batteries

Review
Towards an Ultimate Battery Thermal Management
System: A Review
Mohammad Rezwan Khan *, Maciej Jozef Swierczynski and Søren Knudsen Kær
Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Pontoppidanstræde 101, Aalborg DK-9220, Denmark;
mas@et.aau.dk (M.J.S.); skk@et.aau.dk (S.K.K.)
* Correspondence: rezwankhn@gmail.com or mrk@et.aau.dk; Tel.: +45-994-048-25

Academic Editor: Andreas Jossen

Received: 30 September 2016; Accepted: 23 February 2017; Published: 16 March 2017

Abstract: The prevailing standards and scientific literature offer a wide range of options for the
construction of a battery thermal management system (BTMS). The design of an innovative yet
well-functioning BTMS requires strict supervision, quality audit and continuous improvement of
the whole process. It must address all the current quality and safety (Q&S) standards. In this
review article, an effective battery thermal management is sought considering the existing battery
Q&S standards and scientific literature. The article contains a broad overview of the current
existing standards and literature on a generic compliant BTMS. The aim is to assist in the design
of a novel compatible BTMS. Additionally, the article delivers a set of recommendations to make
an effective BTMS.

Keywords: battery thermal management system (BTMS); battery management systems (BMSs);
thermal imaging; calorimetry; isothermal calorimeter; batteries; quality and safety (Q&S) standards;
Li-ion batteries

1. Introduction
The main barriers to the deployment of large fleets of vehicles on public roads equipped with
lithium-ion batteries continue to be safety, costs related to cycle and calendar life, and performance.
These challenges are coupled with thermal effects in the battery, including capacity/power fade,
thermal runaway, electrical imbalance among multiple cells in a battery pack, and low-temperature
performance [1,2]. Ideally, most batteries are expected to operate at an optimum average temperature
with a very narrow differential range [3,4]. While designing a battery cell, pack, or system, the rate of
heat dissipation must be fast enough so that the battery never reaches the thermal runaway temperature.
The event of reaching the thermal runaway temperature triggers the commencement of the irreversible
decomposition of battery composition, i.e., electrolyte and electrodes are damaged. Generally,
those decomposition reactions are exothermic (heat producing). It implies that the temperature
increases more and more once the thermal runaway temperature is reached. It irreversibly triggers
a chain reaction of self-heating and ultimately the destruction of the cell [5].
Temperature excursions and non-uniformity of the temperature of the battery cell are the main
concerns and drawbacks for different applications. The thermodynamics of lithium-ion cells are
complicated by the presence of liquid electrolyte mixtures as well as single-phase and multiphase
solids. Heat generation may result from mixing and phase change, as well as the main electrochemical
reactions [6–11]. Reliable prediction of temperature profiles of individual cells, and of a battery system,
requires first of all accurate measurement level of the total heat-generation rate. Thus, measurements
of temperature rise and the heat dissipation or absorption of battery cells are essential.
In general, temperature affects several aspects of a battery including the operation of the
electrochemical system, round-trip efficiency, charge acceptance, power and energy capability,

Batteries 2017, 3, 9; doi:10.3390/batteries3010009 www.mdpi.com/journal/batteries

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Batteries 2016, 2, 9  2 of 20 
reliability, life and lifecycle cost. Although the capacity increases as the operating temperature is
raised, the degree
reliability,  of capacity
life  and  fade Although 
lifecycle  cost.  also increases. On the increases 
the  capacity  other hand, poor
as  the  performance
operating  is observed
temperature  is 
at raised, the degree of capacity fade also increases. On the other hand, poor performance is observed 
low operating temperature [12,13]. In addition, excessive or uneven temperature rise in a system
or at low operating temperature [12,13]. In addition, excessive or uneven temperature rise in a system 
pack reduces its lifecycle significantly [14]. The high temperature during charge and discharge
will lead to the possibility that temperatures will exceed permissible levels, consequently decreasing
or pack reduces its lifecycle significantly [14]. The high temperature during charge and discharge will 
thelead to the possibility that temperatures will exceed permissible levels, consequently decreasing the 
battery performance. Furthermore, the uneven temperature distribution in the battery pack will
lead to a localized deterioration. Therefore, temperature uniformity, within a cell and from cell to cell,
battery performance. Furthermore, the uneven temperature distribution in the battery pack will lead 
to a localized deterioration. Therefore, temperature uniformity, within a cell and from cell to cell, is 
is important for achieving maximum lifecycle of cells, packs, and battery systems.
important for achieving maximum lifecycle of cells, packs, and battery systems. 
The employed heating and cooling method could create an uneven temperature distribution
The battery
inside the employed  heating 
pack, and  cooling 
depending on the method  could 
location create 
of each an  uneven 
stack temperature 
or system, distribution 
and external ambient
inside  the  battery  pack,  depending  on  the  location  of  each  stack  or  system, 
conditions [15–19]. This uneven temperature in the cells could trigger an uneven temperature and  external  ambient 
conditions in[15–19]. 
distribution the pack.This  uneven 
Thus, temperature 
the pack could leadin  to
the ancells  could  trigger 
unbalanced system. an Ituneven 
restrictstemperature 
the optimum
distribution in the pack. Thus, the pack could lead to an unbalanced system. It restricts the optimum 
performance. Additionally, the lifetime of the battery pack is reduced. Accordingly, it reduces the
performance. Additionally, the lifetime of the battery pack is reduced. Accordingly, it reduces the 
operational lifetime of the application of the pack that it is designed for, e.g., electrical vehicles (EV).
operational lifetime of the application of the pack that it is designed for, e.g., electrical vehicles (EV). 
Depending on the electrochemistry and working temperature, each kind of cell works better or worse
Depending on the electrochemistry and working temperature, each kind of cell works better or worse 
depending on its specific circumstances and working temperature. Therefore, in order to keep the
depending on its specific circumstances and working temperature. Therefore, in order to keep the 
temperature within the pack’s narrow range level, a battery thermal management system (BTMS)
temperature within  the  pack’s  narrow  range level, a battery  thermal  management  system (BTMS) 
plays a vital role [20,21].
plays a vital role [20,21]. 
Heat is is 
Heat  generated
generated andand released
released from
from thethe cell
cell  during both charge 
during  both  chargeand anddischarge. 
discharge.If  If the
the  heat
heat 
generated
generated in the cell/pack is not removed efficiently, then it is stored, raising the temperature of the the
in the cell/pack is not removed efficiently, then it is stored, raising the temperature of
cell/pack and the total battery system [22]. The magnitude of the overall heat-generation rate from
cell/pack and the total battery system [22]. The magnitude of the overall heat‐generation rate from a 
a battery pack under load dictates the size and design of the cooling system [23]. Different kinds
battery pack under load dictates the size and design of the cooling system [23]. Different kinds of Li‐
of ion 
Li-ion batteries
batteries  have  have different
different  characteristic
characteristic  values;
values;  for for instance,
instance,  battery
battery  heat
heat  fluxmeasurement 
flux  measurement
represents the heat generated inside the cell. A thermal management strategy requires that these data
represents the heat generated inside the cell. A thermal management strategy requires that these data 
bebe measured accurately [24,25] to design a proper BTMS. 
measured accurately [24,25] to design a proper BTMS.
Figure 1 presents a generic battery thermal management system (BTMS). 
Figure 1 presents a generic battery thermal management system (BTMS).

