Classification of Elements and

Periodicity in Properties
JEE Syllabus
Modern periodic law and present form of the periodic table, s, p, d and
f block elements, periodic trends in properties of elements, atomic and
4
CHAPTER
ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, valence, oxidation
states and chemical reactivity.

THIS CHAPTER
GENESIS OF PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION INCLUDES
(a) Dobereiner grouped elements in triads e.g. Li, Na, K or Cl, Br, I etc.  Genesis of Periodic
Classification
(b) Newland found that similar elements are repeated at 8th place. It
 Nomenclature of
happened when elements were arranged in the increasing order of their
superheavy
atomic weight. It is applicable for lighter element only. elements

(c) Lother Mayer plotted a graph between atomic volume of elements  Modern Periodic
law
against their atomic weight. He found that similar elements occupied
similar positions on the curve.  Classification of
Elements
(d) Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Table: Mendeleev arranged all the
 Periodic trends in
elements in order of their increasing atomic weights. A table which has properties
been formed with the help of classification of elements is called periodic
 Effective Nuclear
table. The method of arranging similar elements in one group and Charge
separating them from dissimilar element is called classification of  Atomic size
elements. Mendeleev prepared the table on the basis of his periodic law
 Ionization enthalpy
called Mendeleev’s periodic law.
 El ectron affinity
Mendeleev’s periodic law : The physical and chemical properties of and Electron gain
elements are the periodic function of their atomic weights. enthalpy

 Electronegativity
Mendeleev’s periodic table consists of seven horizontal rows known as
periods and nine vertical columns known as groups.

Period : Out of the seven periods in all, the first three periods are known
as short periods while the fourth, fifth and sixth periods are called long
periods.

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Periods

Period Total No. of Starts with Ends with Elements Remark

Elements Elements

1. 2 Hydrogen (1) Helium (2) Very short period

2. 8 Lithium (3) Neon (10) Short period

3. 8 Sodium (11) Argon (18) Short period

4. 18 Potassium (19) Krypton (36) Long period

5. 18 Rubidium (37) Xenon (54) Long period

6. 32 Cesium (55) Radon (86) Very long period

7. 26 Francium (87) (Not named yet) (112) Incomplete period

Groups
(i) There are nine groups in all including 8th group of transition elements and zero group of inert gases.
(ii) All the group from I to VII (except zero and VIII) are divided into sub-groups A and B.
(iii) The group number of an element represent its valency.
(iv) The elements of same sub-group resemble one another more closely and generally differ to some extent
from the elements of the other subgroups.

Defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

(i) Position of Hydrogen : Hydrogen resembles both the alkali metal (I group) and the halogen (VII).
Hence its position in periodic table is undecided.
(ii) Position of Isotopes :According to Mendeleev’s periodic law isotope of an element should occupy
different position in the periodic table, but this is not so.
(iii) Position of VIII group elements : Nine elements in the VIII group do not fit into the system.
(iv) Position of Lanthanides and Actinides : Their position can not be justified according to the periodic
law and cannot be arranged in the order of their increasing atomic weight.
(v) Dissimilar elements placed in the same group : Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) are placed with
coinage metals (Cu, Ag, Au).
(vi) Similar elements are placed apart : Chemically similar elements like Cu, Hg and Ag and Ti, Au
and Pt have been placed in different groups.
(vii)Anomalous pair of elements : Some elements of higher atomic weight have been placed before
elements of lower atomic weight. For example, argon (At. wt. = 39.9) has been placed before
potassium (At.wt = 39.1); cobalt (At. wt. = 58.94) is placed before nickel (At. wt. = 58.69) ; tellurium
(127.5) has been placed before iodine (126.9).
(e) Modern periodic table : It is also known as long form or Bohr’s table as it is based on Bohr’s scheme
of the arrangement of elements into four types according to their electronic configuration. Recent work has
established that the fundamental property of an atom is atomic number and not the atomic weight.
Therefore, atomic number is taken as the basis of the classification of elements.
The modern periodic law may be stated as “The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic
number.”

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IUPAC nomenclature for the superheavy elements

Atomic Name Symbol Atomic Name Symbol
Number Number

110 un-un-nilium Uun

101 un-nil-unium Unu 111 un-un-unium Uuu
102 un-nil-bium Unb 112 un-un-bium Uub
103 un-nil-trium Unt 113 un-un-trium Uut
104 un-nil-quadium Unq 114 un-un-quadium Uuq
105 un-nil-pentium Unp 115 un-un-pentium Uup
106 un-nil-hexium Unh 116 un-un-hexium Uuh
107 un-nil-septium Uns 117 un-un-septium Uus
108 un-nil-octium Uno 118 un-un-octium Uuo
109 un-nil-ennium Une 119 un-un-ennium Uue
120 un-bi-nilium Ubn
130 un-tri-nilium Utn
140 un-quad-nilium Uqn
150 un-pent-nilium Upn

Note : Hyphens have been put in the name for clarity. They should be omitted.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
On the basis of electronic configuration the elements can be classified into the following four types :
(a) s-block elements : These elements contain 1 or 2 electrons in s-subshell of outermost shell. Elements
of 1 and 2 group belong to this class. These elements enter into chemical reaction by losing valency
electrons so as to acquire noble gas configuration in the outermost orbit.
ns1 (group 1) ns2 (group 2)
(alkali metals) (alkaline earth metals)
These elements generally form electrovalent compounds and basic oxides.
(b) p–block elements : These elements contain 1 to 6 electrons in the p–subshell of the outermost orbit
(ns2 np1–6). The elements belonging to 13th to 18th group except He are p-block elements. In these last
electron enters to the p-sub-shell. For example.
13 Boron (B) Z=5 1s2 2s2 2p1
14 Carbon (C) Z=6 1s2 2s2 2p2
15 Nitrogen (N) Z=7 1s2 2s2 sp3
16 Oxygen (O) Z=8 1s2 2s2 sp4
17 Fluorine (F) Z=9 1s2 2s2 2p5
The main characteristics of these elements are :
(a) The non-metallic character increases along a period from 13 to 17.
(b) They form covalent compounds among themselves but electrovalent compounds with s-block
elements.
(c) Their oxides are generally acidic, few are amphoteric also. For example Al2O3, Ga2O3.

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(c) d–block elements : These are called transition elements or ‘d’ block elements. The elements
of group 3 to 12 belong to this class. Their general conf iguration can be represented as :
(n–1)d1–10 ns1–2
General characteristics of transition (d–block) elements:
(i) They are metals, hard, malleable, ductile and possess high tensile strength.
(ii) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(iii) These elements exhibit variable valency.
(iv) They generally form coloured compounds. This is due to the presence of incomplete d–subshell.
(v) These metals, their alloys and compounds possess marked catalytic activity.
(vi) They are generally paramagnetic, i.e., attract magnetic lines of force.
(d) f–block elements : They are inner transition or f-block elements. These elements are arranged in the two
row at the bottom of the periodic table. In the f irst row 14 elements f rom atomic number
58 to 71, known as Lanthanides or rare earth elements. The second row of elements from atomic number
90 to 103, known as actinides. Their general electronic configuration can be represented as
(n – 2) f 1–14 (n–1)d 0–1 ns2
They show most of the properties similar to each other since outermost and penultimate orbits are similar.
Their properties are similar to ‘d’ block elements.

PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES

A. Atomic Size (or atomic radius)

Atomic radius is the size of the atom of an element. Atomic radius is defined as “the distance from the centre
of the nucleus upto the centre of outermost electron.” It is measured in Angstrom unit (Å). It is not possible
to measure exact atomic radius as an atom is unstable and it cannot be isolated to get its radius. Moreover,
the exact position of the outermost electron is uncertain. The values for radii are obtained from x-ray
measurements. Following points are to be noted in this reference :
(a) The size of an atom or ion decreases in a horizontal period as we move from left to right.
(b) The atomic radius increases in a group with the rise in atomic number.
(c) A positive ion (cation) is smaller than the corresponding atom : A positive ion or cation is formed
by the loss of one or more electrons from an atom and the number of protons remains the same in the
nucleus. Thus the ratio of the positive charge in the nucleus to the number of electrons i.e., effective nuclear
charge increases. Hence the force of attraction of nucleus to the outer electrons increases thus decreasing
the size of cation. In case of alkali metals, the removal of an electron removes the entire outermost shell.
(d) A negative ion (anion) is bigger than the corresponding atom : In the formation of negative ion (anion)
one or more electrons(s) are added to the atom. Thus results in the expansion of the size of the nuclear
charge, which in turn decreases the force of attraction and increases the size of an anion or the pull
exercised by the nucleus on the electron become less i.e., they move a little farther resulting in an increase
in the ionic size.

Note :
Size of Iso-electronic ions : These are such cations or anions which carry the same number of
electrons. The size of such ions depends upon the effective nuclear charge. Greater the nucelar
charge of an ion, greater will be the force of attraction for same number of electrons. As a result,
the size of the ion decreases. For example :
N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ are isoelectronic ions, among these N3– is largest (1.71 A) and Al3+
is smallest (0.50 A).

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B. Ionization Enthalpy
It is the amount of energy required to remove most loosely held electron from the ground state of an Avogadro
number of the isolated atoms, ions or molecules in the gaseous state. The ion formed by loss of first electron
may lose further electrons and thus we may have successive ionization energies for removal of 2nd, 3rd and
4th electrons in the gaseous state.
Ionization is always an endothermic process and ionization energies are therefore always assigned positive
values.
Factors influencing Ionization energy
(1) Successive Ionization - Generally ionization energy increases for successive ionizations.
(2) Atomic size - Ionization energy decreases as the size of atom increases.
(3) Value of Z - Higher the value of Z, higher is the I.E.
(4) Distance of electron from the nucleus - Smaller the distance of the electron from the nucleus larger
is the ionization energy
(5) Sheilding effect - Higher is the sheilding of the electron to be removed lower is the I.E. Sheilding effect
of the electrons of different orbitals follows the order s > p > d > f.
(6) Penetration effect - Higher the penetration power of the electron to be removed higher is the I.E. The
penetration power of electrons of various orbitals follow the order s > p > d > f.
(7) Nature of shell - Ionization energy increases if the electron to be ionized from the species belongs to a
half filled shell or a completely filled shell. The relative stability of the these configurations follows the order
d5 < p3 < d10 <p6.
(8) Changes in the quantum shell - During the successive ionization, the electron to be ionized belongs
to the lower quantum shell the I.E. therefore increases many folds. It is the combined effect of (a) effective
nuclear charge (b) stability of completely filled shells (c) closer proximity of the lower shell to the positively
charged nucleus.

Note : I.E1 : Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ar

I.E1 : Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl < Ar
I.E2 : O > F > N > C.

C. Electron affinity and Electron gain Enthalpy (HEG)

It is defined as the energy released when electron is added to the valence shell of the one mole of isolated
gaseous atoms or ions and the enthalpy change accompanying the process is defined as the electron gain
enthalpy (egH). Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure of the ease with which an atom adds an electron
to form anion, X–(g) + e–  X–2(g) . It may be considered to be same as I.E. of corresponding anion. The first
E.A. of active non metals is negative. But the addition of a second electron to an already formed anion makes
the reaction , (X– + e–  X2–) endothermic. At the time of formation of oxide or sulphide ion, the effect of 2nd
E.A. is so much that the overall E.A. for the formation of oxide and sulphide ions is endothermic.
Variation of electron affinity
(1) Elements which have higher I.E. have higher E.A. also.
(2) The E.A. values of the second period elements are lower in comparison with the values of third row elements.
This is due to increase in the interelectronic repulsions which are more for the smaller elements because
of higher electron densities.
(3) Effective nuclear sheilding by the 's' electrons and the necessity of using higher energy orbitals to accept
electrons turn the E.A. of group IIA elements negative.
(4) Au because of very high effective nuclear charge has higher electron affinity.
(5) The electron affinity of the elements having d10s2 configuration are positive as electron is to be accomodated
into the higher energy p orbital.

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Note : EA1 : Cl > F > Br > I

EA1 : S > Se > Te > Po > O
EA1 : C > B > Li > Be
EA1 : Si > Al > Na > Mg
EA1 : F > O > N > Ne.

D. Electronegativity
It may be defined as : “The tendency of an atom to attract shared electron pair towards itself in a molecule”.
The small atoms attract electrons more strongly than larger ones hence they are more electronegative.
The numerical value of electronegativity depends upon the ionisation potential and electron affinity. Higher
ionisation potential and higher electron affinity both imply higher electronegativity. To measure electronegativity
an arbitrary scale was developed by Linus Pauling which is known as electronegativity scale. On this scale
flourine has maximum electronegativity of 4.0 and Li has a value of 1.0 while inert gas have no value
of electronegativity.
The value of electronegativity show periodic variations as given below
Generally in a group electronegativity generally decreases from top to bottom due to increase in size of atom.
F Cl Br I At
4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5. 2.2
In a period electronegtativity increases from left to right
Li Be C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Melting point of alkali metal halides follow following order
M – F > M – Cl > M – Br > M – I
NaF > NaCl > NaBr > NaI
2. The order of melting point of chlorides of alkali metals is as follows :
LiCl < CsCl < RbCl < KCl < NaCl
3. The melting point of LiCl is lowest because it is with highest covalent character.
4. The solubility of alkali metal carbonates in water at 298 K increases down the group from Lithium to
Cesium.
5. The basic character of oxides and hydroxides of group 1 and group 2 increases down the group
because metallic character increases down the group e.g., LiOH is least basic whereas CsOH is most
basic. Be(OH)2 is amphoteric, Mg(OH)2 is a weak base, Ca(OH)2 and Sr(OH)2 are moderately strong
bases, Ba(OH)2 is strong base.
6. The solubility of hydroxides of Group 1 and Group 2 in water increases down the group.
7. The solubility of sulphates, carbonates and phosphates decreases down the Group 2 because lattice
energy dominates over hydration energy in Group 2, for example MgSO4 is soluble in water wherease
BaSO4 is insoluble in water.
8. Li2CO3 is thermally unstable whereas other alkali metal carbonates are thermally stable.
9. Thermal stability of carbonates of Group 2 increases down the group. All are thermally unstable.
10. Properties of Li almost similar to that of Mg, Be are almost similar to that of Al and B are almost similar
to that of C due to diagonal relationship.

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