UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.

College of Engineering and Architecture

Dubinan East, Santiago City

LEARNING MODULE

MODULE 2: THEORY OF ERRORS

Topic 1: Most Probable Value

Topic 2: Residual
Topic 3: Probable Error
Topic 4: Relative (Error) Precision (RP)
Topic 5: Weighted Observations
Topic 6: Interrelationship of errors

Engr. Claudette Mine A. Lumibao

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 1
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City

Module 2: THEORY OF ERRORS

Introduction

Theory of Erros
When a number of measurements of the same quantity have been made, they must be analyzed
on the basis of probability and the theory of errors. After all systematic (cumulative) errors and
mistake have been eliminated, random (compensating) errors are investigated to determine the
most probable value (mean) and other crical values.
Theory of Probability
Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the range of
possible occurences. The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results only
in so far as they are affected by accidental errors. It does not, however, in any way determine the
magnitude of systematic errors which may also be present.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of module 2, you should have achieved the following topic learning outcomes:
1. Apply the basic surveying concepts, principles and theories on determining the most probable
values and Probable Errors.
2. Determine the Correction to be Applied

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 2
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City
Topic 1: Most Probable Value
MOST PROBABLE VALUE (mpv)
The most probable value (mvp) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar
conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. It refers to a quantity which, based on available
data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.
X ( X 1  X 2  X 3  ....  X n )
mpv   
n n
Example Problems.
1) A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance between two
points marked on the ground. The students came up with the following six different values:
250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally
reliable and that variations result from accidental errors, determine the most probable value of
the distance measured.
Solutions:
X ( X 1  X 2  X 3  ....  X n )
mpv   
n n
(250.25  250.15  249.90  251.04  250.50  251.22)
mpv 
6
mpv= 250.51m (the most probable value of of the distance measured)

2) The angles about a point Q have the following observed values. 130°15’20”, 142°37’30”,
and 87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
Solutions:
a) Determining the correction to be applied.
Sum1  1   2   3  13015'20' '14237'30' '8707'40' '

= 360°00’30’’ (sum of the angles observed about point Q)

Disc = 360- 360°00’30’’ = -30” (discrepancy in the observation)
Note: The sum of angles observed about point Q is subtracted from 360° (the expected correct
sum)
Corr = Disc/n = -30”/3

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 3
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City
= -10” (correction to be subtracted from each observed angle)
b) Determining the most probable values.
Discrepanc y
Correction  = -30”/3= -10”
n
corrected θ1 = 130°15’20” + (-10”) = 130°15’10’’
corrected θ2 = 142°37’30” + (-10”) = 142°37’20’’
corrected θ3 = 87°07’40” + (-10”) = 87°07’30”
c) Solution Check.
130°15’10’’+142°37’20’’+ 87°07’30”= 360°
Note: Since the two quantities are equal, the above solution is assumed to be correct.
Topic 2: Residual
RESIDUAL (v)
Sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference between any
measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or

vX X

Where:
v is the residual in any measurement,
X is a measurement made of a particular quantity
X is the most probable value of the quantity measured.
Topic 3: Probable Error (PE)
PROBABLE ERROR (PE)
The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the
true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus sets.


PE s  0.6745
 v2
 n 1

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 4
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City


PEm  0.6745
v 2

 nn  1

PEs = probable error of any single measurement of series

PEm= probable error of the mean
n = number of observations

v 2
=summation of the squares of the residuals

Example Problems.
3) The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line: 1000.58,
1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a. Most probable value of the measured length
b. Probable error of a single measurement and probable erroe of the mean
c. Final expression for the most probable length
d. Relative precision of the measurement

Solutions:
a) n=6

X  X 1  X2  X3  X4  X5  X6

= 1000.58+1000.40+1000.38+1000.48+1000.40+1000.46
=6002.70m

Mvp or X =
X
n
=6002.70/6
=1000.45 (most probable value of the measured length)

b)  
v1  X 1  X = 1000.58 - 1000.45 = +0.13

v2  X  X  = 1000.40 - 1000.45 = -0.05

2

v3  X  X  = 1000.38 - 1000.45 = -0.07

3

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 5
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City

 
v4  X 4  X = 1000.48 - 1000.45 = +0.03

v5  X 5  X  = 1000.40 - 1000.45 = -0.05

v6  X 6  X  = 1000.46 - 1000.45 = +0.01

 v  0.00
v12   0.13  0.0169 v42   0.03  0.0009
2 2

v22   0.05  0.0025 v52   0.05  0.0025

2 2

v32   0.07   0.0049 v62   0.01  0.0001

2 2

v 2
 v12  v22  v32  v42  v52  v62

= 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0.0049 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0.0001