 
Figure 1. Battery thermal management system (BTMS). 
Figure 1. Battery thermal management system (BTMS).

This article aims to define the physical design, construction and material requirements of BTMS 
This article aims to define the physical design, construction and material requirements of BTMS
for anticipated application. Those are required to qualify properly a BTMS inside a battery system 
forirrespective of chemistries for the particular applications [26]. The usages of standardized procedures 
anticipated application. Those are required to qualify properly a BTMS inside a battery system
irrespective of chemistries for the particular applications [26]. The usages of standardized procedures
from reputable organizations allow this article to present a fair and impartial comparison of thermal 
from reputable organizations allow this article to present a fair and impartial comparison of thermal
management for battery pack design. It is intended to improve safety and performance. This article 
is written to provide a common framework of BTMS manufacture and design to evaluate the options 
management for battery pack design. It is intended to improve safety and performance. This article is
of different BTMSs applicable for various operating conditions. Nevertheless, those that operate near 
written to provide a common framework of BTMS manufacture and design to evaluate the options of
the ambient temperatures can also benefit from the existence of BTMS [27,28]. It must be noted that 
different BTMSs applicable for various operating conditions. Nevertheless, those that operate near the
there exists several available studies reviewing these models [29–34]. Since modelling is out of the 
ambient temperatures can also benefit from the existence of BTMS [27,28]. It must be noted that there
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 3 of 18

Batteries 2016, 2, 9  3 of 20 
exists several available studies reviewing these models [29–34]. Since modelling is out of the scope
of the article,
scope  the details
of  the  article,  the  are deliberately
details  avoided.avoided. 
are  deliberately  Figure 2Figure
in the  2 following represents
in  the  following  the generic
represents  the 
schematics of BTMS modelling.
generic schematics of BTMS modelling. 

 
Figure 2. Electrical and thermal model coupling [35]. 
Figure 2. Electrical and thermal model coupling [35].

The structure of the article is arranged as follows. Section 2 gives a general overview concerning 
The structure of the article is arranged as follows. Section 2 gives a general overview concerning
the expected characteristics and requirements of a generic BTMS originating from current standards 
the expected characteristics and requirements of a generic BTMS originating from current standards as
as well as the generic thermal requirements of a battery system. Section 3 analyses specifically quality 
well as the generic thermal requirements of a battery system. Section 3 analyses specifically quality and
safetysafety 
and  standards. 
standards. SectionSection  4  provides 
4 provides the  accessory 
the accessory level  composition 
level composition and  interfaces.
and required required  interfaces. 
Section 5
Section 5 provides some recommendations and suggestions stemming from different standards and 
provides some recommendations and suggestions stemming from different standards and research
research studies. Section 6 provides the conclusion of the article. 
studies. Section 6 provides the conclusion of the article.

