THE SECRET OF BOROBUDUR & the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan

PART I
THE BELIEF SYSTEM OF ESOTERIC BUDDHISM IS OPEN ONLY TO
THOSE WHO FEEL CALLED TO FOLLOW IT & ARE WILLING TO
SUBMIT THEMSELVES TO INSTRUCTION BY A MASTER.

The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number
of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of
Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century,
by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. Although the majority of
Indonesian Buddhists are of the Chinese Mahayana school, more often than not the
representative of Buddhism as selected by the Government would happen to be a Theravada
monk. The Buddha died in the early 5th century B.C. His teachings, called the dharma, spread
over Asia and developed into three basic traditions: Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana.
Buddhists call them "vehicles," meaning they are ways to carry pilgrims from suffering to
enlightenment.
That being said, very rarely one reads about the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan when
discussing the architecture of the incredible Borobudur stupa monument. Borobudur's popular
terms of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.
In other words the design frescos of the Borubudur are directly influenced by the contents of the
Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan.
This document is part of the prose literature of Javanese people. This Tantric Buddhist treatise
describes Javanese Buddhism, architecture and iconography.  The back side of this literature
contain a name of Javanese king, i.e. Mpu Sindok, who ruled East Java from 929 to 947 CE. The
structure of Borobudur actually shows the developmental stages of a yogi’s experiences to
achieve Buddhahood where feelings and thoughts stop. Borobudur's popular term
of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

1
It was written about 929-947 CE by Mpu Shri Sambhara Surya Warama from East Java, the
successor of the Mataram Kingdom which was shifted to East Java. However the development of
Esoteric Buddhism has a long history connected to the original birthplace of Buddha and the
trails and tribulations of the dogma of that time
Containing  Mahayana (especially Vajrayana) Buddhism teachings, mostly about the list of
deities in found Mahayana Buddhism- which is often matched with the placement of
the Buddhist kings in the Borobudur temple. The literature also contains the procedures
in meditation.It teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first
practice Pāramitā, then described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. As an addition, it also
explained the philosophy of Adwaya that overcoming the dualism "existence" and "non-
existence”.
The text is restricted for the teachings in the Mahayana school, with focus on the tantric path
of the Yogacara School using Mantranaya or the Mantra method. The text has been divided into
two parts, each of which can be read independently.
1. The first section entitled Sang Hyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya, consists of 42 Sanskrit
verses, each with a related commentary in elaborate old Javanese and regrouped under 11
subtopics and a conclusion.
2. The second section consists of instructions in 86 verses, written mainly in old Javanese,
with a few middle level Sanskrit references. Both texts belong to the same school and are
connected. The text is in a question and answer form.
The Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan consists of two parts, each of which forms a separate track.
The fi rst part consists of a connected series of Sanskrit strophes with a more or less elaborate
Old-Javanese commentary attached; at the end, the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya is
given as the title. It bears the same meaning as what is called mantracaryānaya in the verses and
generally known as the Mantrayāna.
The second part is a doctrine written in Old-Javanese, punctuated with a few Sanskrit quotations
of less high form, belonging to the same school as the first part, as per the examination of the
content. The practical teachings in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan are set out in four steps. The
first, Mahāmārga (the great path); second, Paramabodhimārga or Paramamārga (the supreme
path) has already been dealt with in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya and at the
beginning of the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Advaya Sadhana.
3. Third, Mahāguhya (the great secret) and fourth,
4. Paramaguhya (the supreme secret) is the subject of this part of the text. The above
practices are entry level meditations for tantric practices.
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first
practice Pāramitā, then the described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. Additionally, it also
explains the philosophy of Adwaya; overcoming the dualism of “existence” and “non-existence”.
In the book, there is a very detailed description of how a tantric yogi prepares himself for the
spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of multilevel worship. It is said that the
Vajrayana doctrines are meditation towards the Five Tathagatas. By worshipping them, a yogi
can attain purity of mind.

Esoteric Buddhism is the mystical interpretation and practice of the belief system founded

2
by the Buddha (known as Sakyamuni Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE). It is known by several
names and is characterized by a personal relationship with a spirit guide or deity who leads one
to enlightenment.

An initiate must first study with a master who shares writings, teachings, and knowledge not
widely known and often referred to as "secret". The student masters various meditation
techniques and studies the tantra, generally understood to mean "the continuum" as expressed in
Tantric texts. This continuum is the pattern of universal love and compassion shown throughout
time by the supernatural entities of buddhas, of which Sakyamuni Buddha was only one, to
humanity.

