Mathematics in The Modern World: Gmath

MODULE IN
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
GMath
Department of Mathematics
SAMCIS
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MODULE 5: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Our target learning outcomes are: a) Solve problems involving patterns and
recreational puzzles using inductive and deductive reasoning; b) Use different types of
reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics and
mathematical concepts; c) Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems
following Polya’s four steps; d) Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and
solving problems.
Solve the VIRAL MATH PROBLEM - 6 ÷ 2(1 + 2) =

What is your answer to this problem? Why, justify your answer?
A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

PowerPoint 10: Inductive and deductive Reasoning
a. Inductive reasoning
The process of forming or reaching a conclusion by examining specific
examples.
Note: The conclusion that is formed by using inductive reasoning is often
called a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Example 1: Inductive reasoning to predict a number. Given the sequence

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, __. What is the next number?
Solution:
The difference between the first two numbers is 2. The second and
third number differ by 3; the third and fourth number differ by 4. It appears
that the difference between any two consecutive numbers is always 1
greater than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we
predict that the next number in the list will be 6 greater than 15. Hence, the
next number is 21.
Example 2: Inductive reasoning to make a conjecture: Consider the following

procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8; add 6 to the product; divide
the sum by 2; and, subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution:
Using any number (an integer, i.e.) and following the outlined
procedure or steps, we conjecture that the given procedure will produce a
resulting number that is four times the original number.
Consider: A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater earthquake.
The velocity of a tsunami as it approaches land depends on the height of a tsunami.
Use the given table below and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following
questions.
Height of tsunami, in ft. 4 9 16 25 36 49 64
Velocity of tsunami, in
6 9 12 15 18 21 24
ft. per second
a. What happens to the height of the tsunami when its velocity is doubled?
b. What should be the height of the tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per
second?
Counterexamples – one case found for which a statement is not true. It is used to
verify if a statement is a false statement.
Example 3: Statement: For all x, x2 > x.

Solution:
Consider x = 1. For x = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than
1, a counterexample is found.
Thus, the statement “for all x, x2 > x” is a false statement.
Example 4. Statement: For all x, x/x = 1.

Solution:
Consider x = 0. For x = 0, 0/0 ≠ 1; 0/0 is undefined.
Hence, the statement “for all x, x/x = 1” is a false statement.
b. Deductive reasoning
A process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.
Example 5: Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure
produces a number that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,

divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2:
Subtract 3 from the quotient: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
Starting with n and performing the procedure, we ended with 4n. The
procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.
Try This: Determine the type of reasoning used in each of the following
statements:
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year.
Last year, the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will
produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated my home improvement will cost P1,750,000. Thus, my home
improvement will cost more than P1,750,000.
Answers:
a. The statement is an example of inductive reasoning since the
argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples.
b. The conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption. Hence, the
argument is an example of deductive reasoning.
Note: Inductive: from specific to general.
Deductive: from general to specific.
B. Logic and KenKen Puzzles

PowerPoint 11: Logic Puzzles and KenKen Puzzles
Video viewing and doing problem solving:
Can you solve Einstein’s Riddle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1rDVz_Fb6HQ
Logic puzzles
Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that is
used to display given information in a visual manner.
Example 6: Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a
different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following
clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
Clues:
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker and the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker leaves next door to Brian.
Solution:
* From clue 1, Maria is not the banker nor the dentist. In the following chart,
we write ×1 under the Banker and Dentist column for Maria.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah
Brian
* From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Also, Sarah is the last to get home from
work and from clue 1, the banker is not the last to get home from work.
Hence, Sarah is also not the banker. We write ×2 under the editor and banker
column for Sarah.

Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2
Brian
* From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist for she and the dentist leave for work at
the same time. We write ×3 under the Dentist column for Sarah in the
following chart and we conclude that Sarah is the Chef. Correspondingly, we
get to see that since Sarah is the Chef, we place an ×3 mark under the Chef
column for Maria and conclude that she is the Editor. Now, we also place an
×3 mark under the columns Chef and Editor for Sean and Brian.

Sean ×3 ×3
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×3
* From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. We place an ×4 mark under the Banker
column for Brian. Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the Banker column, then
Sean must be the Banker. Sean could not be the Dentist so we place an ×4
mark for Sean under the Dentist column. Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the
Dentist column, Brian must be the Dentist and we place a check mark in that
box.

