with one complete turn (360 ).
With an appropriate lead and major diameter of the screw, a given amount of axial movement Will be amplified m
the resulting circumferential movement.
Least Count of a Micrometer:

The linear distance moved by the screw IS directly proportional to the rotation given to lt.
The linear distance moved by the screw when it is rotated by one division of the circular scale (thimble), is the least
distance that can be measured accurately by the instrument. Pitch
Least Count =
No. of Divisions on Circular Scale
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Example:This is the smallest Least len th Count one can (LCD measure = 0-5/50 with this 0-01 tnicrometer_mm
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How to Read a Micrometer?

Step-I: Taking the Linear Scale Reading
The mark on the linear scale which lies close to the left edge of the circular scale is the linear scale reading.
Step-2: Taking Circular Scale Reading
The division of circular scale which coincides with the main scale line is the reading of circular scale.
Step-3: Final Reading
Total Reading = Linear Scale Reading + Circular Scale Reading x Least Count
Example:
For the given micrometer, Least Count = 0.01 mm
12.5 mm
Linear scale reading = 12.5 mm
5 10 20 Circular Scale Reading Circular scale reading = 16 The
— 16
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final reading is:
= 12.5 + 16 x 0.01 •
leeve Thimble = 12.66 mm
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lii. Height Gauge: Measurement

v/ This uses the same principle of vernier caliper and is used especially for of height of a
the measurement of height. cylinder using
It is equipped with a special base block, sliding jaw assembly and a height gauge
removable clamp
The upper and lower surfaces of the measuring are parallel to the base, c
m
make possible to measure both ox er and under surfaces. Main scale
Fine adjustment Finc
v/ A scribmg attachment in place of measuring jaw can be used for adjustmcnt
screw Clamp
scribing lines at certain distance above the surface. Slider
Specification of a vernier height gauge is made by specifying the range Vernier scale
of measurement, type of scale required and any particular requirement Measuring jaw Base
in regard to the type of vernier desired. Parts ofa Height Gauge
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iv. Slip Gauges or Gauge Blocks:
Slip gauges (also known as gauge blocks, gage blocks, Johansson gauges, or Jo
blocks) are a system IV)r producing precision lengths.
The individual gauge block IS a metal or ceramic block that has been precision
ground and lapped to a specific thickness.
v/ Gauge blocks come 111 sets of blocks with a range of standard lengths.
v/ In use, tlle blocks are stacked to make up a desired length A Set of Gauge Blocks Also used for the \
erilicatlon and graduation of measurmg apparatus and 101' direct measurement of linear dimensions of
Industrial components.
Uses of Slip Gauge:
o Setting up a comparator to a specific dimension o Direct Precise measuring
purpose.
o To inspect the Vermer Calliper Micrometers and some other linear measurmg
instnunents. o Conjunction with sme bar to measure the angle of the workpiece. o Used to
Check the distance between the parallel faces. Gauge blocks stacked to make up a desired
length
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Electrical Measuring Devices:

Electrical measuring devices give the most precise Value of measurement along all the Instruments
discussed earlier.
They use electrical transducers that transform a variety of physical quantities and phenomena into
electrical signals. Electrical
Some of the most commonly used electric ices in linear measurement arc: resistance in the
wires change
• Strain Gauge when they are
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) elongated.
Thus, voltage
change in the
• Strain Gauge: wires can be
It is based on the resistive properties of electrical conductors. collaborated to
They are constructed from a single Wire that is wound back and forth. the change in
The gage is attached to the surface of an object With wires in the direction where strain.
strain IS to be measured.
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ADVANCEDCOMPOSITE Reslstance Gage
Electrical Gage Wires Gage Backing
Strain Direction W,res Tabs
Basic Linear Strain Gage
Linear Variable Differentia/ Transformer (LVDT):

v/ It is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement (position).
LVDT converts a position or linear displacement from a mechanical reference (zero, or null
position) Into a promotional electrical signal containing phase (for direction) and amplitude (for
distance) information.
Construction of LVIT:
LVDT consist of a single primally winding and two seconda1Y windings
They are wound on a hollow cylindrical bobbin IS non-magnetic and Insulating material.
The secondary windings have equal number of tums and are identically placed on either side of the primary
winding
The primal" winding is connected to an alternating current source.
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A movable soft Iron core IS placed Inside the bobbin. Tip Cables
Shaft Spring Core
Construction of LVIT sensor

Primary coil Secondary coil
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Working of LVDT:
Primary Secondary
The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core. coil coil
Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produce an

alternating magnetic field which in in tum induces alternating current voltages in the
two secondary winding
If the magnetic core IS displaced, then the value of resultant voltage Increases/decreases
m proportion with the displacement.
Resultant differential output across the secondary winding can be measured by voltmeter Working of
LVDT
Primary Winding Interpretation o/' Result:
Phase of the secondary voltage indicates the direction of displacement of core.
and the magnitude indicates by much.
Movable Cove
Cutaway view of an L VDT

Secondary Windings
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Summary:
The study of measurement (metrology) is a basic requirement in engineering and

manufacturing.
It has a very crucial role in achieving modern industrial mass production system
based on Interchangeable manufacturing.
In this lecture, different types of linear measuring instruments (Non-precision,

precision and electrical measuring devices) have been discussed
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0 cm
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Lecture Notes 3 by Prof. Kaushik Pal

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Lecture Notes 3 by Prof. Kaushik Pal

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Metrology:

Mainly concerned With measurement of

can be done in two

Inspection by Attributes Inspection by Variables

l) Accuracy and Precision

High Accuracy Low Accuracy

High Accuracy Low Accuracy

2) Resolution or Sensitivity (Least Count):

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Linear measuring instruments consists of series Precision Measuring

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

Retractable Flexible Rule

Read the measurement from directly above the rule.

Accurate Measuring Inaccurate Measuring

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Calipers are of two types:

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

and the leg.

It is designed to measure outside dimensions. Ban

For accurate settings, the distance between the outside

Firm joint calipers are of following types:

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Transfer Caliper (Inside Type) cm

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Using Telescope Gauge to measure Internal dia.

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i. Vernier Caliper: Slip Gauge

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Vernier Caliper Parts and their Functions:

Working Principle of Vernier Caliper:

Example to understand the working principle of a vernier caliper:

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11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

Least Count of a Micrometer:

How to Read a Micrometer?

lii. Height Gauge: Measurement

Electrical Measuring Devices:

Linear Variable Differentia/ Transformer (LVDT):

Construction of LVIT sensor

Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produce an

Cutaway view of an L VDT

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 40

The study of measurement (metrology) is a basic requirement in engineering and

In this lecture, different types of linear measuring instruments (Non-precision,

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 41

11T ROORKEE ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 42

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