2. Expected Characteristics and Requirements of a Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) 
2. Expected Characteristics and Requirements of a Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS)
The BTMS
The BTMS isis an
an important
important  and
and  integral
integral  part
part  of
of  aa  battery
battery  management
management  system 
system (BMS) 
(BMS) [36–38]. 
[36–38].
BTMS is comprised of a combination of hardware and software. It is used fundamentally to preserve 
BTMS is comprised of a combination of hardware and software. It is used fundamentally to preserve
the temperature of battery cells in a pack at an optimal range [39–43]. It helps to enhance the lifetime 
the temperature of battery cells in a pack at an optimal range [39–43]. It helps to enhance the lifetime
while ensuring safe and secure operation of the battery pack [44–47]. It is therefore inevitable that 
while ensuring safe and secure operation of the battery pack [44–47]. It is therefore inevitable that
BTMS is typically associated with the process of retaining the operational temperature at an optimal 
BTMS is typically associated with the process of retaining the operational temperature at an optimal
level through
level through keeping
keeping  the 
the temperature 
temperature gradient 
gradient within 
within a  relatively 
a relatively narrow 
narrow rangerange  [48]. BTMS
[48]. The The  BTMS 
must
must 
be be  designed 
designed to  suit  automotive 
to suit automotive criteria, 
criteria, which which 
include include 
[49,50]: [49,50]: 
being being  lightweight, 
lightweight, easily packagedeasily 
in
packaged in the desired application—for example, EVs—and they must be compact, reliable, cost‐
the desired application—for example, EVs—and they must be compact, reliable, cost-effective, easy to
effective, easy to assembly and placed in an appropriate position [51–53]. 
assembly and placed in an appropriate position [51–53].
Depending on the operating and ambient conditions, the employed method inside BTMS can 
either be employed for cooling, heating or insulating. A traditional BTMS includes air as the medium, 
and an electric blower or fan to mobilize it. On the other hand, liquid BTMSs include water, glycol, 
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 4 of 18

Depending on the operating and ambient conditions, the employed method inside BTMS can
either be employed for cooling, heating or insulating. A traditional BTMS includes air as the medium,
Batteries 2016, 2, 9  4 of 20 
and an electric blower or fan to mobilize it. On the other hand, liquid BTMSs include water, glycol, oil,
acetone, refrigerants, and Phase Change Material (PCM) thermal management systems. In order to
oil, acetone, refrigerants, and Phase Change Material (PCM) thermal management systems. In order 
ensure
to  uniform
ensure  and and 
uniform  adequate cooling,
adequate  the BTMS
cooling,  is composed
the  BTMS  of controller
is  composed  and associated
of  controller  controller
and  associated 
algorithm adjusting for different cells’ temperatures and operation statuses.
controller algorithm adjusting for different cells’ temperatures and operation statuses. 
Depending on
Depending  electrochemical-physical
on  electrochemical‐physical  characteristics and corresponding
characteristics  reactions,reactions, 
and  corresponding  the optimum the 
operating range
optimum  of different
operating  range  batteries willbatteries 
of  different  differ. The optimum
will  differ. range for most general
The  optimum  batteries
range  for  most requires
general 
operating near room temperature (15–35 ◦ C) [54,55]. By keeping the temperature within a narrow
batteries requires operating near room temperature (15–35 °C) [54,55]. By keeping the temperature 
optimum level, it helps to lengthen the battery pack lifetime. Since the performance of a battery pack
within a narrow optimum level, it helps to lengthen the battery pack lifetime. Since the performance 
depends
of  on the
a  battery  performance
pack  depends  on ofthe individual cells, of 
performance  theindividual 
cooling scheme should
cells,  the  be activated
cooling  when the
scheme  should  be 
battery is exposed to the high rate of charge and discharge [56]. Moreover, depending on
activated  when  the  battery  is  exposed  to  the  high  rate  of  charge  and  discharge  [56].  Moreover,  altitude and
geographical condition, the operation of BTMS varies.
depending on altitude and geographical condition, the operation of BTMS varies. 
Thermal insulation
Thermal  insulation isis 
needed
needed in in 
case of reducing
case  the heat
of  reducing  loss from
the  heat  loss  high
from temperature either during
high  temperature  either 
the desired application’s operation and stand-by. Battery pack thermal management
during  the  desired  application’s  operation  and  stand‐by.  Battery  pack  thermal  management  and control could
and 
be achieved by air or liquid systems [57–59], active or passive approaches. Increasing the insulation
control could be achieved by air or liquid systems [57–59], active or passive approaches. Increasing the 
thickness was suggested for slowing the rate of temperature increase while parking in the summertime,
insulation thickness was suggested for slowing the rate of temperature increase while parking in the 
although this also appears to be similarly beneficial for winter operations [60,61]. Figure 3 illustrates
summertime, although this also appears to be similarly beneficial for winter operations [60,61]. Figure 3 
a generic BTMS structure [62,63].
illustrates a generic BTMS structure [62,63]. 

 
Figure 3. A generic view of the composition of BTMSs [37]. 
Figure 3. A generic view of the composition of BTMSs [37].