Sean ×3 ×3 ×4
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×4 ×3
From the given clues (and using deductive reasoning), Sean is the banker,
Maria is the editor, Sarah is the Chef, and Brian is the dentist.
A. Kenken puzzles
Watch the video: KenKen 4x4 Introduction and Strategy@
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uYTrrsxJqb0
KenKen→ is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the

Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun "ken" has
"knowledge" and "awareness" as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge
squared, or awareness squared.
Rules for Solving KenKen→ Puzzles
1. For an n x n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2,
3, ... , n. In a 3x3 puzzle, use the numbers 1 – 3. In a 4x4 puzzle, use the
numbers 1 – 4. In a 5x5 puzzle, use the numbers 1 – 5, and so on.
2. Do not repeat a number in any row or column. Our goal is to fill in the whole
grid with numbers, making sure no number is repeated in any row or column.
3. The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must
combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner
of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.
4. Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number. If you
see a single-cell cage with just a number and no operator, it means that the
value in that cell is the target number. Such single-cell cages work like in
Sudoku puzzles. You won’t see these in every puzzle, but when you see one,
you should start there.
5. A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row
or column.
KenKen→ Puzzles: Example 1
Figure a Figure b
First fill in single box cages, called "freebies" Possible numbers for each box considering
with the target number. the cage and operations.
Figure c. Eliminate numbers 2 and 1 Figure d. From Fig. c it shows that the
that are with the same column and circled
row of the freebies 2 and 1. numbers 4 found their location.
Figure e. Eliminate # 4 that are with

the same column and row of the result Figure f:
in Figure c.
Figure g: Eliminate the numbers that are with
the same column and row of the result in Figure e.
The final result then will be:
Practice Exercise 3 My Score:
1. Four friends (including Adam) were at the company picnic. Each friend had a
different drink (one was juice), with a different mix added (one had vanilla). From
the clues provided can you figure out which friend had which drink and what
was added to his/her drink?
CLUES
• Wilma did not drink water mixed with her lemon.
• Only the men drank soda or water.
• Mary was not the one who had water & lime.
• David did not mix his drink with lime.
• The woman who had strawberry did not have tea.
Source: https://www.puzzles-on-line-niche.com/support-files/mixed-drinks-solution.pdf
2.
C. LOGIC
PowerPoint 12: Logic
When someone tells you, “I fail to see your logic,” perhaps the person you are
talking to does not understand your reasoning or sees your arguments as invalid. How
exactly do we determine whether our statements are valid or not? This is the focus of our
next section.
Merriam Webster defines logic as a science that deals with the principles and
criteria of validity of inference and demonstration: the science of the formal principles of
reasoning. It allows us to analyze arguments and determine whether it is valid or invalid.
Logic is used by lawyers and judges, computer programmers and more. It is an important
tool in mathematical proofs. In this context, we will see that logic includes a language for
expressing complicated compound statements, a concise notation for writing them, and a
methodology for objectively reasoning about their validity. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-
1716), Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George Boole (1815-1864) are some of the first
mathematicians to study symbolic logic as we know it today, advancing it as a
mathematical discipline instead of merely being a part of philosophy. In particular, Boole
published two works on logic, The Mathematical Analysis of Logic and An Investigation of
the Laws of Thought.
LOGIC STATEMENTS: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND

In logic, a statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both true and false. Let us take a look at the following sentences, and identify if it is
considered as a statement:
1. Benguet is a province in the Philippines.
2. How are you?
3. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
4. 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 12.
5. Open the door.
6. 7055 is a large number.
7. In the year 2022, the president of the Philippines will be a woman.
8. 𝑥 > 3.
In the examples above, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8 are considered as statements, but

the others are not. Note that although we may not know if sentences 3 and 7 are true or
false, it cannot be both true and false. Statements 4 and 8 are called open statements,
and their truth or falsity depends on a particular value of 𝑥. Examples 2 and 5 are not
declarative sentences, while the word “large” in example 6 is not a precise term so we
cannot determine if indeed the sentence is true or false. The famous paradox “This is a false
statement” is not a statement (think about it!).
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea, while a compound
statement conveys two or more ideas. Compound statements are formed by connecting
simple statements with words or phrases such as “and,” “or,” “if... then...” and “if and only
if.” These, together with “not,” are called logical connectives. George Boole used symbols
such as 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧,∨, ∼, →, and ↔ to
represent connectives. Using these, we can write any logic statement in its symbolic form.
The table below summarizes the different statements, its types, connectives and symbolic
form.
Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement

not 𝑝 not ∼𝑝 negation
𝑝 and 𝑞 and 𝑝∧𝑞 conjunction
𝑝 or 𝑞 or 𝑝∨𝑞 disjunction
If 𝑝, then 𝑞 If... then 𝑝→𝑞 conditional
𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 if and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 biconditional
Let us have some illustrations on writing statements in their symbolic form. Consider
the following simple statements and their symbols:
𝑝: Today is Friday.
𝑞: It is raining.
𝑟: I am going to a movie.
𝑠: I am not going to the basketball game.
Here are some compound statements and their corresponding symbolic form:
1. Today is Friday and it is raining.
SYMBOLIC FORM: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
2. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
SYMBOLIC FORM: ∼ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟
3. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
SYMBOLIC FORM: ∼ 𝑠 ∨ 𝑟
4. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
SYMBOLIC FORM: 𝑞 → 𝑠
Let us also show illustrations on doing the reverse procedure, which is translating the
symbolic form in words. Suppose we have the following simple statements and their
symbols:
𝑝: The game will be played in Atlanta.
𝑞: The game will be shown on CBS.
𝑟: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
𝑠: The Dodgers are favored to win.
Then the following statements in symbolic form will be translated in this manner:
1. 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
IN WORDS: The game will be shown on CBS and will be played in Atlanta.
2. ∼ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑠
IN WORDS: The game will be shown on ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.
3. 𝑠 ↔∼ 𝑝
IN WORDS: The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played
in Atlanta.
In compound statements containing more than two simple statements, grouping