= 0.0278
Tabulated Solution:
MEASURED RESIDUAL v  X  X SQ OF RESIDUAL( v 2 )
LENGTH (X)
1000.58 +0.13 0.0169
1000.40 -0.05 0.0025
1000.38 -0.07 0.0049
1000.48 +0.03 0.0009
1000.40 -0.05 0.0025
1000.46 +0.01 0.0001

 X  6002.70  v  0.00 v 2
 0.0278

PE s  0.6745
v 2

 0.6745
0.0278
 0.05m
n 1 6  1
(probable error of a single measurement)

PEm  0.6745
v 2

 0.6745
0.0278
 0.02m
nn  1 66  1

(probable error of the mean)

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 6
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City

c) Therefore the length of the measured line may be expressed as 1000.45+-0.02m. This
means that there is a 50 percent chance that the true distance measured probably falls
between 1000.43m and 1000.47m, and that its most probable value is 1000.45m. There
is also, however, a 50 pecent chance that the true distance lies outside this range.
PE S 0.05
RPs  
d) mpv 1000.45 (the relative precision of single measurement)
PEm 0.02
RPm  
mpv 1000.45 (the relative precision of the mean)

Topic 4: Relative (Error) Precision (RP)

RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION (RP)
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of the measured quantity in the
denominator. The relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also
written as 1:2355.
Topic 5: Weighted Observations
WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
It is usually based upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements taken for a
particular quantity.
Adjustments of weighted Observation
1. The weighs are inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding probable errors.
K K K
w1  w2  w3 
E12 E22 E32

w1 E12 = w2 E22 = w3 E32

2. The weights are also proportional to the number of observation.

3. Errors are directly proportional to the square roots of distances.
Example Problems.
4) Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 248.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20
meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted mean.

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 7
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City
Measured Length (X) Assigned Weight (w) P = X(w)
284.18m 1 284.18
284.19 3 852.57
284.22 2 568.44
284.20 4 1136.80
Sums  w  10  P  2841.99

WeightedMe an 
 P  2841.99  284.20m (most probable value of the distance measured)
w 10

Topic 6: Interrelationship of errors

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
In some instances it is required to determine how the final results is affected when computation
involves quantities that are subject to accidental error. Two commonly applied principles of the
theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the product of errors.
1. Summation of Errors - If several measured quatities are added, each of which is affected by
accidental error, the probable error of the sum is given by the square root of the sum of the
squares of the separate probable errors arising from the several sources or

PE s  PE12  PE22  PE32  ......PEn2


Where:
PEs is the probable error of the sum
PE1, PE2, PE3, etc is the probable error of each measurement
Example Problems.
5) The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract errors: a  162.54  0.03m, b  234.26  0.05, and
c  195.70  0.04m . Dtermine the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of
the perimeter.
PER  a  b  c  162.54  234.26  195.70
= 592.50m

PE s  PE12  PE22  PE32  ......PEn2


this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 8
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City

  0.032  0.05 2  0.04 2

 0.07 m

Note: Therefore, the perimeter would be expressed as 592.50+-0.07m. This means that the true
legth of the perimeter probably fails between 592.43 and 592.57m
2. Product of Errors - For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of two other
independently measured quantities such as Q1 and Q2 (with their corresponding probable errors),
the probable error of the product is given by the foloeing equation.

PE p   (Q1  PE2 ) 2  Q2  PE1 

2

Where:
PEp is the probable error of the product
Q1 & Q2 are the measured quantities
PE1 & PE2 are the probable error corresponding to each quantity measured
Example Problems.
6) The two slides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable errors as
follows: W  253.36  0.06m and L  624.15  0.08m . Determine the area of the lot and the
probable error in the resulting calculation.
Area  L  W  624.15253.36 

=158134.64 sq.m (area of the rectangular lot)

PE p   (Q1  PE2 ) 2  Q2  PE1 

2

 624.15  0.06 2  253.36  0.082

 42.58sq.m

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 9
 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC.
College of Engineering and Architecture
Dubinan East, Santiago City
Summary:
X ( X 1  X 2  X 3  ....  X n )
MOST PROBABLE VALUE (mpv) mpv   
n n

RESIDUAL (v) v  X  X

PROBABLE ERROR (PE) PE s  0.6745

 v 2

PEm  0.6745
v 2

 n 1  nn  1


INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS PE s  PE12  PE22  PE32  ......PEn2


References:
Elementary Surveying 3rd edition, Juny Pilapil La Putt, BSCE, AGP, MS
Elementary Surveying, An Introduction to Geomatics, Charles D. Ghilani and Paul R Wolf
Surveying for Civil and Geodetic Licensure Exam, Besavilla

this module is for the exclusive use of the University of La Salette, Inc. Any form of reproduction, distribution, uploading, or posting
online in any form or by any means without the written permission of the university is strictly prohibited. 10