An adherent of Esoteric Buddhism forms a relationship with one of these buddhas and is

then spiritually led by the entity (or deity) on the path toward enlightenment as a bodhisattva.
Vajrayana Buddhism (also known as Tibetan Buddhism) is regarded as a form of both Mahayana
Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism as it combines elements of both, and most schools, like Zen
Buddhism, follow this same pattern in taking what works best from other schools to supplement
the foundational teachings.

The beliefs and practices of Esoteric Buddhism are not as well known or widely recognized as
those of the popular Mahayana Buddhism because they are not supposed to be. The belief system
is open only to those who feel called to follow it and are willing to submit themselves to
instruction by a master. The belief system may have developed as a reaction to
the Hindu Revival of the 8th century CE inspired by the work of the philosopher Shankara
(though this claim is challenged), which emphasized many of the same aspects of faith and
knowledge later espoused by Esoteric Buddhism, including foundational knowledge, submission
to a master’s teaching, and the importance of personal revelation.

Early Religious Reform

During the Vedic Period (c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE) in India, the belief system known as Sanatan
Dharma ("Eternal Order"), better known as Hinduism, developed from earlier beliefs through the
written works known as the Vedas which preserved a much older oral tradition. Hinduism was
highly ritualized at this time. The Vedas ("knowledge") were composed in Sanskrit which most
people could not understand, and the priests needed to interpret the texts, which were thought to
explain the universe, human life, and how one should best live it.
The Vedas maintained that there was a divine being, Brahman, who both created and was the
universe. A spark of the divine (the  atman) was within each person, and the purpose of life was
to awaken this spark and live virtuously so that, after death, one’s own divine light would merge
with Brahman in eternal unity, and one would be freed from the cycle of rebirth and death
(known as samsara), which was associated with suffering.

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Buddha Sculpture in Ajanta/ The Vedas (Rig-veda)

Around 600 BCE, a religious reform movement swept across India that questioned
orthodox Hinduism. Different schools of thought developed at this time known as astika ("there
exists"), which supported the Hindu claim regarding the existence of the atman,
and nastika ("there does not exist"), which rejected that claim as well as almost all of the Hindu
vision.

Nastika: The most famous nastika schools of the time were Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism.

The first was entirely materialistic and denied the existence of the soul. The second two, while
also denying the Hindu atman, recognized a self undifferentiated from the universe which
suffered under the illusion it was a separate self distanced both from its source and from other
selves in the world.

Buddhism: Establishment & Development

Buddha, according to tradition, was a Hindu prince named Siddhartha Gautama who renounced
his position and wealth to seek spiritual enlightenment. He realized that suffering comes from
attachment to transitory aspects of life and life itself, which was in a constant state of change and
so could not be held, kept, or controlled, but which people insisted should be lasting. One
suffered by continually insisting on an impossible permanence. By recognizing this, and
following a path of non-attachment, one could attain nirvana ("liberation") at one’s death,
freeing the self from samsara and attendant suffering.
Buddha founded his system on acceptance of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path and
taught his disciples a spiritual discipline whereby they could attain individual enlightenment just
as he had. On his deathbed, he requested that no spiritual leader be chosen to replace him and
each of his disciples should continue on his own path. After his death, however, a leader was
chosen, and rules were written, and Buddha’s teachings were institutionalized.

The new faith splintered in 383 BCE over doctrinal differences, and many Buddhist schools
developed including Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika, which would encourage still more.
Buddhism at this time was vying with the more firmly established religions of Hinduism and
Jainism for adherents and made little headway until it was embraced by Ashoka the Great (r.
268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire who not only helped establish the system in India but
4
spread it to Sri Lanka, Korea, Thailand, China, and Japan.

5
Shankara & Hindu Revival
Buddhism was enthusiastically received in these other lands but continued to struggle to gain and
hold followers in India. Hinduism offered a greater variety of ritual and pageantry while also
advancing the concept that everyone held a spark of the divine, was in fact a divine being and
part of the universe, which contrasted sharply with the Buddhist doctrine of emptiness-of-self
and simplicity of observance.