symbols are used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together. When in
symbols, parenthesis or brackets are used. If it is given in words, a comma is used: all
statements before the comma are grouped together, and all statements after the comma
are also grouped together. The table below gives particular examples of groupings in
symbols and in words.
Symbolic Form English Sentence
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑟) 𝑝, and 𝑞 or not 𝑟
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 𝑝 and 𝑞, or 𝑟
(𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞) → (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) If 𝑝 and not 𝑞, then 𝑟 or 𝑠
Suppose we are given the following simple statements:
𝑝: You get a promotion.

𝑞: You complete the training.
𝑟: You will receive a bonus.
Then the symbolic form (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 in words will be “If you get a promotion and complete
the training, then you will receive a bonus.” On the other hand, the statement “If you do
not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not receive a
bonus” will be represented by ~𝑞 → (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟).
TRUTH VALUES AND TRUTH TABLES
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). The truth value of a
compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives. A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement
for all possible truth values of its simple statements. We take note of the following for the
negation, conjunction and disjunction:
1. The negation of a true statement is false, while the negation of a false statement is
true.
2. Both statements must be true for the conjunction to be true. If at least one
statement is false, then the conjunction will be false.
3. A disjunction is true if either statement is true. If both statements are false, then the
disjunction is false.
These are summarized in the following truth tables:
Truth Table for a Truth Table for a Conjunction Truth Table for a Disjunction
Negation 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
𝑝 ∼𝑝 T T T T T T
T F T F F T F T
F T F T F F T T
F F F F F F
Let us look at some examples on determining the truth value of a compound
statement:
1. 7 ≥ 5.
This statement is actually a disjunction: It can be written as 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Since the
first statement is true, it means that the disjunction 7 ≥ 5 is also true.
2. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
The first simple statement is true and the second is false, so the conjunction is false.
3. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Since both simple statements are true, the conjunction is true.
4. 21 is a rational number and 21 is a natural number.
This conjunction is also true.
5. 4 ≤ 9.
This disjunction is true.
6. −7 ≥ −3.
This disjunction is false since −7 > −3 is false and −7 = −3 is also false.
For combinations of arbitrary simple statements, constructing a truth table allows us

to determine the truth value of the compound statement given any combination of the
truth values of the simple statements. Note that if a compound statement has 𝑛 simple
statements, then the truth table to be constructed will have 2𝑛 rows so that all possibilities
are covered. We will show two ways to construct the truth table.
Let us first consider the compound statement ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞). There are two simple
statements, 𝑝 and 𝑞, so there must be 22 = 4 rows in the truth table. We start off with the
following standard truth table form. Notice that in the column of the simple statement 𝑞,
the truth values T and F alternate, while in the column for 𝑝, there are two rows of T is
followed by two rows of F. This ensures all combinations of truth values are enumerated.
𝑝 𝑞
T T
T F
F T
F F
In the first method of constructing truth tables, we add a column to the truth table
for each particular connective that appears in the symbolic form. In the example above,
we start with a column for ∼ 𝑝 and identify its truth value for each row. This is followed by a
column for 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, and finally a column for ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) whose truth values are based on the
previous two columns. This last column gives the truth values of the compound statement
∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).
𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑝 𝑝∧𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T F T
F F T F T
① ② ③
Based on column 3, we can say that if 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true, then
∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) will be true. Other conclusions can be made by referring to the remaining rows
of the truth table.
In the second method of constructing a truth table, instead of having a separate
column for each connective, we simply place the truth value of the statement under the
symbol of the connective, as shown in the table below. Here we number the columns as
we evaluate the truth values under each connective, and shade the final column to
indicate the truth values of the compound statement given. Notice that compared to the
first method, we have simply rearrange the columns in truth table. In a way, this alternative
procedure results in a more compact solution especially in compound statements that
involve many signs of grouping. Of course, you are free to use either method based on
your preference.
𝑝 𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T F
F F T T F
① ③ ②
Let us consider the compound statement [𝑟 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∧ (𝑟 ∨∼ 𝑞) as our second
example, using the second method of constructing the truth table (you can try the first
method and compare the results). This time, there will be eight rows in the standard truth
table form. In the 𝑟 column, the T and F alternate; in the 𝑞 column, T and F appear two at a
time; and finally in the 𝑝 column, four rows of T are followed by four rows of F. This ensures all
combinations of truth values are covered, and usually helps us remember how to fill up the
rows! The table below gives us the results:
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 [𝑟 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∧ (𝑟 ∨ ∼ 𝑞)
T T T T F T T T F
T T F F F T F F F
T F T F F F F T T
T F F F F F F T T
F T T T T T T T F
F T F F T T F F F
F F T T T T T T T
F F F F T T F T T
③ ① ② ⑥ ⑤ ④
When constructing truth tables, remember to arrange your simple statements
alphabetically and evaluate from the inside going out for nested signs of grouping. Try to
work on the following compound statements: (1) (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑝) ∨∼ 𝑞; (2) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞).
Truth tables can be used to show that compound statements are equivalent. Two
statements are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value for all possible truth
values of their simple statements. Equivalent statements are denoted by the symbol ≡. For
example, we can verify that ∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) and ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 are equivalent statements, that is,
∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 using the following truth table:
𝑝 𝑞 ∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) ∼𝑝∧𝑞
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F F F
The example above is an application of De Morgan’s Laws for statements: For any
statements 𝑝 and 𝑞,
∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞 and ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞.
Another example of equivalent statements is ∼ (∼ 𝑝) ≡ 𝑝 since the negation of a negation
is the original statement. We will encounter more equivalent statements when we discuss
conditional and biconditional statements.
CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
The conditional statement is a statement of the form “If 𝑝, then 𝑞” or in symbols,