A  generic BTMS
A generic BTMS is is  made 
made up cooling,
up of of  cooling,  heating 
heating and  insulation 
and insulation components. 
components. The  intensity, 
The intensity, direction
direction 
of coolingof and cooling 
heatingand 
willheating 
dependwill  depend 
on the on  the 
application application torequirement 
requirement maintain theto temperature
maintain  the  at
temperature at a uniform range. A provision must be made for ventilation if the battery generates 
a uniform range. A provision must be made for ventilation if the battery generates potentially
potentially hazardous gasses [64]. In order to extend low‐temperature operability where it may be of 
hazardous gasses [64]. In order to extend low-temperature operability where it may be of concern,
concern, a heating system may be equipped as a part of a BTMS. The battery must be heated rapidly 
a heating system may be equipped as a part of a BTMS. The battery must be heated rapidly after a cold
after a cold start‐up. Another way to deliver the heat may be through heating the battery coolant by 
start-up. Another way to deliver the heat may be through heating the battery coolant by means of
means of heat exchangers with the engine coolant. There would be a delay in the initiation of heating 
heat exchangers with the engine coolant. There would be a delay in the initiation of heating as the
as  the  engine 
engine gradually gradually 
warms up. warms  up.  Therefore, 
Therefore, electric 
electric heating heating  is  responsible 
is responsible for  raising 
for raising battery battery 
temperature
temperature from cool ambient temperature to the desired temperature before the system start‐up. 
from cool ambient temperature to the desired temperature before the system start-up. Upon start-up,
Upon start‐up, the BTMS should be able to verify that all sensors and actuators, such as contactors, 
the BTMS should be able to verify that all sensors and actuators, such as contactors, fans, and pumps,
fans,  and  pumps, 
are responding are  responding 
correctly. correctly. 
Also, individual Also,  individual 
modules modules 
that determine that  determine 
the state the  state 
of charge [65], state of 
of
charge  [65],  state  of  health,  wiring  corrosion,  sensor  or  contactor  failures  are 
health, wiring corrosion, sensor or contactor failures are performing appropriately [20]. In the periphery performing 
appropriately [20]. In the periphery of thermal management systems, it is important to be aware that 
of thermal management systems, it is important to be aware that there should be no hazard caused
there  should 
by ignition be  no leakage
sources, hazard  caused 
currents,by  ignition  sources, 
electrolyte flooding,leakage  currents, 
etc. Figure 4 and electrolyte  flooding, 
Table 1 present etc. 
a generic
Figure  4  and 
comparison Table the
among 1  present  a  generic 
air, liquid comparison 
and refrigerant among 
cooling the  air,  liquid  and  refrigerant  cooling 
systems.
systems. 

Table  1.  Comparison  between  different  cooling  schemes  in  traditional  BTMSs  [66].  HEV:  Hybrid 
electric vehicle; and PHEV: Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicles. 

Cooling  Nominal 
Description  Application 
Scheme  Temperature 
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 5 of 18

Batteries 2016, 2, 9  5 of 20 
Table 1. Comparison between different cooling schemes in traditional BTMSs [66]. HEV: Hybrid
electric vehicle; and PHEV: Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
Difference Allowed 
Between the Cells 
Nominal Temperature
Cooling Scheme ‐Both cooling and heating is feasible; 
Description Application is 
Application Difference Allowed
Temperature 
‐Good performance;  limited but in most  Between the Cells
difference between 
Air  ‐Normally large space needed; 
-Both cooling and heating is feasible; cases sufficient for 
Application is limited
air and cells can be > 
Temperature difference
‐Cheapest; 
-Good performance; HEV/48V/12V 
but in most cases
between air and cells can
Air -Normally large space needed; sufficient for than 15 °C limitation 
‐Lower development effort is needed.  applications  be > than 15 ◦ C
-Cheapest; HEV/48V/12V
Liquid cooling can  limitation
-Lower development effort is needed.
‐Lowest temperature gradients;  applications
be found in EV, 
Liquid  ‐Cooling and heating is feasible; 
-Lowest temperature gradients; Liquid cooling can be Cooling plate 1–3 °C 
Liquid -Cooling and heating is feasible; foundPHEV, HEV, 48V 
in EV, PHEV, HEV, Cooling plate 1–3 ◦ C
‐Best performance. 
-Best performance. 48Vbatteries 
batteries
‐“Aggressive” cooling due to very low cooler 
-“Aggressive” cooling due to very low cooler
temperatures. Intelligent thermal management and 
temperatures. Intelligent thermal management and
Refrigerant
Refrigerant  HEV, 48V batteries
HEV, 48V batteries  Cooling plate 3–8 ◦ C
Cooling plate 3–8 °C 
specific pack design needed to avoid a too-aggressive
specific pack design needed to avoid a too‐
cooling and condensation of humidity.
aggressive cooling and condensation of humidity. 

(a)  (b)  (c) 

Figure 4. (a) Air cooling; (b) liquid and (c) refrigerant cooling [65]. 
Figure 4. (a) Air cooling; (b) liquid and (c) refrigerant cooling [65].