Buddhist efforts at conversion were hampered further by the Hindu Revival of the 8th and 9th
centuries CE encouraged (according to tradition, at least) by the sage Shankara who advocated
the doctrine of Advaita Vedānta ("non-duality") emphasizing the ultimate reality of Brahman, the
existence of the atman, and the illusory nature of all else. Only Brahman existed and human
beings existed, through the atman, as parts of Brahman. Shankara attacked Buddhist thought for
its denial of the atman, but his understanding of liberation through oneness of the atman with
Brahman is similar to the Buddhist concept of attaining nirvana through non-attachment.
Shankara’s doctrine relied on an adherent accepting a program based on revelation of ultimate
reality. The program had four aspects of equal importance:
 Śāstra – scriptures
 Yukti – reason
 Anubhava – knowledge through experience
 Karma – spiritually relevant actions

A student submitted to a teacher who helped them understand scripture, apply reason and
experience to interpretation of scripture, and act correctly on that interpretation. According to
some scholars, this paradigm directly influenced Esoteric Buddhism. According to other views,
the fundamentals of Esoteric Buddhism, especially a personal relationship with a spirit or deity,
were already centuries old by the time Shankara appeared. In this view, Shankara may have
influenced the 8th century CE form of Esoteric Buddhism, but his doctrine did not inspire or
inform the fundamental beliefs and practices.

Undeniably the text [of these works] exhibits some of the trappings of an Indian Buddhist text,
including many Sanskrit technical terms and doctrines of Indian origin. In an age when Chinese
Buddhists were looking to India for the authentic Buddhism, giving a Chinese composition a
Sanskrit veneer would make its presentation of a belief in the Absolute more credible. (435)

The belief system traveled from China to Japan where it was famously encouraged by Prince
Shotoku (r. 594-622 CE) who helped to establish it throughout the country. Esoteric Buddhism
was refined, systematized, and spread further by Kukai (also known as Kobo Daishi, l. 774-835
CE), a scholar-monk and poet who founded Shingon Buddhism in Japan. Shingon ("True Word")
Buddhism adhered to the cosmic vision of Buddhism as an eternal set of strictures which had
been articulated clearly by the Buddha but not conceived of by him, nor had he been the first
buddha and certainly not the last. Shingon, like Vajrayana Buddhism, claimed one could attain
complete enlightenment in one’s lifetime and only by submitting to the discipline of a virtuous
teacher.

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Copy of the Heart Sutra/ Chinese Diamond Sutra

Mainstream Buddhism emphasized adherence to the Eightfold Path after a recognition of

the Four Noble Truths which led one to enlightenment and freedom, at death, from the cycle of
rebirth. Esoteric Buddhism offers the same basic platform but claims one can attain results more
quickly by embracing and then letting go of the attachments of life as one becomes more
spiritually mature. One should not, then, renounce the world of illusion but recognize its value
since one could not accrue spiritual merit without it and, without the spiritual merit one earned
through the discipline of distancing oneself from that world, one could not advance toward
enlightenment.

Buswell and Lopez note how one of the names for Esoteric Buddhism is Mantrayana and the
importance of reciting a personal mantra in staying the course toward higher values.

In the book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan there is a very detailed description of how a
tantric yogi prepare himself for spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of
multilevel worships. It is said that the Vajrayana doctrines is meditation towards Five Tathagata.
By worshipping them, a yogi can attain the purity of mind.
The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number
of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of
Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century,
by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. The oldest Buddhist
archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably the Batujaya stupas complex in Karawang, West
Java. The oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd century, while the
latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, significant numbers of Buddhist sites were
found in Jambi, Palembang, and Riau provinces in Sumatra, as well as in Central and East Java.
The Indonesian archipelago has, over the centuries, witnessed the rise and fall of powerful
Buddhist empires, such as the Sailendra dynasty, the Mataram, and Srivijaya empires.