𝑝 → 𝑞. It shows an implication; that is, given that a situation 𝑝 will happen (antecedent of
hypothesis), then another situation 𝑞 will happen (consequent or hypothesis). Most
theorems in mathematics are in the form of a conditional. There are many other ways to
express 𝑝 → 𝑞, namely:
If 𝑝, 𝑞. 𝑞 is necessary for 𝑝.
𝑝 implies 𝑞. 𝑞 is a necessary condition for 𝑝.
𝑞, if 𝑝. 𝑝 only if 𝑞.
𝑞 when 𝑝. 𝑞 whenever 𝑝.
𝑝 is sufficient for 𝑞. 𝑞 follows from 𝑝.
𝑝 is a sufficient condition for 𝑞.
A conditional statement can also be expressed in terms of negations, conjunctions
and disjunctions based on the following statements equivalent to 𝑝 → 𝑞:
𝑝 →𝑞 ≡∼𝑝∨𝑞 and 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
Using these equivalent statements, we can see that the negation of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞. Note
that the negation is no longer a conditional statement! To illustrate, consider the statement
“If they pay me money, I will sign the contract.” Its negation will be, “They pay (or paid) me
money and I will not sign the contract.” Note that “but” can also be used for a
conjunction, so the negation can also be written as “They pay (or paid) me money but I
will not sign the contract” to emphasize the contrast in the two simple statements.
The conditional is false if the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
Otherwise, the conditional is true. This is shown in the truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞:
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
To explain this, let us consider a conditional statement that perhaps your parents/guardians
have said to you to convince you to do well in school: “If you pass this test, then I will treat
you to your favorite restaurant.” We analyze the truth value of this conditional statement.
1. If you passed the test and you were treated to your favorite restaurant, then you
can say that your parents/guardians were being truthful when they said the
conditional. Thus 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true in the first row of the truth table.
2. If you passed the test and you were not treated to your favorite restaurant, then you
would say that parents/guardians were not being truthful when they said the
conditional. Thus 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false in the second row of the truth table.
3. If you did not pass the test, then regardless of being treated to the restaurant or not,
you cannot say that the conditional is false. This is because it does not indicate what
might or might not happen if you did not pass the test. Thus, 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true in rows 3
and 4 of the truth table.
Construct the truth table for the following compound statements involving the
conditional for your practice: (1) [𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞)] → 𝑞; (2) [𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝)] → ∼ 𝑝.
If we switch and/or negate the antecedent and consequent of a conditional
statement, we can form other conditionals such as the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive. Given a conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞, we have the following:
converse: 𝑞→𝑝
inverse: ∼𝑝→∼𝑞
contrapositive: ∼𝑞 →∼𝑝
Note that the conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive, while the converse is
equivalent to the inverse:
𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡∼ 𝑞 → ∼ 𝑝 and 𝑞 →𝑝 ≡∼𝑝 →∼𝑞
Let us consider the conditional statement “If I get the job, then I will rent the
apartment.” Its converse is “If I rent the apartment, then I will get the job.” The inverse will
be “If I don’t get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.” The contrapositive will be “If I
don’t rent the apartment, then I will not get the job.” In addition, the negation of the
conditional is “I get the job and I will not rent the apartment.”
For your practice, state the converse, inverse, contrapositive and negation of the
conditional statement “Whenever I do yoga, I feel calm.” Be careful with your choice of
antecedent and consequent! Refer to the different ways to express 𝑝 → 𝑞 previously
discussed.
A biconditional statement is a two-way conditional statement: 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞, or in
symbols, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, is the conjunction of two conditional statements:
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
Using this equivalence, the truth table of the biconditional can be constructed, as shown
below. We can see here that a biconditional statement is true if its simple statements have
the same truth value.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Let us consider some biconditional statements involving the variable 𝑥 and