The following Table 2 corresponds different aspects of a generic BTMS. 
The following Table 2 corresponds different aspects of a generic BTMS.
Table 2. Different aspects of a battery thermal system. 
Table 2. Different aspects of a battery thermal system.
Attribute  Sub‐attribute  Description 
Required 
Attribute Sub-Attribute Heater system components 
Description
elements 
Required elements Heater system components
All heater system components, except the connector terminals to the external 
All heater system components, except the connector terminals to the external
heater power supply, shall be electrically insulated and installed in a manner 
heater power supply, shall be electrically insulated and installed in a manner
which minimizes potential battery damage due to electrical shorting, 
which minimizes potential battery damage due to electrical shorting, sparking,
Requirement 
Requirementsparking, or other electrical hazards and which minimizes potential damage 
or other electrical hazards and which minimizes potential damage to the
Safety  to the insulation of the heater system components. They should meet the 
insulation of the heater system components. They should meet the required
Safety
size and space constraints.
required size and space constraints. 
All heater control devices shall be sealed in a manner which prevents, during
All heater control devices shall be sealed in a manner which prevents, during 
Protection 
Protection Schemes their operation, the ignition of explosive gas mixtures which may occur within
their operation, the ignition of explosive gas mixtures which may occur within 
Schemes  the battery [26,67].
the battery [26,67]. 
For safety, the positioning of heating elements shall be such as to minimize
PositioningFor safety, the positioning of heating elements shall be such as to minimize 
Positioning  thermal gradients within the battery [68].
thermal gradients within the battery [68]. 
Required elements Draft system and other accessories used in the thermal management.
Required 
Draft system and other accessories used in the thermal management. 
Any restrictive system used in the application should not obstruct the normal
elements 
Requirements electrical operation or ventilation of the module through both physical and
Physical or mechanical Any restrictive system used in the application should not obstruct the normal 
Physical or  electrical obstacles.
performance
Requirements  electrical operation or ventilation of the module through both physical and 
mechanical  The retention system should not hinder the airflow around the battery system
Special electrical obstacles. 
performance  for well-functioning thermal management or ventilation of the entire battery
Arrangement
The retention system should not hinder the airflow around the battery 
system [20].
Special 
system for well‐functioning thermal management or ventilation of the entire 
Required elements Battery systems and components.
Arrangement 
Those should endure thebattery system [20]. 
application shock effects like vibration of the desired
Required 
Requirements application e.g., engine, shock induced by component installation, in use
Battery systems and components. 
operation or crash.
elements 
Durability
Those should endure the application shock effects like vibration of the 
Battery packs may be exposed to the vulnerable position like the underside of
Requirements  Cause desired application e.g., engine, shock induced by component installation, in 
the vehicle, which could result in ground contact or other impacts such as road
Durability  debris [20,69–71].
use operation or crash. 
In order to ensure the reliability, the maximum heat output of the system shall
Action Battery packs may be exposed to the vulnerable position like the underside 
not damage battery components with which it is in contact.
Cause  of the vehicle, which could result in ground contact or other impacts such as 
road debris [20,69–71]. 
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 6 of 18

Table 2. Cont.

Attribute Sub-Attribute Description

Required elements Charging systems of a battery.
The charging current is not applied to alternative current of over 50 kHz ripple
Requirements
Ripple current frequency since lithium-ion batteries do not respond to such effects [8].
Since the ripple charging current frequency is one of the reasons for heating up
Cause
of the battery system suitable range as stipulated by the standard is to be used.
Required elements Available sensors for voltage, current, temperature and time counting.
In the available sensors, the overall accuracy of controlled or measured values
Accuracy of measuring Requirements
when conducting testing in accordance with this standard:
instruments
0.1% for voltage; 1% for current; 2 ◦ C (3.6 ◦ F) for temperature; 0.1% for time;
Tolerances 1% for dimension. The accuracy of the measuring instruments shall follow the
relevant requirements of the applicable standards listed [9].
The materials those are used in a different battery and corresponding BTMS
Required elements
accessories, battery casings or enclosures.
Those should be non-flammable or flame-retardant in accordance with
Materials for fire applicable standards. The quantity of combustible materials in the containment
resistance Requirements system should be documented and considered as part of the area fire
loading [72]. The BTMS shall be made from an insulating material that remains
resistant to the foreseeable abuse operating conditions.
The cell container utilized in lead acid batteries shall be made of non-porous,
Special
acid-resistant material, such as polypropylene, polystyrene and polycarbonate.

3. Quality and Safety Standards

To ensure that the battery thermal management’s quality is consistent over its whole lifetime,
some quality aspects need to be monitored [73]. Thus, broadly speaking, the target is not only to
achieve the best performance but also to retain a certain quality standard spanning from the beginning
of life (BoL) to end of life (EoL) of the battery application [37,68–70,74,75].
Table 3 contains important existing standards regarding BTMS.

Table 3. Existing standards regarding BTMS.

Short Working Group

Title Battery Reference
Name Year
IEC International
Secondary lithium-ion cells for the propulsion of
Electrotechnical
IEC 62660-2 electric road vehicles—Part 2: Reliability and Li-ion [71]
Committee
abuse testing.
IEC (2010)
Aircraft batteries—Part 2: Design and Li-ion IEC
IEC 60952-2 [26]
construction requirements. PbAc (2013)
Secondary cells and batteries for renewable
energy storage—General requirements and Li-ion IEC
IEC 61427-1 [72]
methods of test—Part 1: Photovoltaic PbAc (2013)
off-grid application.
Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline
IEC 61960 or other non-acid electrolytes—Secondary IEC
Li-ion [76]
Edition 2.0 lithium cells and batteries for (2011)
portable applications.
Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline
or other non-acid electrolytes; Safety alkaline or other
IEC 62133 IEC
requirements for portable sealed secondary cells, non-acid [77]
Edition 2.0 (2012)
and for batteries made from them, for use in electrolytes
portable applications.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation
Institute of Electrical
IEEE Standard Design and Installation of Valve-Regulated Li-ion
and Electronics [48]
1187-1996 Lead-Acid Storage Batteries for PbAc
Engineers IEEE (1996)
Stationary Applications.
IEEE Standard IEEE Guide for the Protection of Stationary Li-ion IEEE
[54]
1375-1998 Battery Systems. PbAc (1998)
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 7 of 18

Table 3. Cont.

Short Working Group

Title Battery Reference
Name Year
IEEE Recommended Practice for Stationary
IEEE Standard Li-ion IEEE
Battery Electrolyte Spill Containment and [78]
1578-2007 PbAc (2007)
Management.
Insulation coordination for equipment within
IEC 60664-1 Li-ion IEC
low-voltage systems—Part 1: Principles, [79]
Edition 2.0 PbAc (2007)
requirements and tests.
IEC 62485-2 Safety requirements for secondary batteries and Li-ion IEC
[80]
Edition 1.0 battery installations—Part 2: Stationary batteries PbAc (2010)
Stationary lead-acid batteries—Part 11: Vented
IEC 60896-11 IEC
types; General requirements and methods PbAc [22]
Edition 1.0 (2002)
of tests.
IEC 60896-21 Stationary lead-acid batteries—Part 21: IEC
PbAc [81]
Edition 1.0 Valve-regulated types—Methods of test (2004)
IEC 62485-3 Safety requirements for secondary batteries and Li-ion IEC
[82]
Edition 1.0 battery installations—Part 3: Traction batteries. PbAc (2010)
International
EV and HEV Rechargeable Energy Storage
Li-ion automotive
SAE J2464 System (RESS) Safety and Abuse [83]
PbAc standardization
Testing Procedure.
SAE (2010)
Electric Drive Battery Pack System Functional SAE
SAE J 2289 Li-ion [20]
Guidelines (Revised 2008) (2008)
Safety Standard for Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
SAE
SAE J 2929 Propulsion Battery Systems Utilizing Li-ion [15]
(2008)
Lithium-Based Rechargeable Cells.

3.1. Quality
The interested stakeholders need to prepare and implement a quality plan that outlines the
audit practices. They should ensure periodical inspection of the system that contains cell materials,
components and covers the whole process of producing a battery system that includes BTMS.
The stakeholder should identify and must have a knowledge of the process capabilities as well
as include and adapt the necessary process controls regarding the corresponding battery pack safety
and quality [77].

3.2. General Quality Test Features and Rules

BTMS manufacturer needs to supply the relevant technical documentation. The battery units
shall function per the recommended practice. In the case of occurrence of the significant change in
a definite design feature, material and/or process relevant quality inspection should be arranged [84] to
ensure that the altered BTMS system complies with the existing safety, performance and/or durability
requirements for the specified application. Moreover, each configuration and its performance shall
be documented with photographs (if necessary) [85]. The shape, size and construction details and
the maximum temperature reached of the inter-cell connectors during the corresponding test shall be
reported [85]. In mission-critical installations (uninterruptible power supply (UPS) battery service)
the knowledge of the temperature reached under actual discharge conditions is essential to determine
whether potential hazards exist [81,86,87].

3.3. Safety
Safety is of prime importance for using BTMSs. Safety concerns include safeguarding against
fire, explosion, and the corrosive nature of the electrolyte, as well as the venting of toxic or
flammable gases [48,85,88–98]. All auxiliary equipment such as thermal sensors, thermostats,
heaters and switching devices must be designed so that they cannot be the source of an explosion.
The current-carrying components of the battery units should be dimensioned and constructed
appropriately to provide safety against external short-circuit conditions. Cells and battery systems are
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 8 of 18

to be designed and constructed robustly by ensuring they are safe under conditions of both intended
use and reasonably foreseeable misuse [26,99]. In unlikely and unfortunate conditions, an internal
short-circuit occurs, and thermal runaway can thus occur more easily, e.g., when the battery is charged
under incorrect conditions [24,86,100–111]. Consequently, the lithium-ion secondary battery should
never be charged at a higher voltage than this recommended upper limit charging voltage [77]. In some
secondary cells, a different recommended temperature range other than 10–45 ◦ C is applied due to the
difference in thermal stability of the electrolyte and other thermal and electrical factors [109,112–114].

3.4. Protection Schemes

A number of protection schemes are needed to be employed for smooth and safe operation of the
battery systems with a BTMS.
Table 4 contains a protection list for BTMSs.

Table 4. BTMS protection schemes.

Schemes Attributes Description Reference

The use of CO2 fire extinguishers need to be avoided since some
Usage battery manufacturers prohibit their usage due to the increased
probability of potential thermal shock.
Protective Placement of Storage of the battery casing should be in a clean, dry, and [82]
equipment Battery ventilated location.
Adequate space and illumination for inspection, maintenance,
Illumination
testing, and cell/battery replacement must be provided.
The materials used in different battery and corresponding BTMS
Applicable
accessories, battery casings or enclosures, inside the
equipment
battery materials.
Protective
Must be resistant to or protected against the chemical effects of [15]
measures against
Requirement the electrolyte measurement tools, such as funnels, hydrometers,
electrolyte hazard
thermometers that normally encounter electrolytes (in PbAc).
Additional
Shall not be used for other purposes.
requirement
Protective
Applicable Batteries with BTMS shall not be connected or disconnected
measures during [82]
equipment before the load or charging current has been switched off.
maintenance
Applicable
The battery casings, trays, crates and compartments.
equipment
It should be protected against the harmful effects of accidental
Requirement
electrolyte leakage and spillage.
Protection against
the harmful effects • Protection from external hazard, e.g., fire, water, shock,
[80,82]
of accidental vibration, vermin;
electrolyte leakage • Protection from hazards generated by the battery, e.g., high
and spillage voltage, explosion hazards, electrolyte hazards, corrosion
Accommodation
and ground short effects;
requirements
• Protection from access by unauthorized personnel;
• Protection from extreme environmental influences e.g.,
temperature, humidity, possible contamination.
Under particularly stark catastrophic situations, lithium-based
secondary cells can release gases (e.g., carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen fluoride (HF), organic electrolyte vapours, methane,
Cause
and ethane or hydrogen gas, etc.) that aredetrimental to humans
in adequate concentrations or may be flammable in the air if
adequate concentrations are present.
Preventing build-up of these gases become a priority. Therefore,
Protection against a safety distance of a minimum of 0.5 m extending through the air [79,92]
hazardous gas without flames, sparks, arcs or glowing devices (maximum
Requirements
surface temperature 300 ◦ C) is required. The dispersion of
explosive gas depends on the gas release rate and the ventilation
close to the source of release.
Calculation of the safety distance from the source of release
Safety
applies assuming a hemispherical dispersal of gas can
distance calculation
be calculated.
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 9 of 18

Table 4. Cont.

Schemes Attributes Description Reference

Applicable
The components of battery pack systems.
equipment
It should be specified for resistance to normal application fluids,
Protection against e.g., automotive fluids. Among these are: gasoline, diesel fuel,
Requirements
exposure to water antifreeze, transmission fluids, brake fluid, windshield fluid,
[20]
and other chemical battery electrolyte, salt water, and carwash soap.
fluids A battery system may be exposed to water which raises concern
Special for electrical tracking, water intrusion, seal performance, and
care mud build-up which could result in obstruction to air-cooling
orifices or hydrogen build-up during charging.
For faulty conditions (e.g., connection of faulty charger) when the
Applicable
battery system produces more hazardous gases than the normal
equipment
ventilation system has been designed to handle.
Protection against In these cases, protective measures should be taken so that
overcharging under thermal runaway conditions are avoided in case of high current [16,115]
faulty conditions charging and increase of thermal gradient; an electrical isolating
Requirements
fuse can be employed to disconnect the battery. Alternatively, the
ventilation should be calculated to correspond to the maximum
current available from the charger.

4. State-of-the-Art Tools for Battery Thermal Management

Thermal imaging and calorimetric techniques with the help of the state-of-the-art measuring
equipment are required. Integrated implementation is required to provide valuable information about
cell and component thermal-related properties, behavior, and characteristics [116].

4.1. Thermal Imaging

Table 5 presents different possible tools that can be used by imaging for measuring
battery performance.

Table 5. Tools used for imaging battery thermal performance.

Features IR Liquid Crystal (LC) Thermography

It is used to obtain a thermal fingerprint of the
surface of any object. The IR technique is excellent
Introduction
for obtaining real-time, thermal images from
a non-enclosed battery pack or system.
It is used to obtain a thermal fingerprint of the
Sensor types
surface of any object.
Resolution Around 0.2 ◦ C (vivid and dramatic colors).
The IR equipment converts the energy back to
temperature for finding hot spots or temperature
Mechanism
distribution on the surface of an object without using
any intrusive temperature sensors.
Liquid crystals with appropriate color/temperature
range are applied to an object’s surface.
Thermo-chromic liquid crystals (TLCs) are a class of
materials that reflect definite colors at specific
temperatures and viewing angles. By using TLCs
together with solid-state cameras, image digitizers,
and higher-speed computer processors, a
liquid-crystal thermography system can be built that
makes fast, accurate, high-resolution
surface-temperature measurements for locating hot
spots and defects on batteries [117].
With either video or still photography, it is possible
to capture thermal images of the liquid crystals [117].
Around 1 ◦ C. With special optical equipment,
the resolution can be around 0.40 ◦ C.
A liquid crystal changes color depending on its
temperature;By applying a very thin layer, the
object’s thermal performance does not change, but as
the object’s temperature changes, so do the color of
the liquid crystal layer;If the color-temperature
relation is calibrated, the temperature variation from
the color changes can be determined.
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 10 of 18

Table 5. Cont.

Features IR Liquid Crystal (LC) Thermography

LC thermography does not need special equipment
Wider temperature range, higher accuracy, and more
Advantages and is visible through optically
vivid colors.
transmittable materials.
The pack enclosure is made of non-IR transmittable
LC thermography is not as accurate and flexible as
Disadvantages materials such as metals, glass, and almost all clear
the IR thermography.
plastics [27].
This technique is particularly useful for capturing
Usage in Battery It is widely used for temperature measurement in the
thermal images of a battery pack in a clear enclosure
system battery system.
with ventilation air through the pack [62].

4.2. Calorimetric Methods

Calorimetry is used for heat-generation measurements [39,41,118–122]. At constant temperature
conditions, isothermal calorimetry measures thermal power, i.e., heat-production rate. Table 6 contains
the comparison between adiabatic and isothermal calorimeters.

Table 6. Comparison between adiabatic and isothermal calorimeters [123].

Attribute Isothermal Calorimeter Adiabatic Calorimeter

The heat-production rate
measurement
Knowledge of heat capacity
Activation energy of hydration
information
Calibration requirement
Temperature limit
Direct measurement is made.
It directly measures the heat-production rate that
is proportional to the rate of the
electrochemical reaction.
Specific knowledge of heat capacity of the battery
is not needed.
There is no need for information on the activation
energy of hydration; if needed, this can be
determined by isothermal calorimetric
measurements at different temperatures.
Modern isothermal calorimeters are very stable
and do not be calibrated more than a few times
a year.
The temperature never increases to unrealistic
temperatures in an isothermal calorimeter.
Indirect measurement is made.
It measures temperature (change) that is
recalculated to give heat produced.
The specific heat capacity of the battery
is needed.
Activation energy is required for the
evaluation. This is usually obtained
indirectly from strength development
measurements at different temperatures
that need not have the same activation
energy as the heat production.
Many of the adiabatic calorimeters are
calibrated at each run.
Final temperatures during
measurements in adiabatic calorimeters
are very high, e.g., 90 ◦ C, far above
what is desirable in real constructions.

5. Recommendations and Suggestions

The noteworthy factors that can be very important for building a battery system with a BTMS
is as follows: electrolyte resistance [91,124–134], electrolyte level [135–138], leakage [139], dissimilar
metals, corrosion prevention [26,140], battery containers and components, as well as battery containers
and covers [26]. Under no circumstances should a cell or battery short-circuit. For instance, the storage
or casing should be thoroughly inspected for cells lying haphazardly that may incite short-circuiting
either by themselves or with the help of conductive materials [77]. The cells or batteries must not be
exposed to heat or fire; even averting storage in direct sunlight should become a common practice [77].
Several recommendations and suggestions are outlines in Table 7.
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 11 of 18

Table 7. Suggestions and Recommendations for an Effective BTMS.

Focus Requirement Suggestions and Recommendations Reference

Thermal design approaches should consider the
application of the temperature performance ranges within
Consideration of which the battery system is designed to operate;
different geographical A suitable example: a good measure for temperature range
location, hazardous in an EV should be –40–60 ◦ C with a relative humidity
Environmental physical emission, range of 10% to 80% at 38 ◦ C; [15,20,80]
altitude, storage and Thermal design approaches should consider EV system
ventilation (details in temperature performance ranges;
Table 1) The manufacturer must provide environmental guidelines,
i.e., storage temperature ranges, recharge intervals, etc., for
extended off-plug storage directions to service facilities.
The manufacturers need to provide documentation for
transport, installation, commissioning, operation,
Documentation, proper
maintenance, decommissioning and disposal of such cells
training of operators and
and batteries for specified applications;
Safety users, show the warning [26,77]
The manufacturer shall advise the potential user if there
signs of potential
are special considerations to be observed for the initial
hazards
charging of batteries when the battery is operated under
atypical conditions.
The Type Certificate (TC) must be used for the approved
intended application type design including any battery
equipment;
The usage and purpose of the battery cells and packs at
the time of manufacture must be stipulated;
The responsible organization should determine what the
Regulatory Certification conformity [1,26,78]
level of harmful concentration is that may be based on
accepted industry practice or standards;
The primary consideration should be given to avert this
build-up of flammable gasses and consequently avoid
flammable gas contact with known vehicle ignition
sources to avoid fire hazard.
Any accessory used in the application should not hinder
Physical/ Robust and sturdy build
the ventilation of the module through the creation of [20]
mechanical quality of the system
physical or electrical or thermal obstacles.
Protective In all cases, protection from hazards should be a priority
Equipment, protection
measures for any battery stakeholders;
against hazards and [80,82]
and All the necessary protection issues need to be clearly
operational precautions
documentation indicated in the document and explicitly shown.
The materials used in different battery accessories, battery
casings or enclosures inside the battery materials must be
Material selection,
resistant to or must be protected against the chemical
Materials impact of safety and [26,141,142]
effects of the electrolyte measurement tools, such as
quality
funnels, hydrometers, thermometers that normally met
electrolytes.
Conformance with the The intensity, direction of cooling and heating will depend
Components standards and synergy on different application requirements to maintain the [14,80,82,143,144]
among the components temperature within a uniform range.
Quality plan, strict
Usage of well-known PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) cycles
supervision, appraisal
periodically. Quality audit is needed periodically to reach
and audit of
Quality the best possible performance limit; [9,15,77,81,145–147]
performance Consistency
The performance should be assessed, and the system
of services, conformity to
should be tweaked.
the standards

6. Conclusions
In this article, a concise overview of the battery system is presented using both current
literature studies and different well-established quality and safety standards. The basic focus is
on enhancing the thermal-related performance of a battery system. Furthermore, some suggestions
and recommendations are explicated in terms of the standards for improving the performance of
state-of-the-art battery systems. The most important design parameters are design cost options and
desired level of sophistication. The presented attributes can certainly enhance state-of-the-art battery
thermal management systems (BTMS). The recommendations are made to extend BTMS lifetime,
and to maintain reliability and efficiency. In order to ensure the quality of the compliant BTMS derived
from the standards, a high level of inspection is also required.
Batteries 2017, 3, 9 12 of 18

Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this work from the Danish
Strategic Research Council to the Advanced Lifetime Predictions of Battery Energy Storage (ALPBES) project.
Author Contributions: Mohammad Rezwan Khan performed analysis on all the review papers and articles,
interpreted their raw data, wrote the manuscript and acted as the corresponding author. Other contributions
include special conceptualization of the entire review work, as well as its realization and documentation.
Maciej Jozef Swierczynski contributed to manuscript evaluation. Søren Knudsen Kær supervised the development
of the work. Additionally, he helped to evaluate and edit the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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