7
Borobudur Temple Compounds, located in Central Java, Indonesia

8
According to some Chinese source, a Chinese Buddhist monk I-tsing on his pilgrim journey to
India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Sumatra in the 7th century.
The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region. A notable Srivijayan revered
Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born around the
turn of the 7th century in Sumatra. [7] He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya and moved
to India to become a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and
reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential
among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are
studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist monks that visited
Indonesia were Atisha, Dharmapala, a professor of Nalanda, and the South Indian
Buddhist Vajrabodhi. Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in Indonesian
history.
A number of Buddhist historical heritages can be found in Indonesia, including the 8th
century Borobudur mandala monument and Sewu temple in Central Java, Batujaya in West
Java, Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Bahal temple in Sumatra, and numerous of statues or
inscriptions from the earlier history of Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. During the era
of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empire, buddhism — identified as Dharma ri Kasogatan-
was acknowledged as one of kingdom's official religions along with Hinduism. Although some
of kings might favour Hinduism over another, nevertheless the harmony, toleration, and even
syncretism were promoted as manifested in Bhinneka Tunggal Ika national motto, coined
from Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular to promotes tolerance
between Hindus (Shivaites) and Buddhists.[8] The classical era of ancient Java also had produces
some of the exquisite examples of Buddhist arts, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita and the
statue of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut temple.
Shailendra dynasty,a dynasty that flourished in Java from about 750 to 850 after the fall of the
Funan kingdom of mainland Southeast Asia. The dynasty was marked by a great cultural
renaissance associated with the introduction of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and it attained a high level
of artistic expression in the many temples and monuments built under its rule. During the reign
of one of its kings, the famous stupa of Borobuḍur (q.v.) was built. The Social Context of Politics
and Culture Borobudur was built at the peak of the Shailendra dynasty’s reign during a period
when the system of government was highly feudalistic and rulers were selected through
conquest and lineage. At that time, there were two competing forces in the region, namely the
Hindu Sanjaya dynasty and the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty. The only written evidence of the
existence of the Sanjaya dynasty in Central Java is the Canggal inscription, which is dated to
732. After that, the Sanjaya dynasty was suppressed by the Shailendra dynasty, and the area was
dominated by inscriptions from the Shailendra family.

Except for its legacy of monuments, little is known of the dynasty. It apparently emanated from
the agricultural lowlands of interior Java but extended its real power to the northwestern coasts
of the island, from which its emissaries traded with and raided the Malay peninsula and
Indochina. There is a Khmer tradition of Shailendra overlordship in the latter part of the 8th
century. The Shailendra dynasty was driven to Sumatra (Palembang) in the mid-9th century.

9
bas-relief from the Shailendra dynasty-King and queen with subjects, bas relief from the Shailendra dynasty, 8th
century; in Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia.

The Buddhist temples that the Shailendra dynasty built were also magnificent and
luxurious in the southern region of Central Java, with Borobudur being the largest temple there.
Construction of the temple began around 750 AD and ended in the early decades of the 9th
century. By the mid-9 th century, relations had deteriorated severely between the Shailendra
and Sanjaya dynasties. The ending of the Shailendra dynasty in Java is generally dated to
around 852, when the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan defeated Shailendra’s ruler Balaputra.

This sequence of events indicates that far from strengthening the Shailendra dynasty, the
construction of the temple might have imposed an untenable burden on the population, possibly
weakening their support for their ruler and increasing their vulnerability to invasion and defeat.

The phenomenon of monumental buildings in the development of human civilisation is very

important and interesting to study for several reasons.

1. Firstly, the phenomenon shows the dynamics of the transformation of the metaphysical
dimension in the form of material culture, which provides an overview of the dynamics
of the economic development, power, technology and ideology of the civilisation
concerned .
2. Secondly, the establishment of monumental buildings in principle involves the allocation
of scarce resources, which has consequences on the development of social welfare.

3. It is important to evaluate the financial and economic feasibility of allocating these

resources as the misallocation of resources has a great potential to reduce the level of
1
social welfare.

One of the most remarkable monumental buildings representing ancient Javanese culture is the
Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, built by the Shailendra dynasty during the
HinduBuddhist period of the 9th century AD . It is the largest Buddhist site in the world and it
remains in use today

A major attraction of Borobudur lies in the mystery that surrounds it –

10
 1. There are no records that enable people living in the world today to know exactly who
constructed it and
2. why it was constructed.
3. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits
were derived by people living at that time.
4. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits
were derived by the Royalty who commissioned it.

structure and spirit of Borobudur can only be understood from the perspective of Buddhism,
which originates in the Sutras and Tantras. It can be said that the reliefs carved on the walls of
the Borobudur indicate the existence of distinctive Buddhist teachings, which were a subtle
integration between Mahayana and Tantric teachings of Buddhism, particularly from the
Sanskrit and Ancient Javanese book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan. (See my paper of the same
name)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple Irmawati Marwoto1 , Mandala Manurung2
1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia, 2Department of
Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia International Journal of
Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749

This distinctive blend of indigenous Javanese and Indian Buddhism is also evidenced by the
selection of sutras and tantrasthat can be practisedin harmony, with no apparent cosmological
conflict. This implies that the monasteries in Java already had comprehensive religious libraries,
thus allowing the integration of religious teachings in a unified and holistic manner. The
predominance of these two Buddhist schools affecting the Borobudur temple does not mean that
the other streams did not have any influence on its form and uses.

Archaeologists have identified many Buddhist streams in the Borobudur reliefs. The similarity
among the various schools of Buddhism is evinced in their agreement that life is suffering, that
the cause of suffering can be eliminated, and that there are ways to eliminate it. Thus, the way
(yana) of eliminating the cause of suffering was developed by the various schools of Buddhism.

Borobudur and Kedu Plain

Mount Merapi, colour lithograph, Junghuhn and Mieling, 1853–1854

Borobudur
The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west

11
of Magelang, in Central Java. Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile
volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west,
and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the
9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include-

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by

the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction
is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and Ganesha have been
discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram.

Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi (literally Fire Mountain in Indonesian and Javanese), is

an active stratovolcano located on the border between the province of Central Java and
the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia adjoining the Kedu Plains. It is the most active
volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located approximately 28
kilometres (17 mi) north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4 million, and thousands
of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1,700 metres (5,577 ft)
above sea level.
Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused
fatalities. A pyroclastic flow from a large explosion killed 27 people on 22 November 1994,
mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano.[3] Another large eruption occurred in 2006,
shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to populated
areas, it was designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes.

12
 Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven
terraces to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth,
enlightenment and death of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
 Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
 Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century
Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the
temple of bamboo forest".
 Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from Pawon temple. The few remains
make it impossible to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from this temple is now
located at the National Museum in Jakarta.
 Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang
 Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.
 Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here.
Only the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.

In anticipation of Mount Merapi’s possible

eruption, the Borobudur Conservation
Agency covers many stupas in the eighth
level of the Borobudur temple in Magelang,
Central Java. The agency may cover the
remaining stupas if volcanic activity
increases. Back in 2010, the ninth century
temple was affected by a major eruption. At
the time, acidic volcanic ash from Mt. Merapi
covered 72 stupas.

The part of present-day Central Java then known as the Mataram kingdom was the geographical
area of the kingdom contested by the Shailendra Buddhist dynastie and Sanjaya Hindu. That is
why temples in southern Central Java are mainly Buddhist, whereas those in northern Central
Java are Hindu,
The Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the
8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established by
King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty.During the intervening period of
late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese
13
art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the
landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram
are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta. 
Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—
the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Mataram
kingdom was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom
in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led
by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan based
in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Mataram kingdom, and sacked the
capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed hegemonic empire in
the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019, and then established
the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali.

In the middle of the 9th century however, the two dynasties were united through the marriage
bonds between a prince of Sanjaya, Rakai Pikatan and Pramodawhardani, a daughter of the
Shailendra dynasty. Nonetheless, the two dynasties appeared to have competed with each other
to build temples. The Sanjaya dynasty constructed Hindu temples, the largest of which was the
Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. Tthe Shailendra dynasty constructed Buddhist temples, of
which the largest was Borobudur, also known as Kamulan. 1

The financial infeasibility of the construction of the Borobudur temple is evaluated based on the
rationality of resource use. Table 1 above shows that the net flow of funds would have always
been negative from the beginning to year 100. This means that additional financial costs for
construction and maintenance would have been greater than any financial benefits. The flow
pattern shows that the construction of Borobudur temple was financially irrational or
unfeasible. This raises the question of whether the funds allocated to construct the Borobudur
temple were the cause of the collapse of the Shailendra dynasty. The need for funds to complete
the construction of the Borobudur temple was IDR 28 trillion, which in the present context is
still a very large amount of money. If the Shailendra dynasty currently still had control over the
area of Central Java, then building Borobudur would require additional tax revenues greater
than IDR 28 trillion. The target additional tax revenue would not be possible to achieve, as the
current total tax revenue of Central Java province is only IDR 10 trillion per year

A house of worship that should represent divine presence, a place where truth, freedom, peace
and prosperity flourished turned into a place rampant with the struggle for power and influence.
The house of worship became a representation of conflict rooted in the thirst for power.
The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements
in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows
the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body
(center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each
Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is identical. Either
the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones.

 Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,

animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life.
The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm
of bhurloka.

14
 Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics,
and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the
body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
 Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known
as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm
of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel)
or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupa or dagoba
cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.
Style
Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups:
a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style,
which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern
Java style.

Structure elements

15
Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java. Central Java
style(Bubrah temple)/Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate/Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an
example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is an example of Eastern
Javanese style.

Parts
of the
Central Java Style Eastern Java Style
templ
e

Shape of
the Tends to be bulky Tends to be slender and tall
structure

The multiple parts of stepped sections

Clearly shows stepped roof sections, usually
Roof formed a combined roof structure
consist of 3 parts
smoothly

Cube (mostly Hindu temples),

Stupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or Vajra
Pinnacle sometimes Dagoba cylindrical
(Hindu temples)
structures (Buddhist temples)

Kala-Makara style; Kala head without lower Only Kala head sneering with the
Portal and
jaw opening its mouth located on top of the mouth complete with lower jaw
niches
portal, connected with double Makara on located on top of the portal, Makara is
adornment
each side of the portal absent

Relief Projected rather high from the background, Projected rather flat from the

16
 Parts
of the
Central Java Style Eastern Java Style
templ
e

background, the images was done in

the images was done in naturalistic style stylized style similar to Balinese
wayang image

Linear, asymmetric, followed

Layout topography of the site; with main
Concentric mandala, symmetric, formal; with
and temple located in the back or
main temple located in the center of the
location of furthermost from the entrance, often
complex surrounded by
the main located in the highest ground of the
smaller perwara temples in regular rows
temple complex, perwara temples is located
in front of the main temple

Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west

Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick

There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While
the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java
group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins
in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple
is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The
location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located
in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain
only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such
as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the
temple complex.
The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped
pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples
in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount
Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.

MATERIALS

17
 Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are
made from andesite stone. This is mainly owed
to the stone's durability, compared to bricks,
against tropical weathers and torrential rains.
Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the
Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red
brick as temple and building materials.
Interlocking andesite stone blocks forming
a corbeling arch in Borobudur. LEFT PIC

. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia are:

 Andesite is an extrusive igneous volcanic rock, of intermediate composition,

with aphanitic to porphyritic texture. Its colour ranges from light to dark grey. Andesite is
especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or stone quarry
with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma chamber or cooled down lava
spill. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking technique, to
construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and carved
with iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorations carved as bas-
reliefs. The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can
be observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are
also used as the material for carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha.

18
Red brick Jabung temple, dated from Majapahit period.

Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple
compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had
been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and
15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples
had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple
in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal
temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava
andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical
elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling
down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged
structure with new bricks.

 Tuff is a volcanic rock that is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone
formations. In Indonesian and Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone),
which corresponds to its light color. The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has
made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite,
tuff is considered as an inferior quality building material. In Javanese temples, tuff usually
are used as stone fillings — forming the inner structure of the temple — while the outer layer
employed andesite that is more suitable to be carved. The tuff quarries can be found in Sewu
limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff fillings in the temple can be examined in Ratu
Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as building material of outer walls of temple
compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu and Sambisari temple.
 Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone,
water, and sometimes ground clamshell. The stucco as temple building material is observable
in the Batujaya temple compound in West Java.

19
Traces of worn off vajralepa plaster on Sari's relief.

 Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat the temple walls. The

white-yellowish plaster is made from the mixture of ground limestone, tuff or white earth
(kaolin), with plant substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white plaster
was applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as
a beacon of Buddhist teaching.[16] The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can be observed in
Borobudur, Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temple walls.
 Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple
building material. Sari and Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone
indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of
wooden stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base,
which suggests that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure
made of organic materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden
doors are observable in many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course,
wooden materials are easily decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after
centuries.

MOTIFS

Kala-Makara

Kala-makara on the portal of Borobudur gates, Kala's head on top of the portal and makaras
flanking either sides.
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and

20
symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by making
kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a
protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical
sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and
half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of
an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and
ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and
the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective
figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either
sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-
makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the
mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras
flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than
makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-
decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes
as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf
figures or animals such as lions or parrots.
Linga-Yoni
Central Javanese linga-yoni with spout decorated and supported by nāga serpent, Yogyakarta 9th
century.
In ancient Javanese candi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more
precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. The linga is
a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. Some lingas are
segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section
symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the
Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape.
Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni, symbolic of the womb
and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated
with nāga, to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual.
As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual. Oldest
remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from earlier period circa 7th century.
Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However, most of the
times, the linga is missing.
In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself
or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality
with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni of Gunung Wukir temple, according to Canggal
inscription is connected to King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE).
[17]
 Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni include Sambisari and Ijo temples. Eastern
Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni are Panataran and Jawi temple, although the linga is
missing.
Bas-reliefs
The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan temples.