determine its truth value. Recall that it is necessary to substitute a value for 𝑥 in order to
know the truth value of the open statement. In this case, a biconditional is a true statement
no matter what value of 𝑥 is substituted. A biconditional becomes false if there is at least
one value of 𝑥 that makes it false.
1. 𝑥 + 4 = 7 if and only if 𝑥 = 3.
From the first equation, we know that 𝑥 = 3. Thus to determine the truth value of the
biconditional, we need to check two possibilities: (a) 𝑥 = 3; (b) 𝑥 ≠ 3.
𝑥+4=7 𝑥=3 𝑥+4=7↔𝑥 =3

Case (a): 𝑥 = 3 T T T
Case (b): 𝑥 ≠ 3 F F T
We can see that no matter what value is substituted into 𝑥, both equations have the
same truth value. Thus, the biconditional is true.
2. 𝑥 2 = 36 if and only if 𝑥 = 6.
Here, we only need to note that if we substitute 𝑥 = −6, the first equation holds but
the second does not. Thus, the biconditional statement is false.
3. 𝑥 > 7 if and only if 𝑥 > 6.

What do you think?
TAUTOLOGIES AND SELF-CONTRADICTIONS
A tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement

that is always false.
Verify that 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology and 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is a self contradiction by

completing the truth table below.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T
T F
F T
F F
The open statement 𝑥 + 2 = 5 is neither a tautology nor a self-contradiction since it is

true when 𝑥 = 3 and false when 𝑥 ≠ 3.
SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS
An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement

called the conclusion. The conclusion is preceded by the word “therefore.” An argument is
valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are assumed to be true. It is invalid
if it is not a valid argument. The symbolic form of an argument is written as
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2
⋮
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
The symbol ∴ represents the word “therefore.” An argument can also be written as a
conditional statement whose antecedent is the conjunction of all the premises and whose
consequent is the conclusion:
[𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1 ∧ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒] → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Let us consider the following argument: “If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.
Aristotle was human. Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.” If we use the symbol ℎ for the
statement “Aristotle was human,” and 𝑚 for “Aristotle was mortal,” then we obtain the
following:
Symbolic form: Conditional:
ℎ→𝑚 [(ℎ → 𝑚) ∧ ℎ] → 𝑚
ℎ
∴𝑚
My Score:
Self – assessment 2:
Can you write these examples in symbolic form and as a conditional?
1. “The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh. Therefore, I will order it.”
2. “If she doesn’t get on the plane, she will regret it. She does not regret it. Therefore,
she got on the plane.”
The validity of an argument can be determined using a truth table. We proceed as

follows:
1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth value of each premise and the truth
value of the conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the simple statements.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are
true, the argument is valid. If the conclusion is false in any row in which all of the
premises are true, the argument is invalid.
Let us take a look at the example involving Aristotle and determine its validity. Its
truth table is shown below:
First Premise Second Premise Conclusion

ℎ 𝑚 ℎ→𝑚 ℎ 𝑚
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
We disregard rows 2, 3 and 4 in our analysis because the premises are not both true.
Since only the first row has both premises true, and the conclusion is also true, then the
argument is valid.
For our second example, consider the following argument: “If it rains, then the game
will not be played. It is not raining. Therefore, the game will be played.” Let 𝑟 represent the
statement “It rains” and 𝑔 the statement “The game will be played.” Then the symbolic
form and the truth table for the argument are given by
𝑟 →∼𝑔
∼𝑟
∴𝑔

𝑔 𝑟 𝑟 →∼𝑔 ∼𝑟 𝑔
T T F F T
T F T T T
F T T F F
F F T T F
For this argument, we disregard rows 1 and 3 since the premises are not both true. Looking
at row 4, we see that the conclusion is false even if both premises are true. This means that
the argument is invalid.
Suppose we are given the following argument: “If I am going to run the marathon,
then I will buy new shoes. If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television. Therefore, if I
buy a television, I will not run the marathon.” Let us use the following symbols: 𝑚 for “I am
going to run the marathon,” 𝑠 for “I will buy new shoes,” and 𝑡 for “I will buy a television.”
The symbolic form and truth table for this argument are below:
𝑚→ 𝑠
𝑠 →∼ 𝑡
∴ 𝑡 →∼ 𝑚

𝑚 𝑠 𝑡 𝑚→ 𝑠 𝑠 →∼ 𝑡 𝑡 →∼ 𝑚
T T T T F F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F T F T T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
In the highlighted rows, it can be seen that the conclusion is true whenever both
premises are true. Thus, the argument is valid.
Can you try it yourself? Determine the validity of the argument “If the stock market
rises, then the bond market will fall. The bond market did not fall. Therefore, the stock
market did not rise.” Use the symbols 𝑠 for “The stock market rises” and 𝑏 for “The bond
market will fall.”
Practice Exercise 4: My Score:
Let’s check your understanding of this section! Identify if the statement is true or false.
1. Propositional logic uses symbols to stand for statements and the relationship
between statements.
2. The sentence “Congratulations for a job well done!” is a statement.
3. In a conjunction, if one of the statements is false, the whole conjunction is still false.
4. The four logical connectives are conjunctions, conditionals, compounds, and
disjunctions.
5. In the conditional statement “𝑝, if 𝑞,” 𝑞 is called the consequent.
6. A conditional is false only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
7. The negation of the statement “Today is Thursday” is “Today is Monday.”
8. It is important to have a true premise in order for an argument to be valid.
9. A tautology is a compound statement that is always true, no matter what the truth
values of the statements that occur in it.
10. The truth table is used to display the relationships between the truth values of
propositions.
11. The disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is false when either 𝑝 or 𝑞 is false.
12. When 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false, the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
13. For the compound statement (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑠), there would be 16 rows in its truth
table.
II. PROBLEM SOLVING
Video viewing: Polya explains the problem solving technique

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0gbw-Ur_do&t=1028s
PowerPoint 13: Polya’s Four Step Method
INTRODUCTION
Every day we encounter problems. For sure, everyone has felt at least once in his or
her life how wonderful it is if we could solve a problem at hand preferably without much
difficulty or even with some difficulties. Unfortunately, problem-solving is an art at this point
for there are no universal approaches one can take to solving problems. Basically one must
explore possible avenues to a solution one by one until one comes across the right path to
a solution. However, in general, as one gains experience in solving problems, one develops
one's own techniques and strategies, though they are often intangible.
In this module, we are going to learn problem-solving and get a glimpse of
strategies that are often used by experts. They are based on the work of Polya. George
Polya, known as the father of modern problem solving, did extensive studies and wrote
numerous mathematical papers and three books about problem-solving. In 1945, he
published the book” How to Solve It a new aspect of mathematical method” which quickly
became his most prized publication. In his book, he identifies four basic steps of problem-
solving and reveals how the mathematical method of demonstrating a proof or finding an
unknown can be of help in attacking any problem that can be “reasoned” out.
A. Polya famous four-step method for problem solving
First Step: Understand the problem
Guide questions:
❏ Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
❏ What are you asked to find or show?
❏ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
❏ Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand
the problem?
❏ Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
If so, then:
1. What is the unknown?
2. What is the data?
3. What is the condition?
4. Is it possible to satisfy the condition?
5. Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown?
6. Or is it insufficient? Or redundant? Or contradictory?
7. Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
8. Separate the various parts of the condition. Write them down.
Second Step: Devise a plan
Find the connection between the data and the unknown and obtain a plan
of the solution. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they
attempt to solve a problem. Polya mentioned that there are many reasonable ways
to solve problems. Here are some strategies used:
a. Working Backwards. This is the strategy that “advertises” itself by stating
the end conditions of the problem and asking to find the starting
conditions.
b. Logical Reasoning. Problems involving logical reasoning often include a
substantial amount of data that, at first glance, appears overwhelming
and confusing. In this strategy you need to draw logical conclusions
from such data.
c. Finding a pattern. A powerful problem-solving strategy for problems is
examining data to see if a pattern exists then use it to solve the problem.
Used if a series of numbers or events are in the problem.
d. Creating a visual representation. If the situation described in the
problem is difficult to visualize, a diagram, using simple symbols or
pictures, may enable us to see the situation more easily.
e. Solve a similar but simpler problem. This is used when it is not possible to
gather, explore, understand, relate, conjecture and to analyze data, in
a meaningful way. In this case, it would be better to formulate an
equivalent problem but simpler form.
f. Organizing Data. This is used if a problem presents an excessive amount
of data.
A table or a list are used to organize the data in a problem.
g. Considering Extreme Cases. In this strategy, the existence of extreme
positions is often the key to understanding existence results. By
considering extremes, we may be changing variables in the problem,
but only those that do not affect the actual problem situation.
h. Adopt a Different Point of View. A problem can be solved in a more
efficient and interesting manner if we approach it from a different point
of view. That is, instead of considering the problem in the most direct
and obvious manner, a different approach may yield the answer
quickly and more efficiently.
i. Accounting all possibilities. Used to solve problems that indicate
different possibilities. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities
j. Write an Equation. One of the first steps in working with problems is to
translate the problem into symbolic terms where all key concepts are
identified and defined to come up with an equation. This is effectively
applicable for algebraic problems.
k. Intelligent Guessing and Testing. This strategy is used when no other
strategy is immediately obvious. Here we make a guess (and it must be
an intelligent guess, not just an uninformed stab at the problem) and
then proceeds to test that guess within the conditions of the problem.
We repeat the process until we succeed.
The skill of choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving

many problems.
Third Step: Carry out the plan
In this step we solve the problem applying the plan we devised. All we need
in this step is care and patience, given that we have the necessary skills. If it
continues not to work, discard it and use another plan.
Fourth Step: Look back
The time to reflect and look back at what we have done, what worked, and
what didn’t. Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
Examples to illustrate the different problem solving strategies.
Example 7. In a room with 10 people, everyone shakes hands with everybody else exactly
once. How many handshakes are there?
Step 1: Understanding the Problem:

Unknown: number of handshakes in a room
Given: 10 people shakes hands with everybody exactly once
Step 2: Devise a plan:

❏ Visual representation
❏ Accounting for all possibilities
❏ Looking for a pattern
❏ Organizing data
Step 3: Carry out the plan:

a. Visual Representation (Draw a Diagram)
Let us use our visual representation strategy, by drawing a diagram.
The 10 points (no 3 of each are collinear) represent the 10 people. Begin with
the person represented by point A.
We join A to each of the other 9 points, indicating the first 9

handshakes that take place.
Now, from B there are 8 additional handshakes (because since A has

already shaken hands with B). Similarly, from C there will be 7 lines drawn to
the other, from D there will be 6 additional lines or handshakes, and so on.
When we reach point I, there is only one remaining handshake to be made,
namely, I with J, since I has already shaken hands with A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H.
Thus, the sum of the handshakes equals 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45.
In general, this is same as using the formula for sum of the first n natural
numbers, where 𝑛 > 2. (Notice that the final drawing will be a decagon with
all of its diagonals drawn.)
b. Accounting all possibilities

Consider the grid shown below, which indicates persons A, B, C, . . . , H,
I, J, shaking hands with one another. The diagonal with 𝑥’𝑠 indicates that
people cannot shake hands with themselves.
The remaining cells indicate doubly with all other handshakes (i.e., A
shakes hands with B and B shakes hands with A). thus we take the total
number of cells (102 ) minus those on diagonal (10) and divide the result by 2.
100−10
In this case, we have = 45.
2
𝑛2 −𝑛
In a general case for the 𝑛 × 𝑛 grid, the number would be , which
2
𝑛(𝑛−1)
is equivalent to the formula .
2
c. Adopting a different point of view

Let’s now examine the problem by adopting a different point of view.
Consider the room with 10 people, each of whom will shake 9 other people’s
hands. This seems to indicate that there are 10 × 9 or 90 handshakes, but we
must divide by 2 to eliminate the duplication.
d. Finding for a Pattern

Let’s try to solve the problem by looking for a pattern. In the table
shown below, we list the number of handshakes occurring in a room as the
number of people increases.
Number of people in Number of handshakes Total number of total
room for additional person handshakes in room
1 0 0
2 1 1
3 2 3
4 3 6
5 4 10
6 5 15
7 6 21
8 7 28
9 8 36
10 9 45
The third column, which is the total number of handshakes, gives a
sequence of numbers known as the triangular numbers, whose successive
differences increase by 1 each time. It is therefore possible to simply continue
the table until we reach the corresponding sum for the 10 people.
Alternatively, we note that the pattern at each entry is one half the product
of the number of people and the number of handshakes for additional
person.
e. Organizing Data
We can approach a problem by a careful use of organizing data
strategy. The chart below shows each of the people in the room and the
number of people they have to shake with each time, given that they
already shaken the hands of their predecessors and don’t shake their own
hands. If there are 10 people in the room one will shake hands with the other
9 people, making 9 handshakes; and if there are 9 people in the room one
will shake hands with the other 8 people, making 8 handshakes and so on,
until we reach person number 2, who only has one person’s hand to shake,
and person number 1 has no other hands to shake. Again, the sum is 45.
Organizing data
No. of people 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
No. of handshakes 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Step 4. Look Back: After reviewing we can say:

There are 45 handshakes in the room with 10 people.
Example 8: Evelyn, Harley, and Al play a certain game. The player who loses each round
must give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. In round 1,
Evelyn loses and gives Henry and Al as much money as they have. In Round 2, Henry loses,
and gives Evelyn and Al as much money they each then have. Al loses in round 3 and
gives Evelyn and Henry as much money as they each have. They decided to quit at this
point and discover that they each have ₱24. How much money did each start with?
Step 1: Understand the problem

Unknown: Amount of money Evelyn, Henry and Al each had before
they started to play.
Given: Each has 24 pesos at the end of the game. The player who loses each
round must give each of the other players as much money as the player has
at that time
Step 2: Devise a plan

Consider this question from the problem “How much money did they start
with?” This is a sign the problem is best solved by working backwards.
Step 3. Carry out a plan