21
The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are
exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world. The
Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such as Karmavibhangga (the law of
karma), Lalitavistara (the birth of Buddha), Jataka, Avadana and Gandavyuha. While
in Prambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels;
the Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana (popularly known as Krishnayana).
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from
the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted
temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People
depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant,
commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist
beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images
depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects,
such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation
of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century
Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.

Hanuman battling enemy, bas-relief of Ramayana on Penataran temple, East Java style.

There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central Javanese
period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese
style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style.
The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic
style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese
style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stiffer pose and
stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently
preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, also wayang shadow puppet
imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting.

22
Deities
Kalpataru and Kinnaras

Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female), Apsara, and Devata guarding Kalpataru, the divine tree of

life. 8th century Pawon temple, Java, Indonesia.
The images of coupled Kinnara and Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu,
Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans
with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and Kinnari usually is depicted
guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure.
There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari, Manohara.
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing
image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree.
These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side
by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The
pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus
it is called as "Prambanan panel".
Boddhisattva and Tara

A Bodhisattva flanked by two Taras in Sewu temple.

In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male
figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with Gandarvas heavenly musicians,
and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs,
which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology.
Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression,
adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female
counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually
holding various kinds of lotus (red padma, blue utpala, or white kumuda), monk staff
(khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing in tribhanga pose. The notable images
of boddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu,
Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.

23
Devata and Apsara

A Devata flanked by two apsaras in Prambanan temple.

In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found
adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-
Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along
the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure
of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin
sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a
male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and
goddesses- devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka.
This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount
Meru in Hindu cosmology.
Guardians-Dvarapala

One of dvarapala statues guarding Sewu temple.

Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as
gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in
four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and
malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala
is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle
eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually
depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-
built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[19] The exception

24
is a gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The
most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points
of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect
condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of Gupolo guardian in later
Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another
fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan.
Lion

Lion guardian of Borobudur.

The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the
portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast
Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art,
especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or
Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The
cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia
was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians.
In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard
four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found
in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara.
The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

25
Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its
pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while
ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-
shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[20] sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

Prambanan vajra pinnacle.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless,
it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the
false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top
of Buddhist counterparts.

26
Java

Cangkuang, Garut West Java

 Batujaya, a compound of Buddhist Stupa made from red brick and mortar located at Batu
Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably dated back to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th
century AD.
 Cibuaya, a compound of Vishnuite Hindu temples made from red brick and mortar also
located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably linked to Tarumanagara kingdom in
the 6th century AD.
 Bojongmenje, ruins of Hindu temple in Rancaekek, Bandung Regency.
 Candi Cangkuang, the only one of the few surviving West Java's Hindu temple estimated
dated from the 8th century, located at Leles, Garut, West Java. Located on an island in the
middle of a lake covered by water lilies. Unlike other Javanese temple characteristics by
grand architecture, Cangkuang temple is more modest with only one structure still standing.
Shiva statue faces east toward the sunrise. Date uncertain.
Central Java-Dieng Plateau

Arjuna group of Dieng temples

27
The Hindu temple compound located in Dieng Plateau, near Wonosobo, Central Java. Eight
small Hindu temples from the 7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by
craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot water sources and underground
channels. The temples are:

 Arjuna temple
 Semar temple
 Srikandi temple
 Puntadewa temple
 Sembadra temple
 Dwarawati temple
 Gatotkaca temple
 Bima temple
Gedong Songo

Gedong Songo III

South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The
site highlights how, in Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the structures
themselves. The site has panoramas of three volcanoes and Dieng Plateau.
Slopes of Merapi
As we know, the rulers of Sanjaya built many magnificent and luxurious Hindu temples in
the northern region of Central Java, the largest of which is the Prambanan temple. This
temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram
Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the
kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area,
including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran.
Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according
to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or
slightly later. Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and
inaugurated in 856 during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman
Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the
historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area)
and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization.

28
Other sites with notable temple compounds. includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East
Java. West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang.
Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and
Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are
notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas
or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example,
are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on
hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a
bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the
landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and
economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.

Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or
Hindu-Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites.

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After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes. The temple collapsed in about 1600s due to a massive earthquake.
Prambanan is a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in
Hinduism, while Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist. Both Prambanan
and Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout, surrounded with
hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally, Prambanan consists of 240
structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung temple consists of 17 structures.
With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not
only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an example of religious harmony and
peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.
Prambanan
Prambanan temple or locally known in Javanese as Rara Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple
complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its shrines and statues of Hindu patheon
and Ramayana bas relief. Murtis or Hindu deity statues venerated in Prambanan complex
including the main deity Shiva Mahadeva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga Mahisasuramardini, Ganesha,
Agastya, and Nandi bull.
Sewu
Sewu or originally known as Manjusrigrha complex, with its four pairs of Dvarapala giant
statues, is the largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia, and the second largest Buddhist
temple after Borobudur. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple compound to
be Manjusrigrha, which means "the house of Manjusri", one of the
main boddhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism belief.
Bubrah

Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located between Lumbung in the south and Sewu in the

north. Experts believe that the temple was designed as a part of the greater Sewu temple
compound mandala.
Lumbung
Candi Lumbung a 9th-century Buddhist temple compound located within the complex
of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, Central Java, Indonesia. The original name of this temple is
unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple "candi lumbung", which means "rice
barn temple" in Javanese language.
 

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 Sewu temple compound/Lumbung temple/Bubrah

 Plaosan. Buddhist temple located a few kilometres east from Sewu temple compound.
The temple probably dated from 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Boddhisatva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill.
 Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables from the Jatakas.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Kalasan. This 8th-century Buddhist temple is the oldest in the area. Built to house the
image of Boddhisattvadevi Tara by King Panangkaran, ornamented with finely carved
reliefs.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist monks. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two
rooms beneath, each believed to be places for monks to meditate.
 Sambisari. 9th-century Hindu temple discovered in 1966, once buried 6.5 metres under
volcanic ash. The main temple houses a linga and yoni, and the wall surround it displayed
the images of Agastya, Durga, and Ganesha.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4 metres deep. Square base of main
temple visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.
 The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base
(Bhurloka), body (Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka).
 The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the
less holy to the holiest realms.

The Universal Mandala: Borobudur

Built in the 8th century by the ruling Shailendra dynasty of central Java, Borobudur is a unique
cultural universe combining the features of a mountain, a stupa, and a pyramid of the megalithic
period, showing how Indian themes were grafted onto a pre-existing Javanese genius. Its vast
reliefs depict two major Buddhist narratives: the Lalitavistara, which narrates the life of Buddha,
and Gandavyuha, which portrays the pilgrimage of the youth Sudhana in his search for
knowledge. While the life of Buddha is sketched in many Buddhist monuments around Asia, the
reliefs of Borobudur contain important variations. One example is the “Great Departure” of
Prince Siddhartha from the royal palace as he embarks on his quest for enlightenment. The feet
of his horse are lifted by Hindu gods Indra and Brahma to stop any noise that could wake up the

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guards assigned to prevent his departure; a perfect blending of Buddhist and Hindu narratives of
Nirvana.

As a Buddhist text, Gandavyuha was circulated widely around Asia, sometimes as a gift among
rulers. For example, the Chinese emperor received a Sanskrit language text of the book as a gift
from the king of Odisha in the 8th century.

Gandavyuha gives Borobudur a special meaning as a universal mandala. Its message, as leading
Borobudur scholar John Miksic notes, is “that one should not expect to find enlightenment only
in one place, or in one source. Sudhana’s Good Friends [spiritual instructors] are women, men
and children from all levels of society, as well as supernatural beings. Anyone is eligible for
enlightenment and there is no suggestion that wisdom is something to be jealously hoarded and
imparted only to the elite.”

Relief in Borobudur showing the “Great Departure” (Siddhartha leaving the palace). Sunrise to
RIGHT

Borobudur thus represents the essence of the Nirvana Route. Its Buddhist-Hindu conception of
enlightenment beckoned all people, irrespective of age, sex, wealth, or place of origin. What a far
cry from the European Enlightenment, with its parochial Eurocentric worldview that contributed
much to racism, elitism, and imperialism!

R E F E R E N C E
Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan: Translation and Analytical Study Ven. Budi Utomo Ph.D.
(Bhikkhu Ditthisampanno) Lecture and Principal of Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia.
Ph.D. Candidate in Buddhist Studies, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.
ditthisampanno@gmail.com

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