We apply Working Backwards
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 3 24 24 24
End of round 2
End of round 1
Start
Since Al lost at the end of round 3 and the player who loses each round must
give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. This
means that Al gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Henry’s money. Evelyn’s
money at the end of round 2 was 12 and so with Henry.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1
Start
In round 2, Henry lost, he gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Al’s money.
Evelyn’s money at the end of round 1 was 6 and Al’s money at the end of Round 1
was 24.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1 12 − 6 = 6 12 + 6 + 24 = 42 48 − 24 = 24
Start 6 + 21 + 12 = 39 42 − 21 = 21 24 − 12 = 12
In round 1, Evelyn lost, she gave half of Henry’s money and half of Al’s money.
Henry’s money at the start was 21 and Al’s money at the start was 12.
Step 4. Look Back:

At the end of round 1 Evelyn lost so she gave Henry ₱21 and gave Al ₱12
leaving her ₱6.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2
End of round 3
At the end of round 2 Henry lost so he gave Evelyn ₱6 and gave Al ₱24
leaving him ₱12.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3
At the end of round 3 Al lost so he gave Evelyn ₱12 and gave Al ₱12 leaving
him ₱24.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3 12 + 12 = 24 12 + 12 = 24 48 − 12 − 12 = 24
At the end of round 3 it shows that they ₱24 each.
This proves our answer that Evelyn began with ₱39, Henry began with ₱21 and Al
began with ₱12.
To further understand Polya’s problem solving strategy find time to watch “Polya explains
the problem solving technique”@ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0gbw-Ur_do&t=1028s
Practice Exercises 5: My Score:

1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Find the sum of the series: 2 + 6 + 12 + 20 + 30 + ⋯ + 2450
2. Joyce invited 17 friends to a dinner party at her house last Friday evening. She gave
each guest a card with a number from 2 through 18, reserving number 1 for herself.
When she had everyone paired off at the dinner table, she noticed that the sum of
each couple’s numbers was perfect square. What number did Joyce’s partner
have?
5
3. Frosia delivers prescriptions for the local pharmacy. On Tuesday, she delivered of
9
3
the prescriptions already in the delivery van and then 4
of the remaining
2
prescriptions. After picking up 10 more prescriptions at the store, she delivered 3
of
those she had with her. She then picked up an additional 12 prescriptions and
7
delivered 8 of those she had in the van. Finally, she up 3 more and then delivered
the remaining 5 prescriptions. How many prescriptions did she deliver?
It’s time to do the “Problem Set”

Mathematics in The Modern World: Gmath

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MODULE IN

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Solve the VIRAL MATH PROBLEM - 6 ÷ 2(1 + 2) =

A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example 1: Inductive reasoning to predict a number. Given the sequence

Example 2: Inductive reasoning to make a conjecture: Consider the following

Example 3: Statement: For all x, x2 > x.

Example 4. Statement: For all x, x/x = 1.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,

Divide the sum by 2:

B. Logic and KenKen Puzzles

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

KenKen→ is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the

Rules for Solving KenKen→ Puzzles

KenKen→ Puzzles: Example 1

Figure e. Eliminate # 4 that are with

The final result then will be:

LOGIC STATEMENTS: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND

In the examples above, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8 are considered as statements, but

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement

In compound statements containing more than two simple statements, grouping

𝑝: You get a promotion.

TRUTH VALUES AND TRUTH TABLES

These are summarized in the following truth tables:

For combinations of arbitrary simple statements, constructing a truth table allows us

CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

The conditional statement is a statement of the form “If 𝑝, then 𝑞” or in symbols,

Let us consider some biconditional statements involving the variable 𝑥 and

𝑥+4=7 𝑥=3 𝑥+4=7↔𝑥 =3

3. 𝑥 > 7 if and only if 𝑥 > 6.

A tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement

Verify that 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology and 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is a self contradiction by

The open statement 𝑥 + 2 = 5 is neither a tautology nor a self-contradiction since it is

An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement

[𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1 ∧ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒] → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

The validity of an argument can be determined using a truth table. We proceed as

First Premise Second Premise Conclusion

First Premise Second Premise Conclusion

First Premise Second Premise Conclusion

Practice Exercise 4: My Score:

Video viewing: Polya explains the problem solving technique

First Step: Understand the problem

Second Step: Devise a plan

The skill of choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving

Third Step: Carry out the plan

Fourth Step: Look back

Step 1: Understanding the Problem:

Step 2: Devise a plan:

Step 3: Carry out the plan:

We join A to each of the other 9 points, indicating the first 9

Now, from B there are 8 additional handshakes (because since A has

b. Accounting all possibilities

c. Adopting a different point of view

d. Finding for a Pattern

Step 4. Look Back: After reviewing we can say:

Step 1: Understand the problem

Step 2: Devise a plan

Step 3. Carry out a plan

Step 4. Look Back:

Practice Exercises 5: My Score: