Doku - Pub Studio Craft Technique For Architectsnodrm 2

First published by
School of Architecture UCD, 2011
Published in 2015
by Laurence King Publishing Ltd
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London EC1V 1LR
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© Anne Gorman and Miriam Delaney
Anne Gorman and Miriam Delaney have asserted their

rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988 to be identified as the Authors of this Work.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any information
storage and retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.
A catalogue record for this book is

available from the British Library.
Designed by Conor & David

Printed in China
ISBN 978-178067-657-9
by
Miriam Delaney
& Anne Gorman
Advising Editor
Dr. Sarah A. Lappin
Contents
Introduction: Tools of the Trade 8

by John Tuomey, Professor of Architectural Design, UCD
1. Getting Started in Architecture 10

1.1 Basic Equipment 13
1.2 Building Laboratory 35
1.3 Model-making 59
2. Principles of Representation 86
2.1 Scale 89
2.2 Orthographic Projection 95
2.3 Three-dimensional Projections 105
2.4 Perspective 115
3. Drawing Techniques 136

3.1 Drawing Annotations 139
3.2 Stairs & Ramps 157
3.3 Windows & Doors 179
3.4 Hatching & Lettering 199
3.5 Paper Types & Line Weights 209
4. Working Through Drawing 218

4.1 Drawing to Observe and Record 221
4.2 Representing the Idea 245
4.3 Drawings in Sequence 269
5. Surveying 284
5.1 Introduction to Surveying 287
5.2 Surveying Techniques 291
6. Materials 318
6.1 Introduction to Materials 321
6.2 Modular Materials 337
6.3 Material Observation 365
7. Structure 372
7.1 Foundations 375
7.2 Structural Systems 385
7.3 Sizing of Structures 399
7.4 The Potential of Structure 419
8. Principles of Construction 436

Overview 438
Definitions 440
8.1 Floors 441
8.2 Walls 457
8.3 Roofs 473
8.4 Openings & Junctions 491
References & Further Reading 503
Index 509
Acknowledgements & Credits 525

17
25
25
50 90
60
70
25
1:1 0 10mm 20 30 40 50
1:100 0 1cm 2 3 4 5
60 58 56 54 52
6000 5800 5600 5400 5200
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
30cm 28 29 27 26 5
2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
20 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60
26
30
STUDIO CRAFT & TECHNIQUE FOR ARCHITECTS
Introduction
Tools of
the Trade
John Tuomey
Professor of Architectural Design
University College Dublin
8
Architectural education ought not to be compared
to a craft training exercise, because unlike the craftsman
who excels in making things already known, tried and
tested, the architect must be educated to respond
creatively when faced with unforeseen challenges.
Yet we could never rely on an aspiring professional
who lacked a practical mastery of the tools of the trade.
Confidence comes with competence. Fluency comes
with practice. In the studio we have to learn two things
at once: to enquire and simultaneously to confirm, and to
ask spontaneous questions and express our answers with
demonstrations of skill. Learning by doing means that in
trying something new, we test how much we already know.
The trained eye can measure a room. The trained
hand draws without stopping to think. Drawing is thinking
out loud. Paying attention to the material elements of the
surrounding world, architects slowly acquire a reflexive
understanding of space, construction, scale and dimension.
A lifelong acquisition process begins the first day
we enter the first year studio. We learn to sharpen a
pencil, lean into the paper, draw a line on the page as if
it is a profile in space. There is secret pleasure in all this
patient work. The smell of the pencil, its weight in the
hand, the freedom of finding out which way the drawing
is taking us next. One line drawn suggests another.
This useful book is something to keep in your pocket.
It is a beginner’s guide that will lead you along clear
and consecutive paths of applied learning. It is a book
of basic principles. Practise these deceptively simple
procedures until your analysis of buildings and places
becomes inseparable from your appreciation and the
discipline becomes inherent in your own way of working.
9
1
Getting
Started in
Architecture
Craftsmanship arises from manual skill,
training and experience – personal
commitment as well as judgement.
—Juhani Pallasmaa
All the work of the hand is rooted in thinking.

—Martin Heidegger
As a starting point, this chapter will introduce you
to the basic equipment you will use in your study of
architectural design. We begin with an introduction
to the tools you will use when drawing, and provide
some tips on using your drafting equipment.
While there are many specialist drawing
implements, the ones we cover here will allow you
to complete accurate architectural drawings. We
also introduce you to the tools and equipment
used in a building laboratory. Again, there are
specialist tools in the laboratory for cutting
and model-making, such as the laser cutter
and the C&C router, and the tools we deal with
here will see you through your first two years
of study. Finally, we look at common tools and
techniques for making architectural models.
While this chapter gives you practical tips and
advice, there is no substitute for experience. As
you get used to drawing and model-making, you
will hone your own methods and techniques, and,
we hope, take pleasure in drawing and model-
making – the foundations of architectural design.
GETTING STARTED IN ARCHITECTURE
1.1
Basic
Equipment
13
1.1.1 Drawing Board & Parallel Motion
1
2
Fig. 1
1. Backing sheet
NB
2. Parallel motion
Screw the parallel motion to the
3. Drawing board
drawing board – use the fixings at
4. Drafting tape
the top and bottom of the board
to ensure the wire is held taut and
secured in place.
14
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
Drawing boards come in various

sizes and materials. The most
common sizes are:
A0: working area of 1270 × 920mm

A1: working area of 920 × 650mm
A2: working area of 650 × 470mm TIP
Common materials include timber,

The parallel motion should move
MDF, plastic and melamine (which
smoothly in a ‘parallel motion’ along
is a smooth plastic finish to a
the board – it shouldn’t wobble!
wooden base).
Use a brick or block of wood to prop
Parallel motions are preferable
up the board – it’s easier to work
to T-squares because they allow
when the board is at an incline.
greater accuracy and stability in
drawing. Mayline is a common Use graph paper covered with
brand name for parallel motions. acetate as a backing sheet to
Use the Mayline to draw horizontal guarantee a clean surface.
parallel lines.
The graph paper allows you to
Pre-assembled boards and parallel easily align your paper. You can use
motions are available, which are the graph lines to set out text and
easy to transport and come with lines when using transparent paper.
an adjustable prop.
Use baby wipes regularly to keep
the Mayline clean – lead marks
along the Mayline can smudge your
drawings.
Keep your hands clean – ink and

pencil lead on your hands will
smudge your drawings.
Secure each corner of the paper

with drafting tape.
15
1.1.2 Adjustable Set-square
Set-squares are used for drawing NB

vertical and inclined lines. The Never use a scalpel with a set-
adjustable set-square is most square or Mayline – it will nick the
useful as it can be set to any angle. edges and result in uneven lines
The fixing screw allows you to set when drawing.
the angle of the set-square.
1
90
80
70
60
2
50
4
3
90
Fig. 2
1. Adjustable arm
TIP
2. Fixing screw
3. Hinge
Keep your set-squares clean using
4. Scale of degrees
baby wipes or soap and water.
16
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
1.1.3 Clutch Pencil & Eraser
Pencil leads range from grades 9B

to 9H. The most commonly used
leads in architectural drawings
range from grades 4B to 4H. The
higher the B number the softer the
lead, and the higher the H number
the harder and sharper the line.
More information on lead weights

and paper types is included in
Section 3.5.
TIP
Always use a clutch pencil –

mechanical drawing pencils
with fixed lead sizes cannot
be sharpened and do not
give precise line qualities.
After sharpening your pencil, dip

the lead in the white foam well
provided to clean the lead – it
prevents lead dust smudging
your drawings.
17
TIP
Slowly turn the pencil as you draw

along a set-square or Mayline; it
leads to a more even line weight.
Start your drawing from the top and

Work out the size of your drawing
work down – the less you move the
before you begin and position it on
Mayline and set-square over the
the page carefully. It helps to draft
drawing the cleaner it will remain.
up a ‘net’ – a quick mock-up of the
size and position of elements – on Keep your hands clean and touch
a separate page. Very light lines the drawing as little as possible to
(construction lines) should be used avoid smudging.
to set up the position of the drawing
Pencil lines should be clean, even
on the paper.
and firm – avoid ‘going over’ lines
and broken ‘hairy’ lines.
18
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
1 2
Fig. 3
1. Eraser shield
2. Drafting brush
TIP
Putty rubbers are more effective

on dark leads or charcoal drawings.
On presentation drawings, use
an eraser shield to erase small If using drawing ink, a sharp
errors accurately. safety blade can remove ink
marks from tracing paper. Mask
Use a drafting brush after erasing
one edge when using a razor
to ensure the paper remains
– this takes a bit of practice!
clean. This removes the residue
from the eraser and stops it from Crumbs from the eraser can get
smudging the drawing. lodged under the Mayline and
cause marks on your drawing –
clean the Mayline regularly.
19
A compass is used for drawing

1.1.4 Compass circles and arcs of varying radii
(Fig. 5). A pencil/pen attachment
(Fig. 6) is used to draw circles with
felt-tip pens or coloured pencils. A
lengthening bar (Fig. 7) is used for
drawing larger circles.
TIP
2 3
Keep both the needle point and
the pencil lead perpendicular to
the paper surface. Both arms of the
Fig. 4
compass are hinged for this purpose.
1. Adjustment screw
2. Needle point Additional leads are available for
3. Pencil lead compasses to allow you to match
the line weights on your drawing.
20
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
1. Pencil/pen attachment
Fig. 7
2. Lengthening bar
21
1.1.5 French Curves
French curves are used for drawing

irregular or complex curved lines.
An alternative to French curves is

the ‘flexi-curve’ – a length of pliable
plastic. This requires some patience
and practice, but can be useful for
drawing repetitive curves.
22
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
1.1.6 Circle Templates
For drawing small circles,

use a circle template as
the compass becomes too
2
2.5
fiddly on small diameters.

36
3
NB
4
Do not draw curves – including

5
door swings – freehand on a

6
technical drawing. Always use

34
7
a compass or circle template.

10 8
32
12
15
17
30
25
26
25
25
23
1.1.7 Drafting/Masking Tape
Masking tape is a type of pressure-

sensitive tape made of a thin and
easy-to-tear paper, and an easily
released adhesive, allowing it
to be removed without leaving
residue or damaging the surface
to which it is applied. It is available
in a variety of widths, ranging from
10mm to 50mm.
Drafting tape is less strong than

masking tape and so is less likely
to tear paper or card.
24
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
1.1.8 Colouring Pencils
‘Polychrome’ colouring pencils

have good-quality soft leads,
allow easy blending of colours,
and give a good quality of finish.
Other cheaper colouring pencils
will not give the same results.
25
1.1.9 Sketch Book
Fig. 8
26
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
Sketch books (Fig. 8) are used to

document projects. Images and
articles can be pasted in as support
material. A wide variety of sketch
books are available. Hard-cover
sketch books are the most practical
as they are hard-wearing and
provide a solid base on which
to sketch.
Moleskine brand notebooks

are useful as they have a pocket
(Fig. 9) to store leaflets, images,
Fig. 9 etc. They come in a range of sizes
and paper types, including graph
paper, plain sketch books and
lined notebooks.
TIP
Use a sketch book with heavy

cartridge paper – it allows you
to use different media, such as
pencil, ink or light watercolour.
Do not use a lined sketch book.
27
1.1.10 Scale Rule
1:1 0 10mm 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
1:100 0 1cm 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32
6000 5800 5600 5400 5200 5000 4800 4600 4400 4200 4000 3800 3600 3400 3200
A scale defines the relationship You can use your scale rule for
between the original object and the measuring off drawings of bigger
drawing or model. The original scale scales by moving the decimal point.
1:1 is the full size of the object. For example, use the 1:50 scale to
measure drawings at 1:500, but add
Your scale rule contains the
a zero to get the correct dimension.
following scales, two on each
side of the ruler:
1:1 and 1:100

1:20 and 1:200
1:5 and 1:50
1:1,250 and 1:2,500
28
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2m 0 1:200
3000 2800 2600 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200mm 0 1:20
TIP
Triangular-shaped scale rules are

also available, but are more difficult
to use. We advise that you use a flat
scale rule.
29
1.1.11 Scalpel & X-Acto Knife
Fig. 10
1. Scalpel
2. X-Acto knife
See Section 1.3.2 for

further information on
the use of these tools.
1 2
5
4
TIP
Use a cutting mat and safety rule

3
when using a scalpel – cuts and

nicks on your board can transfer
2
to your drawings.
1
Always ensure you dispose of

scalpel blades carefully. Use
0
a sharps bin when available

or wrap the blade in masking
tape before disposal.
30
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
1.1.12 Sketch Paper
Sketch paper is used for overlays and Fig. 11

freehand drawing. A3 lengths of sketch 1. Sketch roll
paper can be rolled out and a steel rule 2. Steel rule
used to tear a clean edge. Sketch paper
should be initialled and dated.
It is important to keep all your rough work,

including sketch roll and butter paper, as
TIP
this shows the progression of your ideas.
Put all your rough work in your portfolio.
Use a sketch roll when overlaying
Use your steel rule as a cutting edge for hard-line drawings – this allows
model-making. Cork-backed rules help you to try out options quickly.
avoid slippage.
31
1.1.13 Drawing Pens
Drawing pens or drafting pens

are rarely used these days, but
would have been commonplace
in drawing offices until the mid-
1990s. They require a lot of care and
maintenance, but when a level of
skill is developed a very high level
of drawing quality is possible.
32
1.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
1.1.14 Fine Pens
Fine pens come in varying nib

thicknesses, from 0.1mm to 2mm.
0.2mm and 0.5mm are the more
0.5 commonly used sizes.
0.2
TIP
Fine pens are most suited to sketch

detailing, where a detail can be
worked up using overlays of sketch
roll to test different versions of a
particular detail.
Never use fine pens for hard-line

drafting as they are not capable of
the line quality required for such
drawing.
33
1.2
Building
Laboratory
In your time as a student of Safety is paramount in the building

architecture, you will be using laboratory, and students must follow
the building laboratory to make instructions on using the equipment.
models, test samples of materials In your first year of study, you will be
and learn construction techniques. introduced to safety procedures to
The building laboratory is a great follow in the lab.
facility and we would encourage
No student should attempt
you to use it as often as possible.
maintenance of the machines.
We list here some of the most
If you experience difficulty,
commonly used equipment in the
always contact the building
building laboratory and give tips
laboratory manager.
on how to use it.
35
1.2.1 Safety Equipment
NB NB
Always wear a dust mask k when Always use safety goggles when
using machinery that generates cutting metal on the bandsaw,
dust or fine particulates – such as drilling metal or cutting masonry
the belt sander – or when cutting with a chisel.
fibrous material such as softboard.
36
1.2 BUILDING LABORATORY
NB NB
Always use ear protectors when Always use gloves when mixing
using any loud machinery in the concrete or working with raw
building laboratory. timber, which may have splinters.
Gloves should also be used when
cutting metal, as jagged edges and
burrs can be dangerous.
37
1.2.2 Bandsaw
Bandsaws can be used for cutting
timber, metal or Perspex. Low-
speed bandsaws are suitable for
metal and Perspex; high-speed
bandsaws are for timber.
NB
Using a high-speed bandsaw for
metal is dangerous. If you are
1 2
unsure of the appropriate speed,
check with the lab manager
before starting.
4
3
5
Fig. 12
1. Height adjuster
2. Guard tightener
3. Work surface
4. Guard
5. Blade
6. Rip fence
38
Fig. 13 NB
1. Mitre guide Always lower the guard as close
2. Fence as possible to the material you
are cutting.
Use the mitre guide and fence to It is best practice to always wear
hold the material in position as you safety goggles when using any
cut it. The mitre guide can be fixed cutting or drilling machines in
to allow you to cut at an angle. the building laboratory.
39
1.2.3 Guillotine
Fig. 14
1. Lever
2. Blade
3. Guides
Use the guillotine for cutting paper NB

or card. It is very useful for cutting All guillotines are designed for
a number of sheets together. right-handed use, so take extra
care if you are left-handed as
Align the paper or card with the
they take a bit of getting used to.
guides. The lever is attached to a
heavy blade. Lower the lever to cut
the card.
40
1.2.4 Foam Cutter

Fig. 15
1. Cutting wire
2. Controls
The foam cutter works by pressing

the foam against a hot wire. The
TIP
heat dissolves the foam and allows
you to cut through it. Guides can
Move the foam slowly to avoid
be used to direct the foam as you
putting too much pressure
push it against the wire.
on the wire. It could snap!
See Section 1.3 for tips on making
Only use the foam cutter
foam models.
in well-ventilated areas.
41
1.2.5 3D Printers
3D printers allow for a whole new A 3D digital CAD model is
world of possibilities, creating replicated by heating the filament
intricate scaled models and and printing the exact form in
prototypes for new and inventive layers. Accuracies of 0.1mm
forms, junctions and so on – the and greater are possible.
list is endless. ABS/PLA 3D printers
use thermoplastic filaments to
create three-dimensional objects.
Fig. 16
Metal object made using a laser melting
printer, metal powder, heat and 3D CAD data
42
Fig. 17
ABS 3D printer
43
1.2.6 Laser Cutters

Laser cutting provides a superior
quality and finish not possible
with card cut by hand, with
clean cut edges, producing
extremely fine contours and
precision cutting in card of
varying thicknesses. It can also
be used on a variety of materials
including metals, wood and acrylic
sheets of certain thicknesses.
Fig. 18 Fig. 19
Laser cutting machine Laser-cut card model
44
1.2.7 Belt Sander
1 2 3
Fig. 20 NB
1. Sandpaper belt Use the belt sander for timber only.
2. Controls Never use metal on the sander
3. Motor as sparks from the friction of the
4. Extractor bag sandpaper and metal may travel
to the extractor bag and cause the
dust to catch fire.
Never wear loose-fitting clothes or

scarves when using the belt sander.
They could become tangled in the
machine and prove fatal.
45
1.2.8 Cordless Electric Drill
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 21
1. Screw-bit
2. Bit holder The cordless electric drill is used
3. Chuck for drilling and screwing. A button
4. Control trigger on the side, allowing you to
5. Reverse button reverse the action, is very useful
6. Rechargeable battery for removing screws quickly.
A number of bits are available

for driving screws: Pozidriv,
Phillips, star, etc. In addition,
various boring bits are available.
46
1.2.9 Concrete Mixer
A concrete mixer is used to NB

mechanically rotate cement, Always ensure the concrete
water and gravel/sand to mixer is cleaned thoroughly
mix concrete. It is powered after use. Wash it out with a
electrically and is suitable for water hose – otherwise the
small mixes of concrete. concrete will set and make the
machine unusable. Always wash
the concrete mixer outdoors.
47
1.2.10 Saws
5 6 7
Fig. 22 The jigsaw is used for cutting

1. Trigger lock timber, metal or Perspex.
2. Control trigger
Change blades and speeds
3. Blade holder
depending on the material you
4. Base plate orr shoe
are cutting. Lower speeds are
5. Blade
suitable for harder materials
6. Orbital action adjuster
such as metal and Perspex.
7. Vacuum connection
8. Power lead
48
Fig. 23 NB
1. Timber saw The hacksaw is the only hand saw
2. Hacksaw suitable for cutting metal. Never
use a coping saw or fretsaw for
cutting metal, or you will break
the blade.
Always check which tools you are

allowed to use in the studio.
49
1.2.11 Hammers & Mallets
2 3
Fig. 24 Hammers and mallets are

1. Claw hammer tools designed to deliver an
2. Cross-peen hammer impact to an object. Their most
3. Wooden mallet common uses are for driving
nails, fitting parts and breaking
up objects. The wooden mallet
is used for driving chisels.
50
1.2.12 Combination Square
30
29
28
27
Fig. 25
26
1. Square head
25
2. Spirit level
45°
24
3. Rule
23
22
21
20
19
1
18
17
16
15
14
90°
13
2
12
11
10
A combination square is used for

9
multiple purposes in woodworking

8
and metalworking. It is composed

7
of a ruled blade and one or more 3

6
interchangeable adjustable heads

5
that may be affixed to it. The most

4
common head is the standard or

3
square head, which is used to lay

2
out or check 90° and 45° angles.

1
51
1.2.13 Tri-square &

Sliding Bevel Gauge
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Fig. 26
19
1. Tri-square
20
2. Sliding bevel gauge

21
22
23
24
A tri-square is used to mark

25
out and check if material

26
is ‘square’ or at 90°.
A sliding bevel gauge is

2 used to transfer angles as
you mark up material.
52
1.2.14 Screwdrivers
1 2 3
Fig. 27
1. Flat-head screwdriver
2. Phillips screwdriver
3. Battery-powered screwdriver
53
1.2.15 Pliers
1 2
Fig. 28 Pliers are used to hold objects

1. Needle-nose pliers firmly, usually for cutting, bending
2. Water-pump pliers or physical compression. The
jaws can be used to manipulate
objects that are too small to
be held with the fingers.
54
1.2.16 Chisels
Fig. 29
1. Wood chisels
2. Masonry chisel
Chisels are used in conjunction NB

with mallets to chip or gouge Always use eye protection
out wood or masonry (and, less when working with chisels.
commonly, metal).
Only use the chisel recommended
for the material you are working
on. Never use a wood chisel
on masonry or metal.
55
1.2.17 Spirit Level
Fig. 30
1. Vertical (plumb) indicator
2. Horizontal (level) indicator
3. 45° inclination indicator
A spirit level is an instrument

designed to indicate whether a
surface is horizontal (level) or
2
vertical (plumb) or at an angle
of 45°.
56
1.2.18 Utility Knife
1 2
Fig. 31
1. Blade retractor
2. Storage compartment
The utility knife is used for cutting
3. Blade
and scoring material such as
heavy-duty card, lightweight metal,
thin sheets of Perspex and foam.
It is less accurate than a scalpel NB

for model-making, but stronger and Always use a cutting mat and
more suitable for building lab work. safety ruler with a scalpel or knife.
57
1.3
Model-making
The most common model-making Experiment! There are a huge

equipment is covered here, but range of possibilities in model-
be aware of other possibilities. making. Take into account the type
Look at shops and suppliers other of model you are making. Quick
than those specifically aimed at sketch models can be very useful
model-makers. You can find great at the outset of a project, whereas
materials everywhere. Various large-scale presentation models
metals are available in sheet and are usually made at the end of
dowel form at specialist model complex projects.
shops and hardware shops. Other
The type of material you use can
materials useful in making models
determine how you develop your
include felt, cloth, resin, cork, foam,
design. For example, cast models
wire and Perspex.
are very useful to help you get a feel
for cast materials such as concrete.
59
1.3.1 Glues
Acrylic Resin Glue Clear Synthetic Resin

This is a fast-acting acrylic This glue dries clear and is
resin that has great bonding temporarily adjustable
strength, sometimes referred before setting.
to as ‘super glue’.
Glues paper, cardboard
Care is needed.
and Styrofoam.
Not suitable for card or paper.
60
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Wood Glue Spray Mount

Various brands are available. This is used to mount drawings
This all-purpose glue works well – e.g. fixing paper onto a card
with card, balsa, foam and paper. background. If used in moderation
It dries clear. you can separate the paper from
the card later to reposition or
Not suitable for metals or plastics.
remove if required.
Suitable for card and paper only.
61
PVA Glue
This is a good everyday glue.
It is not as strong as wood glue.
Suitable for card and paper only.
62
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Hot-melt Adhesive/Glue Gun

This is a form of thermoplastic
adhesive. It is commonly supplied
in solid cylindrical sticks of various
diameters, designed to be melted
in an electric hot glue gun.
Not suitable for metals.
63
1.3.2 Scalpel
2 3
Fig. 32 Scalpels are suitable for cutting

1. Cutting mat paper, card and balsa wood. For
2. Scalpel harder materials, a Stanley knife or
3. 10A blades utility knife can be used, but it is
harder to maintain accuracy. The
blade should not move. A wobbly
blade is dangerous and inaccurate.
NB
Scalpel knives are a very
TIP dangerous piece of equipment.
Never put your fingers in the blade
Your cutting mat can warp if stored path, and be sure to learn how to
in a vertical position. Always store use a scalpel from an experienced
it horizontally. user. Change your blade often for
safety and to maintain accuracy.
64
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
1.3.3 Other Equipment
Modelling Clay Plaster of Paris

This is very useful for quick sketch This is very useful for making
models, but difficult to achieve cast models – see step-by-step
precision with. It is available in details in Section 1.3.11.
a range of colours.
65
1.3.4 Balsa & Bass Wood
Balsa is very soft and light, with

a coarse, open grain. It is low-
density but high in strength.
This makes it ideal for light, stiff
structural elements in model-
making. Make sure you work with
the grain in balsa, as this will give
the model strength.
The density of dry balsa wood

ranges from 40–340 kg/m³, with a
typical density of about 160 kg/m³. Balsa Sheets: 910 × 76mm
Balsa comes in three forms: Standard thicknesses:

sheets, square/rectangular 0.8mm
sections and circular sections. 1.5mm
2.5mm
Bass wood is another light wood
3mm
suitable for model-making.
5mm
TIP
Balsa wood can be stained with

wood stain to achieve darker
colours. It is best to do this when
the model is complete to ensure
that edges are coloured.
66
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Square Balsa Sections: Circular Balsa Sections (Dowels):

910mm (long) × various square 910mm (long) × various diameters
and rectangular profiles
Standard diameters:
Standard profiles: 3mm
1.6 × 1.6mm 4.5mm
2.4 × 2.4mm 6.5mm
3.2 × 3.2mm
3.2 × 4.8mm
3.2 × 6.4mm
4.8 × 4.8mm
4.8 × 6.4mm
6.4 × 6.4mm
67
1.3.5 Board/Card
Grey Card
This is a cheap and basic model-
making material. It has a matt finish
and is grey throughout – therefore
you will not have a problem with a
core showing through at the joints
of a model. It is useful for contour
models and takes spray paint
well, so it can be painted once the
model is complete.
Foamboard/Foamcore
This is composed of two very thin
sheets of card with a foam centre.
It is available in 3mm and 5mm
thicknesses, in white or black. It is
easy to cut, but is not flexible, and is
therefore useful for making models
of orthogonal shapes.
TIP
To get a clean cut, change your

blade often. This applies when using
all card, but is especially important
when working with foamboard.
68
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Ivory Board
This is a very thin, white flexible
card. It has a matt finish on one
side and a slightly glossy finish on
the reverse. It is useful for quick
sketch models and fine details,
such as window tracery. The matt
side tends to yellow over time.
Corriboard
This is a translucent and non-
flexible plastic sheet material
with a hollow core and inner
corrugations. It is difficult to
work with, but can be useful for
representing opaque materials,
such as Reglit (profiled glass).
69
Brown Card
This is a thin sheet material that
is cheap and easy to cut, and
is therefore useful for quick
models. It is also useful for lining
large-scale models to indicate
changes in building material.
Mounting Board
This comes in a variety of
colours, with a white backing.
It is quite difficult to cut and the
edges tend to yellow over time,
so it is not ideal for models.
70
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
1.3.6 Working with Foam
Foam has become a very popular NB

material for making quick block The wire cutter melts the foam as
models. it is pushed against the wire. This
creates toxic fumes, so always use
The foam is extruded polystyrene,
the wire cutter in a well-ventilated
which can be bought from most
area – see Section 1.2.5.
hardware shops. It is very easy to
cut with a utility knife, but ideally
you should use a wire cutter.
TIP
Some glues, such as acrylic resin

glue, have a chemical reaction with
the foam and can ‘melt’ it. Wood
glues can work well with foam.
71
1.3.7 Working With Card
Take into account the thickness NB

of the card when planning your Always cut away from your body
model. Work to scale for wall to avoid accidents.
thicknesses; you may need to
Take care when cutting very hard
laminate a number of sheets
materials as the scalpel blade
together to achieve the correct
may break – use a utility knife or a
dimension. When laminating card,
fretsaw in the building laboratory.
let the glue dry under an even
weight to ensure that the card does
not buckle. The card pieces will
have to overlap in order to achieve
a joint, so you should take this into
account when cutting your card.
A paper guillotine can be used for

cutting paper and card accurately
– see Section 1.2.4.
TIP
Always make a base! This gives the

model solidity. You can use a card
base, but for larger/more complex
models an MDF or plywood base
might be more appropriate.
72
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Step 1
Use a piece of scrap card as a
‘palette’. Pour out a small amount
of glue and use thin cardboard
strips to apply the glue to the card.
Step 2
Spread the glue evenly along the
edge of the card. Avoid using too
much glue, as it leaves a mark.
Step 3
Press the card pieces together
and use a piece of card to scrape
off any excess glue.
73
1.3.8 Making Curves in Card
Circumference (c) = 2 × π × radius (r)
r π = 3.1416 (to 4 decimal places)
r = 10mm
62.832mm = 2 × π × 10mm
Arc Length (ℓ) = (x° × c) ÷ 360

x°
x° = 60°
10.472mm = (60° × 62.832mm) ÷ 360
Step 1
Cut the length of card to the
circumference of the circle
or length of arc needed (see
formulae above). You should
allow a little extra card – it is
easier to trim the card back
later than to try to add a piece.
74
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Step 2
Folding card to achieve a curve
will often cause it to crack or
split. Scoring shallow parallel
lines along the length of the card
eliminates this risk. Ensure the
lines are evenly spaced and not
cut too deeply. Try to maintain the
same depth of cut throughout.
Step 3
Fold the card carefully
into the curved shape.
Step 4
If the lines are evenly spaced,
you should be able to achieve
a neat, even curve to the card.
Secure the card, if necessary, with

masking tape as the glue dries.
75
1.3.9 Making Joints With Card
A butt joint is where the two planes A recessed or rebate joint works
of material are glued together with well when you do not want to
no recess or rebate. see the edge of the card – this is
useful when using foamboard.
A chamfered joint is difficult A laminate joint is when two

to achieve in card, but useful planes of material are glued
in foam models. together face to face – use
this kind of joint to build up
thickness of card.
76
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
1.3.10 Making a Recessed Joint
Step 1
When foamboard is butt-
jointed, the edge of the
foam remains visible.
Step 2
To get around this, score along
the edge of the board to the
dimension of the board thickness.
Scrape away the unwanted foam
section with a scalpel.
Step 3
When the two pieces of foam are
glued together, a much neater joint
is achieved.
Use sewing pins to pin foamboard

pieces before gluing. Do not glue
the joints, and use pins to keep
part of the model detachable.
77
1.3.11 Making Cast Models
Cast models are very useful for For concrete casts, cardboard is
explaining form, both solid and not strong enough – use plywood
void. The example here uses or MDF to make the mould. The
Plaster of Paris, but the same mould for concrete casts should
principles apply to the casting be screwed and glued together
of other materials, such as wax, before casting. Line the mould with
concrete and resin. oil or petroleum jelly to prevent
the concrete sticking – this helps
Wax chippings are available in
you take the mould apart. Any thin
most craft shops and are melted
oil such as sunflower oil or WD-40
before being poured into a mould.
should work.
Extra care must be taken with
the joints of the mould, as wax NB
will leak through the smallest Concrete casts should be left for
of gaps in the card joints. at least 24 hours before removing
the moulds.
78
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Step 1
Cut out all your card – taking
into account that the interior
dimensions of your mould will be
the final size of the model.
Step 2
Make triangular-shaped cuts
of card to use as ‘buttresses’ on
your model. The weight of the wet
plaster can distort the card, so
these buttresses give the mould
extra strength. The buttresses also
help maintain square edges.
Step 3
Draw out the position and shape
of the mould on a base. This gives
you a guide to build your model
on. Use a strong piece of card for
the base.
79
Step 4
Build your model on the base.
It is common in cast models to
make the mould upside down,
as this will give you a flat base
when the cast is complete.
Reinforce any internal changes
in form with internal supports.
Step 5
Glue the cardboard buttresses around
the outside of the mould to give the
mould extra strength and rigidity.
Step 6
Use a cloth or your hands to
apply petroleum jelly or oil to all
internal surfaces – this stops the
plaster from sticking. Take extra
care to seal the corners as the
plaster may leak if there are gaps.
80
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Step 7
Allow the glued mould to dry
before mixing the plaster. Spread
out newspaper to protect the
surface you are working on. Add the
Plaster of Paris to a clean plastic
container. 1kg of plaster fills a
mould of around 200cm³ (about
the size of a standard brick).
Step 8
Add the water slowly, and keep
stirring. You need to work fast
at this stage as the plaster sets
extremely fast!
Step 9
The plaster should be the
consistency of thick porridge.
Do not add too much water. If the
Plaster of Paris is too runny, it will
not set and may leak through any
gaps in your mould. If not enough
water is added, the plaster sets
too quickly and is not workable.
81
Step 10
Pour the plaster slowly into
the mould, making sure it
gets into all the corners.
Step 11
Shake the mould to ensure any
air bubbles rise to the surface
– otherwise these will result in
flaws in the final model.
Step 12
Use a flat piece of card to
smooth the top surface of the
plaster. It is probably easiest
to design your mould so that
the plaster fills it completely.
This allows you to scrape off
any excess plaster easily.
82
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Step 13
Leave the plaster to set. The
necessary time depends on
the amount of plaster used,
but setting time should be
at least 3 hours.
Make sure to remove the

card mould very carefully.
Step 14
You can finish any rough
edges of the plaster with
a scalpel or sandpaper …
… and that’s it!
83
1.3.12 Types of Models
The range of model types is

endless. Models should be used
all through the design process as
a method of testing, exploring and
developing your idea. Here are
some examples.
Contour Model Site Model
Fig. 33 Fig. 34
Middle School UCD 2009/10 5th Year UCD 2009/10
84
1.3 MODEL-MAKING
Structural Analysis Model Display Model
Fig. 35 Fig. 36
Casa Mila by Antoni Gaudí Barcelona Pavilion by Mies van der Rohe
Model by Sean Lynch, 2nd Year UCD 2009/10 2nd Year UCD 2009/10
85
2
Principles of
Representation
Architectural drawings are images that

serve as tools for architects to imagine
the construction of their buildings as
part of the continuous flow of their
design practices. They reveal the
imagination of construction through
a complex unfolding process rather
than representing the frozen mimetic
depiction of the absent building.
—Qi Zhu
In this chapter we introduce you to the principles
of architectural representation. The most common
types of architectural drawings are two-dimensional
depictions of three-dimensional space; these are
called orthographic projections.
Architects also use a number of 3D scaled
drawing techniques to explain their buildings; the
most common types are discussed here – isometric,
axonometric and oblique projections. These are
very useful tools that allow you to explain your
proposals in three dimensions.
Perspective drawings give the illusion of real
depth and are useful techniques for getting a sense
of what your design would be like as a built reality.
Drawing with a range of representation types
can help you develop your design, because each
type of representation allows you to explore
different aspects of your proposal.
The types of drawings you choose to present your
work are critical to explaining your proposals properly.
Always plan in advance which type of drawings will
most accurately portray your intended design.
PRINCIPLES OF REPRESENTATION
2.1
Scale
An enlarged scale shows the Use your scale rule for measuring
object ‘blown up’ (e.g. 5:1). The off drawings and for setting up
drawing will show the object five your own scale drawing. Ensure
times larger than the original size. that your scale rule is in metric
In architectural drawings this can units. Imperial scale rules are
be useful for small elements, such available, but are not used in
as ironmongery (hinges, door Europe.
handles, window latches, etc.).
A reduced scale shows the object

smaller than the original size. For
example, a scale of 1:50 will show
the object or building 50 times
smaller than the real size. Most
architectural drawings are shown
at a reduced scale.
89
Common Scales for Architectural Drawings
1:500 or 1:1,000 Site plans or overall block layout plans

1:200 Overall plans
1:100 General arrangement drawings and layout plans
1:50 Working drawings
1:25 Commonly used by engineers (not by architects)
1:20 Construction plans – room layout and details
1:10 Detail drawings – e.g. door and window schedules
1:5 or 1:2 Technical details
NB
Never make up your own
scale, such as 1:40, just to fit
your drawings on a page.
90
2.1 Scale
Scale 1:1 Scale 1:2 Scale 1:10
Scaling on a Photocopier
With the rise of computer-aided
drawing programmes, it has become
much easier to alter the scale of
5
scanned images digitally. It is useful,

4
however, to know the formulae to scale

drawings on a photocopier. These
3
formulae can be used for scaling your

2
own hand drawings or for adjusting

1
drawings you have printed.

0
The formula to enlarge or reduce

the scale of a drawing is:
(original scale/required scale) × 100

5
For example: Assuming your original

drawing is 1:50, and you want to
4
enlarge it to 1:20:
(50/20) × 100 = 250%

3
You would magnify your 1:50 drawing

by 250% to convert it to 1:20.
2
Or if you want to reduce your 1:20

drawing to 1:50:
1
(20/50) × 100 = 40%

0
91
If, however, you do not know the For example: A standard internal
scale of the original drawing (which door in a domestic setting is often
is often the case with published 900mm wide. Assuming that to be
images), it is still possible to bring the case, you can use the above
the drawing to a working scale. formula to bring the drawing to
scale. It is best to check this
Example
with a number of elements.
Say you require a scaled plan at
1:100. If you know the dimension NB
of a particular element or room in This method should be used
a building (which may be mentioned with a lot of caution, because
in the text), e.g. that a specific room you are making an assumption
is 6,000mm long, but on your copy about standard sizes that may
of the drawing it measures 5,300mm not be true and could result in
(using the 1:100 side of your scale inaccurately scaled drawings.
rule), you can bring the drawing to
scale with this formula:
(required dimension/current
dimension) × 100
So:
(6,000/5,300) × 100 = 113%
If you do not know a ‘true’

dimension on the drawing,
you can still attempt to bring
the drawing to a working scale.
92
2.1 Scale
Scaling a drawing up/down on the photocopier
93
2.2
Orthographic
Projection
Orthographic projection is a means of representing three-

dimensional objects in a two-dimensional drawing. Most
drawings of buildings consist of two-dimensional views called
plans, sections and elevations. Understanding the principles
and techniques of orthographic projection is a fundamental
skill for an architect, and allows you to communicate your
ideas to other architects, clients and builders.
The conventions of orthographic projection are universal;
plans, sections and elevations are legible across languages
and cultures.
Orthographic projection does not aim to replicate how
the human eye sees – there is no foreshortening. In Section
2.3 we deal with perspective, which is a representation type
that tries to reproduce how the eye sees.
95
2.2.1 Types of Projection
Plan View
A plan is a horizontal cut Plan views are identified according
through the building, showing to the floor they apply to – e.g.
the downward view of the room Ground Floor, First Floor, etc.
layout. A plan typically shows
A roof plan represents the view
internal wall configurations,
of the building as it is seen from
furniture and external elements
above and is often used on a site
such as windows and doors.
or location plan.
The horizontal cut through the
A reflected plan shows the upward
building that determines what we
view of the interior of the building
see in the plan is usually taken at
– e.g. looking towards the ceiling
1–1.5m above the floor level. This
rather than the floor. This type
usually allows windows and doors
of plan is useful when indicating
to appear on the plan.
lighting layouts, structural elements
The height at which you choose or roof lights.
to set your plan is known as the
cutting plane. While 1–1.5m is
typical, you can choose to have
a higher or lower cutting plane
in order to view certain elements
within your design. Because
1–1.5m is the standard, if you
deviate from this you should state
it clearly on your drawings.
96
2.2 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Section Elevation
This type of projection is created An elevation is a vertical
by making a vertical cut through a view, typically of the exterior
building. Sections are very useful for appearance of a building. The
understanding internal circulation, projection lines are drawn at right
heights of rooms and the vertical angles from the plan, onto the
relationships between spaces. page surface. Elements that are
curved or angled are not seen at
Sections can be selected to show a
their true lengths in elevations.
detail (e.g. of a wall construction),
or show the whole building, or cut Elevations are usually labelled
through the building on its site. according to their orientation on
The latter is called a site section. the plan: north, south, east or west.
The position of the vertical cut

that you make to construct
the section should be clearly
labelled on all plans.
See Section 3.1.5 for information

on drawing annotations.
97
2 3
3D view Elevation Vertical section
Plan Horizontal section
Fig. 37
1. Arrow indicates the
downward view – the plan.
2. Arrow indicates the straight-on
front or side view – the elevation.
3. Dashed lines indicate the
imaginary cuts where the section
is taken – vertical and horizontal.
98
Case Study: O’Flaherty House
O’Flaherty House, Kinsale, County Cork In order to explain the principles

Architect: Robin Walker, 1967 of orthographic, three-dimensional
and perspective drawings, we will
use the O’Flaherty House by Robin
Walker as our template.
This house is a beautifully designed

Modernist pavilion, with a simple
square floor plan.
99
Roof Plan Three-dimensional View

The roof plan is the view of the See Section 2.3 for constructing
building looking directly down three-dimensional projections.
on the roof. Roof plans are
commonly incorporated into
site or landscape drawings.
100
1–1.5m above
floor level
Floor Plan
The floor plan is a horizontal cut Elements that are not cut (i.e. below
through the building, looking down. the line at which you take the cut)
You set the height at which you want will appear lighter.
to take this section; the common
Elements that occur above the cut
height is 1–1.5m above the floor
line are indicated as a broken line.
level. Any elements such as walls,
See Section 3.1.6 for information on
furniture or openings that are cut
line types.
will appear darker as ‘section lines’.
101
Elevation
The elevation is a view of one face
of the building, looking straight on.
The view is not foreshortened or
distorted as your eye sees it, but is a
dimensionally accurate representation
of one face of the building. Elevations
are also called façades.
102
Section
A section is a vertical cut through
the building, showing the internal
elements. Elements that are cut
in section are shown with darker,
heavier lines, while elements that
appear in elevation beyond the
section line are shown with lighter,
finer lines.
103
2.3
Three-dimensional
Projections
Axonometric, isometric and oblique projections are commonly used
architectural conventions, which are collectively known as ‘paraline’
drawings. They are relatively simple to produce and are good
techniques to represent the mass, internal spaces and proportions
of buildings. They do not, however, produce ‘realistic’ perspective
views. Parallel lines remain parallel in paraline drawings, whereas
in perspective drawings, parallel lines converge. We deal with the
conventions of perspective drawings in Section 2.3.
A significant advantage of paraline drawings is that the scale
remains true, so you can measure to scale off the drawings.
Line weights should be carefully used in paraline drawings.
Major elements should be emphasized with heavier line weights,
and minor elements, such as furniture or finishes, should be drawn
in lighter lines.
Variations on paraline drawings (such as ‘exploded’, ‘worm’s-
eye’ or ‘cut-away’ drawings) can be very useful to explain your
projects. See examples in Chapter 4: Working Through Drawing.
105
2.3.1 Types of Projection

Drawing plane
Orthographic
Orthographic projections are
two-dimensional drawings
of three-dimensional objects
where the drawing plane is
parallel to the main plane being
depicted and the projection
lines are perpendicular to it.
See Section 2.2 for

further explanation.
Oblique
Oblique projections are
two-dimensional drawings of
three-dimensional objects where
the drawing plane is not always
parallel to the main plane being
depicted and the projection lines
are never perpendicular to it. Types
of oblique projections include plan
oblique and elevation oblique.
106
2.3 THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROJECTIONS
Axonometric
Axonometric projections are
two-dimensional drawings of
three-dimensional objects where
the drawing plane is not parallel
to the main axes of the object
being depicted and the projection
lines are perpendicular to it. Scale
remains true but curves and circles
are distorted. Isometric projection
is a type of axo where the axes
are equally foreshortened.
Perspective
In a perspective projection
lines converge at a single point
outside the drawing plane.
The object being depicted is
foreshortened and not to scale.
For a more detailed explanation

of perspective see Section 2.4.
107
2.3.2 Drawing Circles and Curves
Circles and curves are straight-

forward to construct in most
paraline projections. The
exception is isometric projection,
where the two axes of the circle
are not at right angles. So, an
ellipse must be constructed.
45° 45°
Axonometric Projection
Circles remain true and are not
distorted. Axonometric angles vary.
108
30° 60° 30° 30°
Architect’s Projection Isometric Projection

Circles remain true and Circles are distorted and must
are not distorted. be constructed as ellipses.
109
2.3.3 Drawing a Building in

Axonometric Projection
Step 1
Draw your plan and
elevation to scale. If
you are constructing
a cut-away or internal
axonometric, a section
is also necessary in
order to calculate
internal dimensions.
110
Step 2
Rotate the plan drawing on
your drawing board. In this
example we are rotating to 45°.
45° 45
45°
Step 3
Overlay a piece of sketch
paper over your plans and
draw vertical lines up from
all corners in your plan.
111
Step 4
All vertical dimensions remain
true, so measure the heights off
your elevation and mark them on
the vertical lines you have drawn.
Using light construction lines,

connect the vertical lines at the
correct height with lines drawn
at 45°.
Fig. 38
1. True height – as measured
to scale off the elevation
Step 5
Trace neatly over your ‘net’
construction drawing to
produce the finished drawing.
112
Exploded Axonometric
You can extrude the elements of
your axonometric to reveal the
internal world of your building
or to highlight structure or
circulation. This is called an
exploded axonometric, and is
a very informative drawing. 1
Fig. 39
1. You determine the distances between
the ‘exploded’ elements; there is no
rule for this. You should, however,
pull the elements far enough apart
to make them clearly visible.
113
2.4
Perspective
Perspective drawings aim to reproduce how the human eye sees

three-dimensional spaces. Perspectival techniques were developed
by artists such as Filippo Brunelleschi during the Italian Renaissance.
These techniques had a radical impact on Renaissance art, and the
original mathematical principles are still used when constructing
perspective drawings today.
The significant difference between paraline three-dimensional
drawings and perspective drawings is that the latter show parallel
lines converging and elements foreshortened. Think of how train
tracks converge in the distance when you view them straight on.
Because of the foreshortening and distortion associated with
perspective drawings, you cannot take scale measurements from
perspective views.
Perspective drawings are a very useful tool to help you to ‘get
inside’ your designs and understand how they will appear and feel in
the real world. Most people untrained to ‘read’ architectural drawings
find perspectives easier to understand than orthographic or paraline
drawings. For this reason, they are particularly useful for explaining
your projects to clients.
115
2.4.1 Types of Perspective
One-point Perspective
In one-point perspective there is
one fixed point where lines recede
to, called the ‘vanishing point’ (VP).
VP
This type of perspective is useful for
simple interior views. Instructions
are given in Section 2.4.2 on how to
construct a one-point perspective.
Two-point Perspective
There are two fixed VPs in two-point
perspective.
This type of perspective is useful for

both interior and exterior drawings.
VP VP
116
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
VP VP
Three-point Perspective
Three-point perspective is the most
complex to construct. Lines recede to
three fixed VPs.
Computer programmes allow you

VP
to make quick three-dimensional
models. These are particularly useful
for massing and block models. It is
still useful, however, to understand
the principles underlying graphic
perspective before you take on
computer modelling.
Slight variations exist in the construction

methods for perspective drawings.
See the ‘References & Further Reading’
section at the end of the book for
alternative construction techniques.
117
2.4.2 Drawing a Room in

One-point Perspective
Step 1
Fix the viewing position in the The ‘cone of vision’ (CV) sets the
room. This is called the ‘station viewable area from the station point
point’ (SP). This is where the selected. It is generally assumed
imaginary viewer stands in order to be a 60° cone. Areas beyond
to ‘see’ your perspective. this cone will be distorted in the
perspective drawing.
CV
60°
SP
SP
118
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
SP
Step 2 Step 3
Draw an end elevation to scale of Project a vertical line up from
the room you are going to illustrate the SP onto the end elevation you
with one-point perspective. This have drawn.
is an internal elevation of the wall
facing the viewer at the station
point. This will form the backdrop
of the perspective and is the only
element in the final perspective
drawing that remains to scale.
119
VP
HL
1.6m
VP
HL
Step 4 Step 5
Draw a horizontal line at eye level From the VP draw lines through the
(typically 1.6m above the ground corners of the section to set up the
level). This line is called the ‘horizon room in perspective.
line’ (HL). You determine the height
of the HL. For example, if you want
to construct your perspective from
a child’s viewpoint, you may set the
HL at 1m.
Reminder:
The intersection of the HL and the VP = vanishing point
vertical line projected from the SP on HL = horizon line
the plan is the VP of the end elevation. SP = station point
120
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
VP
VP
VP
VP
Step 6 Step 7
On the end elevation mark out 1m Draw a series of light construction
intervals along the ground line and lines from the VP through the 1m
vertical line, at the same scale as intervals.
the elevation was constructed.
121
Step 8
On the plan, measure the distance
from the SP to the end elevation —
X
this is shown as X on the plan.
Transfer this distance at the same

scale onto the HL, to the left of
the VP.
SP
P
Mark this point on the HL.
VP
VP
Reminder:
VP = vanishing point
HL = horizon line
SP = station point
122
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
Step 9
Draw a diagonal line from
the point on the HL through
the bottom left corner of
your end elevation.
Fig. 40
1. Diagonal line through the
bottom left-hand corner
VP
VP
123
VP
V P
Step 10
Where the diagonal line intersects
with the lines projecting from the
VP, draw a series of horizontal
parallel lines.
This gives you a framework of ‘tiles’

which sets up your perspective.
Each of these tiles represents an
area of 1 × 1m on the plan.
124
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
VP
V P
Step 11
Now mark off on the baseline
of your end elevation the position
of internal elements and furniture –
projected up from the plan.
Also mark the height of these

elements to scale on the vertical
edge of the end elevation.
125
VP
VP
Step 12
Now draw lines from the VP
A through the points you have
B marked on the baseline.
C
Step 13
Measure the distances from
SP
elements on the plan to the
end elevation/picture plane
(e.g. A, B, C).
126
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
VP
VP
A
B
C
Step 14
Remembering that each
division along the left-hand
side equates to 1m on your
plan, mark off the position of the
furniture or internal elements.
127
Step 15
Using the grids you have
constructed, draw in any internal
elements or furniture you want
to include – always checking the
height off the vertical scale bar
on your end elevation.
128
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
Step 16 Step 17
Trace over your net – either You can then render the
freehand or hard-line. This perspective with colouring
eliminates all unnecessary pencils, watercolour or
construction lines. other media. Or you can
collage in the background,
figures and materials.
129
2.4.3 Selecting the Station Point
As noted in the previous example,

take care when selecting the height
and position of your station point
because it will have a significant
S
SP
influence on the area shown in the
final perspective.
Drawing A Drawings where the station

point is central (Drawing A) can
result in symmetrical and quite
dull drawings. A lower viewpoint
can be effective if you want to
emphasize the ceiling (Drawing B),
SP
while a high viewpoint emphasizes
the floor (Drawing C).
Drawing
gB
SP
Drawing C
130
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
VP VP
VP VP
VP VP
Similarly, consider the position of

the object relative to the vanishing
points in two-point perspective.
You can choose to emphasize the
roof, floor or walls, depending on
how the vanishing points relate to
the horizon line. The most realistic
perspectives are those where human
eye level is taken as the horizon line.
131
2.4.4 Freehand Sketch Perspectives
Use the same principles in order

to construct very quick sketch
perspectives as part of your
design process.
Sketch the room’s end elevation

and mark a vanishing point.
Connect this point to the corners

of the room in order to make the
‘frame’ of the perspective sketch.
132
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
Now fill in furniture, columns, etc.

This method is not very accurate,
but use your eye to get approximate
spacings of elements – allowing for
foreshortening and compression.
These kinds of sketches are very

quick, and with some practice
proficiency is easily attained.
133
134
2.4 PERSPECTIVE
One-point street views (opposite) Use the same method to construct

can be useful for drawing existing freehand two- or three-point
conditions or placing your perspectives (above).
proposal in context.
135
3
Drawing
Techniques
There is no distinction between a

drawing of construction and a thought
of construction. This correlation turns
drawings into the most sophisticated
expressions of architectural theory.
—Marco Frascari
As you get used to the tools and principles of
architectural representation, it is important to
know the conventions of architectural drawing.
Architectural conventions – for representing
materials, understanding scale, knowing how
and when to add dimensions and notes to your
drawings, and how to indicate elements such as
windows, doors and stairs – allow your drawings
to be understood by others. They also allow you
to ‘read’ the drawings of other architects.
The conventions of architectural drawing
have developed over centuries and constitute a
language in their own right. A clear understanding
and application of these conventions allows
your design intentions to be legible and clearly
understood – whether by a tutor in college or a
builder on site.
Like any language, it takes practice to achieve
fluency. As a student of architecture, you should
get into the habit of using these conventions from
the outset. They will soon become second nature
to you and will give clarity to your own designs.
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.1
Drawing
Annotations
139
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.1.1 Title Blocks
Fig. 41
Every working drawing (construction

drawing) should have a title block
(Figs. 41–42) in the bottom right-
hand corner, containing:
1. Project name
2. Drawing title
3. Author name
4. Scale
5. Date
6. Drawing number
You can format the title block to suit

the page orientation – landscape or
Fig. 42 portrait.
140
3.1 DRAWING ANNOTATIONS
Fig. 43
In architectural offices title blocks Each revision entry should

will also contain a revision block describe briefly the main element
(Fig. 43). When a drawing such as of the revision and the date that
a plan is edited and updated, it is the drawing was re-issued under
given a revision reference – e.g. the new revision reference. Also
A, B, C, etc. included is a ‘checked by’ section
on the title block. The project
architect will normally review
the drawing before it is issued.
TIP
Title blocks are not necessary

on presentation drawings.
141
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Fig. 44 Plan in advance where the title

A1 sheet – title block in block will fit within the finished
lower right-hand corner sheet. In working drawings, it is
common to fold them to an A4 size
to fit in files or folders. The title
block should sit in the lower right-
hand corner so it will be visible on
the folded drawing.
142
Fig. 45
A3 sheet – title block in
lower right-hand corner
Similarly, an A3 drawing will often

be folded to A4 size – so make
sure the title block is visible when
folded.
143
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.1.2 Dimensioning (Plans)
144
Fig. 46
1. Symbol for floor level
F.F.L. (finished floor level) on ground floor

plans is normally taken as the 0.00 height.
Dimensions are normally written Write the measurement of

in millimetres (mm), except for the dimension parallel to the
large-scale site plans, where element being measured.
metres (m) are more suitable. As far as possible, place the
dimensions outside the drawing
Some people in the building
for clarity. Indicate overall
industry use the imperial
dimensions at the outside edge,
units of inches (in) and feet
with smaller chain dimensions
(ft), but European architects
running closer to the drawing.
always use the metric system
(metres, millimetres, etc.).
145
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.1.3 Dimensioning (Sections)
Fig. 47
G.L. (external ground level) When noting key heights or
G.F. (ground floor) vertical dimensions, overall
F.F.L. (finished floor level) dimensions should be indicated
F.C.L. (finished ceiling level) with a short line and triangle with
the dimension written alongside.
Again, place dimensions outside

the drawing for clarity, and align
levels and text.
146
3.1.4 North Points/Arrows
Every plan should indicate the

orientation of the building. This is
shown by an arrow pointing in the
direction of north.
Drawing conventions suggest that

plans are drawn orthogonally, with
the north oriented towards the TIP
top of the page. If possible, keep

to this convention as it makes Keep the north symbol simple to
drawings easy to read. avoid it dominating the drawing.
147
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.1.5 Drawing Annotations
2 3
Fig. 48
1. Floor level indicator on elevations/sections
2. Naming system for internal elevations
3. Floor level indicator on plans
148
Scales
These are only used where the
drawing is to be reproduced at
a different scale to the original
or where a number of scales are
used within one drawing.
NB
Keep the scale as simple
and legible as possible.
Section Arrows
Always indicate on your plans
where the sections are cut with
section arrows. The arrows should
always point in the direction the
section is facing.
Where you are drawing a number

of sections, indicate the section
lines with letters, e.g. Section A-A.
149
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.1.6 Line Types
Standard Line This should be a clear, even line

of medium darkness – a 2H lead
works well for this. It is typically
used for drawing elevations.
Section Line This is shown as a strong, dark line

– an HB lead works well for this.
Construction/Setting-out Line This line should be as light as

possible – use a hard H lead,
such as 4H.
Dash-dot Line This indicates a cutting plane.
Broken Line This is used to show what

is overhead or underneath.
150
Centre Line This is used to indicate an axis,

or centre line.
Break Line This is used to show that the

drawing includes only part
of an element.
Dimension Line This should be relatively light. Use

45° ‘ticks’ to mark off the lengths.
Leader Line This line refers text and notes to

the relevant part of a drawing.
151
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Contour Lines Contour lines are used on maps

and large-scale plans to indicate
changes in level.
Check what the contour spacing

represents – depending on the
scale of the drawing, the spacing
between contours can represent
varying changes in level. For
example: at 1:500, contours might
represent spacings of 2m, while
at 1:50 contours might represent
spacings of 0.5m.
Void Line Overhead voids are indicated with

a faint ‘x’ mark. Dashed lines show
overhead elements, such as light
wells or roof lights.
152
Section A-A Fig. 49

1. Break line
2. Section line
2
Here break lines are used

to indicate that the building
continues and is not shown in full.
The point at which a section is

taken is indicated with two small
arrows and the reference name
– sections are commonly named
with letters of the alphabet.
153
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.1.7 Sheet Planning
The elevation is typically drawn

directly above or below the plan.
TIP
Plans should read in sequence:

left-to-right, top-to-bottom, or It is useful to align elevations
bottom-to-top. Do not mix up and sections, both for ease
the sequence of your plans, as of construction of the drawing
this can cause confusion. and for ease of understanding.
154
Set out
ut text neatly in o
one
column. Do not cross lleader
lines or dimension lines, as
this can confuse the reading
of a drawing.
155
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.2
Stairs
& Ramps
157
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.2.1 Terminology
1 8
3
9
4
Fig. 50
10
1. Landing
2. Wall string
3. Open riser
4. Tread
5. Going
6. Solid riser
7. Handrail
8. Balustrade
9. Outer string
10. Newel post
158
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
3.2.2 Balustrades & Guard Rails
Fig. 51
1. > 100mm maximum opening
1
between balustrades
The dimension between Where the total rise of the stairs

the vertical or horizontal is less than 600mm, no handrails
members of a balustrade must or balustrades are necessary.
be less than 100mm. This is to
If the stairs are 1m wide or less,
prevent a child’s head getting
a handrail at one side only is
caught in the balustrade.
sufficient. Where the stairs are
The ‘less than 100mm’ rule more than 1m wide, handrails
also applies to the maximum are required on both sides.
gap between open-riser
treads on stairs.
159
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.2.3 Building Regulations
Measuring Rise and Going
1 1. Going
2. Open riser
3. Solid riser
4. Rise
2 5. Nosing
4 NOTE
The sum of twice
the rise plus the
3
going should be
5
550–700mm with an
optimum of 600mm.
Rise Open Riser

The height of the step – measured Stairs where there is no solid riser
from the surface of one step to the (or ‘back’) to the steps. The thread
surface of the next. should overlap at least 16mm and
the gap between treads should be
Going
less than 100mm.
The length of the step – excluding
any overlap with other steps. Nosing
Projection of one step over another.
Tread
The total length of one step. Pitch
The angle of the stairs relative
to the horizontal – taken from the
top line or nosing of the steps.
160
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
Rise (mm) Going (mm) Pitch (mm)
Optimum Maximum Optimum Minimum Optimum Maximum
Private 175 220 250 220 35 42
Semi-public 165 190 275 250 31 38
Public 150 180 300 280 27 33
NOTES
1. 'Private stairs' means stairs used by a
limited number of people who are generally
very familiar with the stairs, e.g. the internal
stairs in a dwelling.
2. 'Semi-public stairs' means stairs used by
larger numbers of people, some of whom
may be unfamiliar with the stairs, e.g. in
factories, offices, shops or common stairs
NB
serving more than one dwelling.
Safety is a major concern in
3. 'Public stairs' means stairs used by large
the design and construction of
numbers of people at one time, e.g. in
stairs. Parts B, K and M of the Irish
places of public assembly.
Technical Guidance Documents
4. For stairs that are intended to satisfy the
on building regulations set out
needs of ambulant disabled people, the
clear guidelines for stair design.
rise should not be greater than 175mm and
Adherence to these guidelines
the going should not be less than 250mm
ensures compliance with the
(see Section M of the Technical Guidance
building regulations. Standards will
Documents, Paragraphs 1.14 and 1.30).
vary slightly from country to country.
5. See Section B of the Technical Guidance
Documents for regulations in relation to fire.
161
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.2.4 Setting Out a Staircase

Example: Public building
Step 1
Take the overall floor-to-floor height If the number of steps does not
(e.g. including the thickness of the divide easily, round the height
floor slab – in this case 2,700mm) of the riser up or down to the
and divide by the required height nearest workable number, while
of one step. In a public staircase, staying within regulations. In
the optimum rise is 150mm. this case, 150mm divides easily
into 2,700mm, so draw horizontal
parallel lines 150mm apart.
162
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
Step 2 Step 3
Set out the dimensions of Draw the profile of the stairs –
the stair goings – in this case in this case, there are 18 risers
300mm (optimum dimension and 17 goings.
for public stairs). Draw parallel
There will always be one less
vertical lines 300mm apart.
going than the number of
risers on any stairs.
163
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
1 2
Figs. 52 & 53 Step 4

1. Landing The maximum number of risers in
2. Pitch one flight of stairs is 16 in a private
3. Minimum headroom (2,000mm) building and 12 in a public building.
4. Handrail height on stairs (840–900mm) In this case, there are 18 risers,
5. Handrail height on landing (1,100mm) so we must include a landing.
The pitch is the angle of the line

connecting the tops of the risers.
164
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
3 4
NB Step 5
The landing should be at least The minimum headroom is 2m
as long as the width of the – measured vertically from the
stairs – for example, on stairs pitch of the stairs. This means
1m wide the landing should the floor slab overhead must
be a minimum of 1 × 1m. be cut back to this point.
In a public building, the The depth of the stair slab is

handrail should be 840–900mm determined by the material used.
vertically above, and parallel Steel, concrete, timber – all have
to, the pitch. On a landing, the different construction techniques
handrail should be 1,100mm and result in different depths.
above the landing level.
165
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
2 3 4
166
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
Step 6 Step 7
Project the plan of the Indicate the cut line of stairs on
stairs from the section. a plan by using a break line –
where the staircase is at the 1m
NB
height above the floor level.
Remember that a typical plan
is cut 1–1.5m above the floor Use an arrow to show the
level (shown left, as a 1m-high direction of the stairs – the
dash-dotted red line). arrow always points towards
the high point of the stairs.
The minimum width of a private
staircase is 800mm. Public stairs Show with a broken line the
are determined by fire regulations. continuation of the stairs
As a rule of thumb, stairs should above the cut line of the plan.
never be less than 900mm.
Fig. 54
1. Dash-dotted line – indicating the cut of the plan
2. Direction arrow
3. Break line
4. Broken line – indicating what goes on above
the point at which the plan is cut
167
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.2.5 Multiple Flights of Stairs
Figs. 55 & 56 Section

G. Ground floor The red dash-dotted lines
1. First floor show where the plan level
2. Second floor is cut at each floor.
168
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
Plan
The ground floor stairs are shown On the first floor plan, both flights
in plan up to the break line (1–1.5m of stairs are shown: those coming
above floor level). Anything up from the ground floor and
beyond this point is shown as those extending up to the second
a broken line. While the 1–1.5m floor. They are separated by break
cutting point is the convention, you lines at 1–1.5m.
can choose the height at which
On the second floor plan, the full
you draw your plan.
plan of the stairs below is shown.
169
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.2.6 Shapes of Stairs
L-shaped Stairs Dog-leg Stairs
Stairs Around a Stairwell
170
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
3.2.7 Spiral & Helical Stairs

50mm
.3
Max
0mm
12
Min.
270mm
Min. 800mm
The setting out of spiral or helical For example, in a private house

stairs is governed by minimum and the minimum going is 120mm,
maximum goings, riser heights and while for semi-public and public
stair clear widths, as in a straight buildings it increases to 150mm.
flight of stairs. The difference with
The diagram above shows the set
spiral stairs is that minimum and
out for a typical step for normal use
maximum goings apply to each
in a private house.
step, but also relate to the clear
width of the stairs as a whole. The relationship between the rise
(r) and the going (g) on spiral stairs
The minimum going dimension on
should be: 480 =< (2r + g) =
> 800.
spiral stairs is measured 270mm
out from the inner face of the The minimum and maximum ranges
step or inner handrail, where one for the rise and going are given in
exists. This minimum going varies the table overleaf.
depending on the use of the stairs.
171
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Rise Per Tread Min. Clear Width Min. Going Centre
A 170–220mm 600mm 145mm
Small private spiral staircase intended to be used by a limited number

of people who are generally familiar with it, e.g. an internal staircase in a
dwelling serving one room, not being a living room or kitchen; an access
spiral staircase to a small room or plant in an office, shop or factory not
used by the public; or a fire escape for a small number of people.
B 170–220mm 800mm 190mm
Private spiral staircase similar to Category A, but also providing

the main access to the upper floor of a private dwelling.
C 170–220mm 800mm 230mm
Small semi-public spiral staircase intended to be used by a limited number of

people, some of whom may be unfamiliar with it, e.g. a spiral staircase in a
factory, office or shop or a common stair serving more than one dwelling.
D 150–190mm 900mm 250mm
Semi-public spiral staircase intended to be used by larger numbers of

people, some of whom may be unfamiliar with it, e.g. a spiral staircase in a
factory, office or shop or a common stair serving more than one dwelling.
E 150–190mm 1,000mm 250mm
Public spiral staircase intended to be used by large numbers of

people at one time, e.g. a spiral staircase in a place of public assembly.
172
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
Semi-public and
Public Spiral Staircase
Private Spiral Staircase
(General use, left

and limited use, right)
NB
The relative size for private and
public stairs varies considerably
in diameter, as can be seen
from the diagrams above.
173
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
6
5
7
1,300–3,500mm
Typical range of spiral stair diameters
The plan of the stairs should be The clear head height is

worked out according to the sizes 2m as per a straight staircase.
required. The elevation and plan
The highest step may be in
of the stairs combined allows you
a different position on plan
to work out the number of steps
than the first step.
required from floor to floor and
the clear head height. Risers are shown numbered.
174
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
First floor
Floor-to-floor dimension – divide by number of risers needed

8
1
Ground floor
Sectional Elevation
175
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.2.8 Ramps
Figs. 57 & 58 Irish building regulations indicate

1. Standard ramp slope (1:20) that a ramp should have a slope
2. Short ramp (1:12) ratio of 1:20. This means that in
3. Plan of ramp – uncut order to rise 1m vertically, the ramp
4. Plan of ramp – cut at 300mm should be 20m in length (before
the addition of any landings). For
1:20 ramps, landings are required
every 12m.
For short ramps – where the rise

is 900mm or less – a slope ratio
of 1:12 is allowed, but landings
are required every 4.5m.
176
3.2 STAIRS & RAMPS
The minimum width of a ramp in On the plan of a ramp, always show

private dwellings is 800mm. In the direction of the slope with an
public buildings, fire regulations arrow – pointing towards the high
determine the width of the ramp. point of the ramp. If the ramp is
cut on the plan, use a break line
Handrails on a ramp should be
(similar to the stairs, see Fig. 54).
840–900mm above and parallel
to the line of the slope. Use a dashed line to indicate
where the ramp continues on
(above the cut line of the plan).
177
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.3
Windows
& Doors
179
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.3.1 Terminology
Fig. 59
7
1. Architrave
2. Door frame
8
3. Top rail
4. Hinge
9
5. Door leaf
6. Hanging stile
10
7. Closing stile
8. Middle/Locking rail
11
9. Door handle
10. Muntin
12
11. Recessed panel
12. Bottom rail
180
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
5
1
6
Fig. 60
1. Window reveal/jamb
2. Frame
3. Lintel
4. Opening casement
5. Transom
6. Mullion
7. Fixed Light
8. Windowsill
181
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.3.2 Types of Windows
Fixed Light
No opening section. This is a single
pane of glass attached to a frame.
Side-hung Window
The opening section is hinged
on one side – typically it opens
outwards. Make a dashed line
arrow pointing to the hinged side
of the opening. Scandinavian and
German convention is the reverse
– with the arrow pointing away
from the hinge.
Always indicate the open position

and swing of the window on the
plan with a dotted line.
182
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
Top-hung Window
The opening section is hinged
at the top – typically it opens
outwards. Make a dashed line
arrow pointing to the hinged
side of the opening – in this
case the hinges are at the top.
Louvred Window
The window is hinged at the
horizontal centres of the glass
panes. This type of window is
difficult to thermally seal, so it
is now rarely used.
183
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Vertical Pivot Window

The window is hinged
at the horizontal centre.
Horizontal Pivot Window

The window is hinged
at the vertical centre.
184
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
Sliding Sash/Casement Window

These windows are not hinged,
but slide up or down (vertically
or horizontally). Arrows are used
to indicate the direction of any
moving parts.
185
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.3.3 Types of Doors
Side-hung Door (Single)

This is the simplest door
type and is widely used.
Indicate on the plan with a dotted

line the open position and swing of
the door. This can be shown using
a straight line or a quadrant.
186
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
Side-hung Door (Double)

In this case, the hinges are on both
sides of the frame. These doors
can swing in one or two directions.
TIP
Think about the position of the door

frame within the opening – the door
could be flush with the internal or
external face of the wall or centrally
placed. This can have significant
design implications.
Door and window openings seen

deep within the wall emphasize
the thickness of the wall and its
mass. Frames that are flush with
the façade emphasize the planar
quality of the wall.
187
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Sliding Door (Single)

A sliding door can be hung on a
rail at the top or slide on a track in
the ground (usually recessed into
the ground) or both.
If a guide rail is fixed to the ground,

it should be shown on the plan.
Indicate with a small arrow on plans

and elevations the direction that the
door slides.
The door can slide on the external

face of the wall or within a recess
built into the wall. In the case of the
latter, the leaf is not visible when
the door is open. This is sometimes
known as a pocket door.
188
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
Sliding Door (Double)

Double sliding doors can be
hung on a rail at the top or slide
on a track in the ground (usually
recessed into the ground) or both.
If a guide rail is fixed to the ground,

it should be shown on the plan.
Indicate with a small arrow on

plans and elevations the directions
in which the doors slide.
The doors can slide on the external

face of the wall or within a recess
built into the wall. In the case of
the latter, the leaves are not visible
when the doors are open.
189
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Pivot Door
A pivot door can be set with a
central or offset pivot hinge. In
general, these are used for large
openings as there is a smaller
‘clear width’ than with a simple
hinge door.
190
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
Folding Door
There are many variations on
the folding door. Depending
on the width of the opening,
you can set the number and
widths of the door leaves.
191
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Revolving Door
Usually used in public or large
commercial buildings. They
can be difficult to negotiate for
disabled users.
There are various formations

of revolving door – they may
contain two, three or four
compartments.
192
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
3.3.4 Drawing Doors and

Windows at Various Scales
1:200
1:100 1:50 (Working Drawing)
1:20 (Detailed Drawing)
193
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
1:2 (Plan)
1 Fig. 61
1. Plaster
2 2. Frame
3. Hinge
4. Rubber gasket
3
5. Double glazing
6. Glazing bead
7. Opening sash
8. Handle
4 9. Weather stripping
10. Screw fixing
5
10
194
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
1:2 (Section)
Fig. 62
1. Screw fixing
2. Frame
1 3. Stepped rebate
4. Glazing bead
5. Opening sash
2
6. Double glazing
7. Rubber gasket
3
8. Rainwater drainage channel
9. Weather bar
10. External windowsill
4
11. Internal windowsill
10
11
195
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.3.5 Setting Out Doors and Windows
Se
ection
Take care when drawing and
an
nnotating doors that the critical
4 dimensions are included.
‘Sttructural opening’ refers to the

5
dimension between the finished
flo
oor level and the underside
off the lintel. This is a critical
1 2 dimension for setting out on site.
Th
he ‘clear vertical height’ refers
to
o the dimension between the
un
nderside of the door frame
an
nd the door saddle.
NBB
Th
he door leaf height, width and
thickness will be needed by the
3 do
oor manufacturer.
Fig
g. 63
1. Structural opening
2. Clear vertical height
7 3. Door saddle
4. Lintel
5. Architrave
6. Door leaf height
7. Door leaf thickness
196
3.3 WINDOWS & DOORS
Plan
In plan, 'structural opening'
refers to the dimension of the
1 gap in the wall – before any
door frame has been added.
2
'Clear opening' refers to the inner

dimension of the door frame
less the thickness of the door
leaf – e.g. the usable width of the
open door. Remember to exclude
the thickness of the door leaf.
Fig. 64
1. Structural opening
2. Clear opening
3. Door leaf width
197
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.4
Hatching
& Lettering
199
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.4.1 Hatching
Hatching is used in working drawings do occur, however, in international

to indicate types of materials when hatching standards. Hatching is
you cut through them in plan or generally used on construction/
section. The patterns allow you to working drawings at scales from
distinguish one material from another 1:100 to 1:1. It is not generally used on
on your drawings and also allow presentation or schematic drawings.
you to read other people’s technical Hatching is done with a fine light line
drawings – even if the legend is in so as not to dominate the drawing –
another language. Slight variations a 2H or 4H lead weight is appropriate.
Large Scale Small Scale

i.e. 1:2 / 1:5 / 1:10 i.e. 1:20 / 1:50 / 1:100
Brickwork
Concrete
200
3.4 HATCHING & LETTERING

i.e. 1:2 / 1:5 / 1:10 i.e. 1:20 / 1:50 / 1:100
Blockwork
Option 1
(More commonly used

in continental Europe.
Also used to denote
rigid insulation.)
Blockwork
Option 2
(More commonly
used in the UK
and Ireland.)
Earth
Steel
201
DRAWING TECHNIQUES

i.e. 1:2 / 1:5 / 1:10 i.e. 1:20 / 1:50 / 1:100
Wrought
Timber
Unwrought
Timber
The term wrought timber The sizing of timber elements

describes timber that has been is important to get right, as
planed or finished. It is generally the dimensions for wrought
used for joinery. Unwrought timber are smaller than those
timber refers to unfinished timber of unwrought timber because
usually used for joists, studs and of the finishing process.
other structural elements.
See Sections 6.2.11 and 6.2.12.
202

i.e. 1:2 / 1:5 / 1:10 i.e. 1:20 / 1:50 / 1:100
Insulation
(typically
fibre-glass)
(Rigid insulation is sometimes shown as a

hatch pattern similar to Blockwork Option 1.)
Insulation
(Germany and
Switzerland)
Hardcore
Plaster/Screed
203
DRAWING TECHNIQUES

i.e. 1:2 / 1:5 / 1:10 i.e. 1:20 / 1:50 / 1:100
Stone
Plywood
Granular Fill
Mastic Asphalt
204

i.e. 1:2 / 1:5 / 1:10 i.e. 1:20 / 1:50 / 1:100
Glass
NB
It is rare to hatch
materials in elevation –
glass is the exception.
DPC/DPM
205
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.4.2 Lettering
7mm
m
10mm
7mm
206
The first principle of all lettering Group all text in a neat column
is legibility. Set up very faint alongside the drawing. Use
guidelines before starting to write. reference lines to connect the
Write in thin monoline lettering – notes to the drawing.
i.e. without showing thickness to
Avoid cramping the text or
the characters.
spreading it out so much that
The size of the lettering should it becomes difficult to read.
relate to the overall impact needed
Lettering takes practice. It is worth
– i.e. main titles should be larger
putting the time in, as neat and
than notes.
clear lettering greatly enhances
an architectural drawing.
207
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.5
Paper Types
& Line Weights
209
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.5.1 Paper Types
At first glance, there appears to Paper is graded according

be an infinite amount of paper to its weight in grams
to choose from when it comes relative to 1m² of paper.
to drawing — or drafting as it is
Typical office photocopy paper
sometimes called.
is 80g/m². Paper weights used
As architects and students of for drawing purposes range
architecture, we need to become from 25g/m² to 300g/m².
familiar with paper types and the
The unofficial unit symbol gsm
media that most suit them. This
(meaning g/m²) is also widely
will come with experimentation
used in English-speaking
and experience. In the meantime,
countries and can be found on
we have put together some basic
most reams of photocopy paper.
information to help you on your way.
Paper is also graded according
The following pages list the basic
to a measurement known as
paper types you will use in your
‘tooth’. This refers to the degree
first year of college.
of surface texture of a given
piece of paper and is normally
determined by how the paper
is made and the material used
to make it.
210
3.5 PAPER TYPES & LINE WEIGHTS
A1 A0
A2 A3
A4 A5
A6
Standard ISO Paper Sizes A-Series

The advantage of the ISO system A0 (1188 × 840mm)
is its ability to scale without A1 (840 × 594mm)
compromising the aspect ratio A2 (594 × 420mm)
from one size to another. If a A3 (420 × 297mm)
sheet with an aspect ratio of 1:√2 A4 (297 × 210mm)
is divided into two equal halves A5 (210 × 148.5mm)
parallel to its shortest sides, then A6 (148.5 × 105mm)
the halves will again have an
aspect ratio of 1:√2. NB
American sizes differ
from European sizes.
211
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Sketch Paper
8 Like a lot of paper types, sketch
paper comes in both sheet and roll
form. A4 sketch paper roll is most
7 typically used and is a staple of
studio work.
At 25g/m² this is the lightest paper

6
you will use and it is generally
suited to freehand sketching and
5
overlaying. Tear off an A3-sized
section and place it over your
hard-line or sketch drawings. The
4
transparent nature of the paper
allows tracing and re-working of
3 earlier drawings.
Fig. 65
1. Sketch paper 5. Vellum TIP
2. Butter paper 6. Cartridge paper

3. Detail paper 7. Watercolour paper Always write your name on the
4. Tracing paper 8. Watercolour paper paper edge side of your rolls,
because they can go missing
in a studio environment.
212
Butter Paper Detail Paper

This comes in sheets slightly This is typically used as part of
smaller than A1 at 750 × 500mm. It the design process and is less
is more durable than sketch roll, common for finished drawings.
with a weight of 40g/m². It has an It is a delicate paper and pretty
off-white yellowish colour. unforgiving in that it is difficult to
correct/erase lines once they have
It is useful for overlays, sketching
been drawn.
and setting-out drawings or
‘nets’. It is not typically used for It is generally used in sheet form
presentation drawings because it at A1 size (840 × 594mm). It could
is non-standard size. be described as semi-opaque
(partially see-through).
TIP
Butter paper takes polychrome

colouring pencils well.
213
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Tracing Paper Vellum

This comes in three common weights: This is a semi-opaque high-quality
63g/m², 90g/m² and 112g/m². It paper used for the purpose of
is available in pad, sheet and roll presentation. It has a slightly oily
form. It was traditionally used for feel and is more forgiving than
working drawings and presentation detail paper (see p. 213) when it
drawings because it takes pencil comes to minor adjustments.
and drawing pens well. It was widely
Vellum paper is becoming very
used as it could be copied on a
difficult to get nowadays because
dyeline machine, which is an old form
it is no longer widely produced.
of the modern-day printer. It is an
excellent litmus test for developing
your drawing skills and for this
reason we would recommend it.
TIP
Keep your hands clean when using

tracing paper, as greasy paper will
repel ink or cause smudging and
poor line quality.
Never use fine pens or markers

on tracing paper as they are not
capable of the same line definition
that is possible with pencil or
drawing/drafting pens (e.g. Rotring
Rapidograph/Staedtler Mars).
214
Cartridge Paper Watercolour Paper

Like tracing paper, cartridge paper This differs from manufacturer to
comes in all the standard sheet manufacturer, so experiment not
sizes. Typically it is available in only with the different kinds of
weights of 110g/m², 155g/m² and paper but also with various brands.
200g/m². It is used for presentation
Weights range from 190g/m² to
drawings and the thicker, better
600g/m². There are three different
quality papers take ranges of lead
types of finishes available which
weights particularly well.
relate to the process by which they
Cartridge paper is opaque and are made: rough, cold-pressed
off-white in colour. You cannot trace and hot-pressed paper. Hot-
onto cartridge paper unless you use pressed has a smooth finish that
a light box. takes colour and lead pencil and
pastel very well. It is particularly
suited to rendering finished
drawings with these media.
TIP
Cartridge paper is relatively

unforgiving because if you make
an error, erasing is difficult.
It is not practical to roll cartridge

paper, especially the thicker-grade
papers, as this will leave permanent
creases on the sheet.
Check both sides of the paper

before you draw as some papers
have differing finishes on either side.
215
DRAWING TECHNIQUES
3.5.2 Line Weights
Architectural drafting requires

different skills and techniques
compared with freehand artistic
drawings. Drawing techniques
are learned over time by practice
and with the application of the
discipline of shared standards
and conventions.
All basic drawing skills are

born out of a competency in
pencil drawing. As mentioned
in Chapter 1, the clutch pencil
is the staple of pencil drawing.
It holds a 2mm diameter lead,
which is slotted into the tip-end
of the pencil’s metal casing,
as demonstrated here.
TIP
Mechanical pencils should not be

used for drafting as they cannot
be sharpened, so variation of line
thickness is difficult.
216
Lead types most commonly used It is helpful to have at least two

for drafting are HB, B, 2B and 2H. clutch pencils available at any
Sometimes a 4H is used for fine time so you can have two different
hatching and construction lines. leads ready for use. The HB and
The higher the ‘H’ number, the the 2B are the most useful leads
harder the lead will be; conversely, for setting-up of construction
the higher the ‘B’ number, the softer lines and for hard-line drawings,
the lead will be. This is illustrated because you can get a good range
above with a selection of the most of line thicknesses with a minimum
commonly used leads. amount of lead sharpening.
217
4
Working
Through
Drawing
Drawing survives and even thrives in
this digital age because – simply put –
there is no better process for exploring
and expressing visual ideas with the
directness, personal expressiveness,
or inventive specificity that drawing
provides. It is the visual mind’s best,
fastest and most flexible way of thinking.
—Christopher Brown
Architects use drawing processes to differing ends
depending on the focus of their work at any one
time. Drawing is a means of communicating ideas,
but it is also a process through which ideas are
explored. The inexplicable connection between
hand, eye and brain that occurs when we draw is
key to the generation of thought on paper. This
connection can also be referred to as kinaesthetic
learning, or learning by doing. ‘Drawing is thinking’ –
it is not just the end product; rather, the process of
drawing brings up questions that when answered
guide us in the design process.
In this chapter we look at the range of drawing
types commonly used by architectural students and
architects in practice, to both explore and represent
ideas at the various stages of the design process.
We also look at a sample project in which a
number of drawing types were used in the design
process to develop, as well as to explain and
represent, the project.
WORKING THROUGH DRAWING
4.1
Drawing
to Observe
& Record
221
4.1.1 Drawing From Observation
Drawing from observation – Sketch books are ideal when

whether it is life drawing, still life, drawing on your travels or for
small objects or buildings – is jotting down and recording ideas.
good practice when it comes to
The following series of drawings
honing your drawing and sketching
and sketches illustrate some
skills. It is true to say that drawing
of the many types used by
ability improves with repetition
architects and students.
and practice.
In the drawing opposite, a
Another benefit of drawing
Rapidograph ink drafting pen is
from observation is that it will
sketched using a combination of
develop your feeling for form,
lead pencil, colouring pencil and
a core sense for an architect.
watercolour at different scales.
We recommend that you practise

drawing and sketching in different
media on a regular basis.
222
4.1 DRAWING TO OBSERVE & RECORD
223
4.1.2 Object Study
Drawing at different speeds and in The sketch below is a 30-second

different media is a good way to drawing of a garlic press in soft
develop intuitive drawing skills. pencil, completed without lifting
the pencil. Opposite is a 30-minute
sketch of the same garlic press
using a graphite pencil.
224
225
This object study of a garlic press

concludes with the compilation of a
hard-line drawing. The drawing is set
out with plan, sections and elevations,
all aligned with each other.
However, this drawing goes one

step further – by demonstrating
how the object moves, showing its
different positions in dotted line.
The thickness of the metal handle of
the garlic press is also indicated.
The number of sections indicates

the changing profile of the handle.
226
James Dolan Prize Drawing
227
4.1.3 Student Exercises
Developing an intimate knowledge Example 1

of materials and how they are used Gemma Gallagher, 2nd year UCD
to make buildings and landscapes School of Architecture, 2010/11
is an important foundation for
Student Description
architects. It feeds into, and
For my material study, I chose an
influences, their work at every level
alleyway leading up to the church
of the design process.
beside my site. A lot of the side
The following two exercises are laneways are very similar, but this
examples of students’ responses one in particular caught my eye as
when asked to study an object/ the range of materials used was
material on, or close to, their project extraordinary. This lane emphasized
site by sketching from observation. the difference between the busy and
more modern Martin’s Row and the
Students were specifically asked to:
older, traditional narrow streets.
• Take photographs that
record material tone,
colour and shadow. NB
• Sketch this material. The success of this study is
• Record its dimensions, the observation of the use
form and proportions in of material and relating it
plan, section and elevation. to its historical context.
• Note patterns and
observe rhythms.
• Note how it is fixed to
the ground/wall.
228
Fig. 67
Photo of the surfaces
Fig. 66
Overall sketch
Fig. 69
Plan of ground textures
Fig. 68
Photo of the site
229
Example 2
Caryn Chan, 2nd year UCD School
of Architecture, 2010/11
Student Description
Shadows appear in the grooves
of the forms, giving an uneven
texture. The railing as a whole
casts a continuous shadow
reflecting its concise pattern.
The repetitive rhythm is created

by the placement of bars at 80mm
centres along the perimeter of
the house. The constant rhythm
gives an order to the railing,
like beats on a music score.
NB
This student makes a very
detailed close-up observational
study of a railing, combined
with an understanding of
the railing as a whole.
Fig. 70
Photos of railings
230
Fig. 71
Sketches of railing details
231
4.1.4 Sketch Books
Architects use sketch books to Fig. 72

record a range of information. Analytical sketch of Sir
Quick analytical drawings can be John Soane’s Dulwich
a useful way of understanding the Picture Gallery
proportions and forms of buildings
you visit. Try to imagine what the
plan of the room you are in would
look like and what a section would
be. These analytical drawings take
practice, but making them is an
invaluable skill for understanding
the buildings around you.
Over the next few pages, we show

a range of architects’ sketches
from sketch books.
TIP
Be conscious when sketching

of how much time you have. It
is possible to complete very
effective, simple line drawings
in a matter of seconds.
You can use your sketch book as

a scrapbook, including photos
and other reference material.
232
233
Fig. 73
Sketch proposals
234
Fig. 74
Photo of materials study
235
These sketches show it is possible

to commplete informative drawings
in very
y little time. In this case,
the arc
chitect wanted to note the
unusual stepped street section,
so details such as windows and
doors were not included. With a
minimum of detail, these simple
Fig. 75 drawings capture a specific
Quick analytical sketches point clearly and economically.
236
Sketch books are useful for jotting

down ideas and notes. The sketch
above records the elements
involved in a idea about an exposed
structure at an early design stage,
Fig. 76 which was developed and altered
Structural strategy sketch as the project evolved.
237
The drawing opposite shows a

section through a small cottage.
The sketch includes dimensions
and elements such as furniture,
windows and doors, and details of
construction are carefully noted.
This type of drawing could be
used as a template for drawing
up a survey – see Chapter 5.
Fig. 77
Bothar Buí by architect Robin Walker.
Sketch courtesy of Dermot Boyd
238
239
Fig. 78
Igualada Cemetery by Enric
Miralles and Carme Pinos.
Sketch courtesy of Michael Pike
NB
By including a proportional pllan,
section and elevation in the same
sketch, a more complete reco ord
can be achieved.
240
241
Fig. 79
Igualada Cemetery by Enric Miralles
and Carme Pinos.
Sketch courtesy of Gerry Cahill
242
NB
A pictorial approach to
recording information can
capture the spirit of a place.
243
4.2
Representing
the Idea
Drawing, as a way of thinking and developing ideas,

is a fundamental process in design. When it comes
to communicating a developed design concept,
different drawing types are required that will visually
communicate that concept clearly and succinctly in
a single image or a sequence of images. The most
relevant type of drawing can depend on who the
audience is; for example, a drawing for a building
contractor will require different kinds of information than
a drawing for a client. Often the audience is yourself;
you draw to clarify your own intentions. This can be
done in numerous ways. In this section, we show you
a small selection of the many ways in which ideas
can be represented in drawing form. In each case, a
description is given of the method and materials used.
245
4.2.1 Trace from Photographs
Method
A number of photographs were Coloured paper was fixed
taken from a height to capture the to the back of the sheet to
view of a city block in Dublin. In highlight different elements:
this instance, they were taken from two sites either side of the
the top of a crane on an adjacent railway track, the railway
site. These photos were then put track itself and a community
together to give the overall view. building in the background.
It is also possible to access this Purpose

type of view by using Bing Maps The purpose of this drawing
at www.bing.com/maps or Google was to represent the relevant
Maps at www.google.com/maps. areas of interest relating
to a thesis propossal.
An A1-sized sheet of tracing paper
was then overlaid on the photos
and the image was traced. This
involved a certain amount of
artistic interpretation, because all
the detail on the photos cannot
end up on the final sheet.
Fig. 80
Site photo-montage and a tracing
246
4.2 REPRESENTING THE IDEA
247
4.2.2 Sequencing Images

to Show Process
It is difficult to explain a process Method

with a single image. This method The image has been made by
of placing images in sequence collage. The black and white
to explain a process concept is texture and the red element were
a useful way of communicating collaged from a magazine source.
an idea step by step.
A section through the railway
This image sequence track was drawn to scale and
represents a proposal to used as a template to cut out
insert a new structure into an the correct shape of the various
existing raised railway track. elements. The sequence of images
presents the different stages
of the construction process.
Fig. 81
Construction sequence
248
249
4.2.3 Drawing Sequence
There are a number of ways to

represent a project spatially in
two dimensions. The following
sequence of sketches do
this. They have been made
by overlaying photographs.
The series of images progress

towards the proposed project,
in this case a theatre.
Location
Capel Street, Dublin
Dots on the plan indicate

the route taken in this
sequence of sketches.
250
251
252
4.2.4 Exploded Axonometric
An exploded axonometric drawing

shows the main elements of a
design separated out from each
other, but related back to their
original relationship spatially,
usually with dotted lines.
There is skill involved in deciding

which elements to extrude and
where to place them on the sheet.
In this example, colour has

been used to highlight different
elements such as structure,
furniture and cladding.
NB
See how to set up and draw an ‘axo’
(axonometric view) in Section 2.3.3.
Fig. 82
Drawing courtesy of Killian Doherty,
Architectural Field Office
253
4.2.5 Rotated Plan/Part-isometric View
Depending on the complexity of a

design, it may be helpful to explain
it by using this approach.
Plans are laid out in sequence,

but they are rotated through 30º.
In order to understand the context,
sometimes it can be useful to
show selected parts of the design
in three dimensions while relating
it to the plan.
254
4.2.6 Sketch Perspective

and Photograph Overlay
This is a method of inserting NB

a sketch into a photograph See how to set up and draw a
to represent an idea quickly. sketch perspective in Chapter 2.
This is often used to put your
proposal in context. A photo of
the site can be inserted behind
a sketch of your proposal.
255
4.2.7 Presentation Elevations
Section through site 1:200
East elevation to street 1:100
Using collage to depict a building

elevation can be an effective
and relatively quick way of
communicating a design intention.
The top drawing shows a site

section through a school project
in black line and solid block.
256
The bottom elevation is a collage NB

showing the different materials in Remember, when preparing these
the elevations, using an assortment drawings, to consider the scale
of magazine clippings, tape, of the texture you are using.
textured paper and mesh arranged
to represent material and volume.
257
4.2.8 Adding Depth
This drawing represents a

proposed school in plan and in its
urban context. The digital drawing
was printed in black and white, and
the site detail was added in pencil.
It was also necessary to highlight

the proposed urban scale
intervention, which involved more
subtle changes to the urban
landscape. The type and extent of
these changes were highlighted by
the use of colouring pencil applied
to the printed sheet by hand, using
tone to create a sense of depth
and shadow, and delineating the
relevant area to be altered.
Shading and texture give a

richness to the surrounding
context of the building.
258
259
4.2.9 Watercolour Sketches
Orthographic representations Method

describe your project in an Draw a perspective view on
understandable two-dimensional watercolour paper (either hard-line
format. But they lack the third or freehand, depending on your
dimension that helps the level of ability – see Section 2.4).
viewer imagine the project and
Use watercolour washes to
communicate the spirit of the
develop the image. When the
architect’s intentions.
watercolour has dried, you can use
These watercolour vignettes graphite pencil to show shadow.
represent views inside and outside
a project as imagined by the
designer. They also communicate
a further dimension – how it would
feel to be inside the building.
Three-dimensional sketches
and perspectives are a very
useful way of explaining your
proposals to people who do
not understand orthographic
representation. They also help you
to visualize your own proposals.
TIP
It is always better to suggest line

and form rather than define them
when drawing in a pictorial manner.
260
Fig. 83
Sketch of external walkway
261
Fig. 84
View from inside to outside
262
It is a useful skill to be able to This CAD drawing shows before

represent the essential idea of a and after sections through
project on one single drawing. a building, highlighting the
essential change in room size
and shape, the increased
connection with the surrounding
landscape and the introduction
of north light at a high level.
263
4.2.10 Adding Depth in Section
Achieving tone and depth and a Fig. 85

sense of materiality is an acquired Adding depth in section
skill which you develop by doing. – Conor Maguire
The drawing above is a great
example of the use of graphite and
coloured pencil, to this effect.
264
4.2.11 Scenography
Scenography in architecture Fig. 86

involves the creation of a physical Plaza De Les Glories Catalanes,
model and photographing it, to Conor McGowan et al
convey an atmosphere or vision
for the idea behind the project.
265
4.2.12 SketchUp/Photoshop
Using the software SketchUp Fig. 87

to model a building at the early SketchUp model image,
design stage is a very quick and rendered in Photoshop.
accessible method of developing Image courtesy of Gorman
three-dimensional images in Architects/Sean Lynch
perspective; 2D images can
be extracted from SketchUp as
jpegs. The image above was
then brought into Photoshop and
rendered using material images,
layers and levels of transparency.
266
4.2.13 3D Digital Image
3D digital images are produced Fig. 88

in a number of ways using Glasnevin 1916 Centenary
CAD software to make three- Chapel, Emer O’Daly,
dimensional models. By extracting O’Daly Architects
a two-dimensional isometric or
perspective view like the image
above, 2D views can then be
rendered in Photoshop to add
materials and a sense of light
and tone, or this aspect can be
developed in the 3D model itself
to achieve a photorealistic image,
depending on the software used.
267
4.3
Drawings
in Sequence
Here we look at the sequence of drawings that an architect

might use to design, develop and explain a project.
The Precast Concrete House in Howth, by FKL
Architects, was completed in 2009, following a five-year
design and construction period. FKL Architects stress
the importance of designing from first principles and
they often rely on a ‘concept sketch’ as a way of defining
and informing the design process. This concept comes
out of site and brief analysis. FKL began this project
by making models of the site and sketching possible
configurations. You can see in these notebook sketches
that this project evolved through a series of sections and
three-dimensional drawings. In the early stages of the
design process, you should use your notebook often,
and make concept models and drawings of your site.
269
270
4.3 DRAWINGS IN SEQUENCE
Early sketch ideas

Drawings of the
Precast Concrete
House in Howth,
County Dublin
271
4.3.1 Early Site Model
Making site models allows you In this project, the site sloped
to understand the possibilities steeply to the sea and was divided
and limitations of slope, scale lengthways by a deep natural
and topography. Site models at gulley. Making the model allowed
an early stage of a project allow the architects to fully appreciate
you to place proposals ‘on site’. and explore the options in terms
of orientation and positioning.
272
4.3.2 Concept Sketch
Having worked through site This concept sketch became

analysis and early design a touchstone throughout the
attempts, FKL then developed a detailed design of the project.
concept sketch. The project is
drawn here as three forms: the
swimming pool, the house and
the garage, each set at different
heights. These three forms slip
past one another as they move
down the site towards the sea.
273
4.3.3 Working Models
As the project developed, FKL

continued to make models, at a
larger scale, examining options
for composition and façades.
These models were made as
working models – i.e. they were
photographed, altered and made
to work as tools of the design
process rather than as final
presentation models.
274
At the same time as making physical See Section 2.4 for

models, FKL were working with instructions on constructing
digital models and collage. Making one-point perspectives.
3D drawings of the project and
collaging in photographs of the site
allowed the architects and clients to
imagine how the proposals would
look at eye level in context.
You can achieve this quite easily by

constructing one-point perspective
drawings of your proposal and
using photographs of your site as
a background (see Section 4.2.6).
275
4.3.4 Working Drawings
When the building had been

designed and was ready for
construction, tender drawings
were prepared. These are detailed
drawings at a range of scales to
show materials, dimensions and
construction.
Tender drawings are working

drawings and are issued to
contractors to obtain quotes
for construction, so it is critical
that they contain all relevant
information, including dimensions
and descriptions of the materials.
Tender/Working drawings
typically consist of GA (general
arrangement) drawings showing
the layout of the building in
plan, section and elevation, with
detailed drawings at 1:50, 1:20,
1:10 and sometimes 1:5 or 1:2.
276
277
This is a part of the 1:50 plan

of the tender drawing.
The drawing shows setting-out

dimensions, section lines and floor
levels, as well as written notes
explaining construction.
The notes are carefully placed to

the right of the drawing for clarity
and describe what the build-up is
of the construction. The contractor
uses these notes to price work, to
order materials and to build from.
These are complex drawings and
are dense with information.
278
279
4.3.5 Site Sketches
This sketch is typical of the kind of

drawing you may do on site while
the building is under construction.
Issues often arise during the
construction of a project that can
be resolved with a quick hand
drawing, which helps the architect
communicate with the contractor.
280
281
4.3.6 Presentation Drawings
When the construction of the

building was complete, FKL then
remade their detailed working
drawings as presentation drawings.
The presentation drawings were
used to publicize the project.
This process eliminates much of the

technical information (e.g. hatching,
dimensions and shading) from the
working drawings and allows them Building under construction
to be understood more easily.
You will follow a similar process

when you prepare presentation
drawings for reviews. Take care
to show the difference between
walls and openings, and to make
the drawings as clear and legible
as possible. Your audience is
key. To illustrate the spatial
organization of the building, a
simplified presentation drawing
is more suitable than a dense
‘working drawing’.
Completed building
282
Presentation plan
Drawings and images courtesy of FKL Architects
283
5
Surveying
Surveying may be defined as the art of making measurements

of the relative positions of natural and man-made features on
the Earth’s surface, and the presentation of this information
either graphically or numerically.
—Arthur Bannister, Stanley Raymond, Raymond Baker
Surveying existing buildings or sites is a
common first step in the design process.
Surveying combines careful observation
with accurate recording techniques.
In this chapter, we set out helpful surveying
techniques and outline how to compile notes and
sketches drawn on site into hard-line drawings.
Precise initial survey drawings are
critical to the development of accurate and
appropriate design proposals. It may be
necessary to visit a site a number of times
to prepare thorough survey drawings.
SURVEYING
5.1
Introduction
to Surveying
287
SURVEYING
5.1.1 What is Surveying?
There are several methods of The purpose of this process is

surveying, each resulting in varying to record information about the
degrees of accuracy in terms of proportion, size and relative
the information recorded. levels of buildings and elements
in plan, section and elevation.
The basic tools used in planar
This information can then be used
surveying are a tape measure for
to make accurate drawings of
determining distances; a level
existing forms and conditions.
to determine height or elevation
differences; and a theodolite, As well as this technical method
set on a tripod, to measure long of recording existing information,
distances and angles, combined architects also use drawings
with the process of triangulation. as a method of recording their
Starting from a position of initial response to a given site.
known location and elevation The initial pictorial sketch drawn
(use an Ordnance Survey (OS) on site during the first site visit
map to get this information), can very often be the basis of
the distance and angles to the inspiration for future designs. It
unknown point are measured. is more subjective by nature and
tends to be a more instinctive or
Architects also survey the
subconscious response to the
built environment by drawing
inherent genius locii of a site.
and annotating proportional
sketches on site. There is also an advantage in
talking to local people and
reading about the local history.
288
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
5.1.2 Basic Equipment
Before carrying out any survey,

it is a good idea to make a checklist
of the equipment you will need
to bring with you:
Tape measure
2mm lead clutch pencil (2B)
3mm fine pens (black and red)
Eraser
Sketch book
Camera
Clipboard (A4)
Tracing paper
Grid-lined paper
Calculator
Ruler
Compass TIP
Optional Extras Before visiting the site, get an

Laser pointer official Ordnance Survey (OS) map
Theodolite, dumpy level or spirit level of the site in question and study the
String information contained in it.
Tape recorder
A laser pointer is very useful if
Mobile phone
you are surveying on your own.
289
SURVEYING
5.2
Surveying
Techniques
291
SURVEYING
5.2.1 Methods of Measurement
Buildings made of modular materials Most brick buildings in Ireland

such as brick can be surveyed and the UK are made with bricks
by measuring the modular brick that are a standard size of (L) 215
size and counting the numbers × (W) 102.5 × (H) 65mm. When
to calculate a length or height. counting brick courses, always
allow 10mm for a mortar joint
between each brick course.
292
5.2 SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
Example 1
79 brick courses from the
ground level to the eaves line.
TIP
79 × 75*mm = 5,925mm
Overall height = 5,925mm Before relying on standard brick

sizes, always check the dimensions
*75mm = 65mm brick height + 10mm mortar joint
of a couple of bricks in case the
bricks are not standard.
293
SURVEYING
Example 2 Fig. 89
To calculate the ground slope, 1. Ten-brick-long run
measure 10 brick widths along 2. Drop of one brick-
the length of the wall. height
Check that the total is 2,250mm

(225mm × 10). If not, the bricks
are either non-standard or have
thicker mortar joints than 10mm.
In Fig. 89, the ground level drops

by one brick-height over the
length of ten bricks. This is a
drop of 75mm over 2,250mm.
This means 75/2,250 = 1/30 fall.
294
Example 3
Use the same method to calculate
other modular elements – for
example, the number of window
panels on the strip above.
TIP
One window panel = 1,010mm wide
Six window panels in the strip When calculating multiple

means an overall dimension of elements, always check for thicker
(approx.) 6,060mm wide. outer frame dimensions in case
they are different, to ensure
an accurate final dimension.
295
SURVEYING
296
Example 4
Photograph a colleague straight-on
against the elevation you want to
estimate. To estimate the overall height
of the wall, count the approximate
number of times your colleague fits
into the wall.
Colleague’s height = 1.72m
1.72 × 5.5 = 9.46m
Elevation height ≈ 9.5m
NB
Some distortion is inevitable in the
photograph due to perspective, so
dimensions are approximate only.
297
SURVEYING
Fig. 90 Fig. 91
Height and arm span Pace
Fig. 92 Fig. 93
Hand span Foot length
298
Example 5
Use your body as a measuring
device. Know your own
dimensions: height, arm span,
hand span, foot length and pace.
To calculate your pace (Fig. 91),

measure the number of steps you
take over a distance of 10 m. Then
divide 10 by the number of steps
you took to get your pace. This is
more accurate than just measuring
a single step.
299
SURVEYING
Example 6
To calculate the radius of a column,
measure the circumference (Fig. 94)
of the column with a piece of string.
Radius (r) = Circumference (c) ÷ 2π
π = 3.1416 (to 4 decimal places)
c = 1,500mm
1,500mm ÷ 2π = 238.73mm
Fig. 94
Circumference of a column
300
p
a
Example 7
To calculate the radius of an arc, Radius (r) = x + p
first measure the chord length
x = [(a ÷ 2) × (a ÷ 2)] ÷ p
(a) of the arc. Then measure the
perpendicular dimension (p) from if a = 2.4m and p = 0.65m
the mid-point of the chord length
x = [(2.4 ÷ 2) × (2.4 ÷ 2)] ÷ 0.65
to the arc.
then x = 2.215 m
The unknown quantity (x) is the
distance from the mid-point chord r = 2.215 + 0.65 = 2.865 m
length to the centre of the circle.
301
SURVEYING
5.2.2 Ordnance Survey Maps
Fig. 95
Before visiting the site, get an

Ordnance Survey (OS) map of the
site in question. Request sample
maps from the library or map shop –
they illustrate the level of information
shown at the different scales. NB
The on-site checklist opposite
A scale of 1:500 or 1:1,000 is suitable
is useful for ensuring you have
for most small-scale urban studies.
properly observed and recorded
You can use the OS map to the conditions on site.
check orientation, common
routes, levels and topography. Copyright Permit No. MP 000315
302
Site Checklist
Date and time of visit
Site orientation
Access to site
Access/obstruction to solar radiation
Prevailing wind/shelter
Obstacles: access/obstruction to daylight
Trees (evergreen or deciduous)
Water courses
Topography/slope
Significant level changes
Water and waste disposal
Potential renewable energy sources
Unusual features/aspects
Significant views
Fig. 96
303
SURVEYING
5.2.3 On-site Surveying
Sketching on-site results in a

deeper, more accurate observation
of the site and the buildings on it.
Step 1
When you visit the site, photograph
(Fig. 97) and sketch (Fig. 98) it. It
can be helpful to mark on a map the
locations where the photographs
have been taken. These will be
useful points of reference when it
comes to drawing up your survey.
Fig. 97
Entrance to the James Joyce Library,
University College Dublin, Belfield
304
Fig.
g. 98
Step 2 Sketch plan
Draw a sketch plan as accurately as
you can, making notes of building
elements such as door swings, TIP
slopes, ramps and steps. Observe

structural elements such as It is advisable to use graph
columns and beams lining up, and paper when making survey
note what is happening overhead. sketches and notes as a guide
to set out your drawings.
305
SURVEYING
Fig. 99
Plan sketch with annotations Step 3
1. Chain dimension Add dimensions to the initial sketch
– always try to keep the drawing
legible! Take chain dimensions for
accuracy. Chain dimensions are a
line of continuous dimensions that
can be added together to give an
overall length.
306
Fig. 100
Section sketch with annotations Step 4
Now draw a sketch section,
taking note of changes in level,
alignments and elements such
as overhangs, porches and
ceiling details. Once again, take
chain dimensions for accuracy.
It is common practice to show

finished floor levels in metres.
307
SURVEYING
5.2.4 Surveying an Element
The following sketches and hard-

line drawings are the result of a
survey carried out on a window
(Fig. 101).
First, draw the object/elevation to

be surveyed. This drawing, usually
done on an A4 sheet backed by
a clipboard and gridded paper,
sets up the extent of the object
being surveyed. For this reason
the setting out of the sheet is
key to ensure enough room is
left for the object and the related
dimensions on the same page.
The sketch (Fig. 102) highlights

certain exterior sections of the
window to show more detail.
Other annotations describe
how the window moves.
Fig. 101
Exterior of a Queen Anne window,
Marsh’s Library, Dublin
Fig. 102 (opposite)

Plan and elevation sketch
308
309
SURVEYING
The elevation sketch shown in

Fig. 104 gives the general interior
layout of the window, plus the
seat and timber panelling.
It is similar to the first drawing

(Fig. 102), but includes more
context. Some further detail
is noted at this point also.
TIP
Inevitably you will develop your

own style of surveying, but clarity
and legibility are critical as there
may well be a time lapse between
when you survey and when you
draw up your survey. In an office
environment, you may have to
draw up a colleague’s site sketches
or pass on your sketches. While
Fig. 103
it is advisable to draw up your
Interior of Queen Anne window,
own survey, if this is not possible
Marsh’s Library, Dublin
legibility is paramount.
Fig. 104 (opposite) Try to avoid making notes without

Interior elevation sketch relating them back to the whole
object being surveyed.
Taking photographs will help you

pull the information together when
it comes to drawing up.
310
311
SU
URVEYING
Th
hese two sketches are closer
studies of window details. They
arre a more detailed recording
off things like the door catch
annd hinge.
Fig
gs. 105 & 106
De
etail sketches
312
313
SURVEYING
314
The sketch survey information

is then used to prepare a
hard-line drawing. Laying
out the sheet to check that
everything fits is important.
These general arrangement

elevations and sections
can be used to refer to and
locate detail drawings.
NB
Always align plan,
section and elevation.
315
SURVEYING
316
This 1:2 detail drawing was

prepared from the information
gathered during the survey,
and further research into the
history of the window itself.
NB
Some information has
been estimated in order
to complete the drawing.
317
6
Materials
Again and again there is the

sensuality of the material – how
it feels, what it looks like: does
it look dull; does it shimmer
or sparkle? Its smell. Is it hard
or soft, flexible, cold or warm,
smooth or rough? What colour
is it and which structures does
it reveal on its surface?
—Manfred Sack
This chapter sets out some issues to do with the
use of materials in your architectural designs.
The selection, detailing and considered use
of materials are critical to the success of any
architectural project. The study of materials is a
vast topic, which we can only touch on here. In
this chapter, we introduce you to the principles of
classifying materials and key factors in selecting
materials. Choosing appropriate materials for
your design projects should be informed by the
factors highlighted. The materials you use in a
project should help generate, reinforce and refine
your design concepts, and are integral to design
development.
In the second half of the chapter, we focus on the
potential for atmospheric or characteristic material
representation in your drawings.
Finally, we look at one simple architectural
project and explore how the selection, design and
detailing of materials can work intrinsically within an
architectural concept.
MATERIALS
6.1
Introduction
to Materials
321
MATERIALS
6.1.1 Wood
Wood (or timber) is easy to work Common Types

with. It has low weight and thermal Hardwood: complex cell structure,
conductivity, and high tensile and sourced from deciduous trees.
compressive strength. A variety of
Softwood: simple cell structure,
grains and hues are available.
sourced from coniferous trees.
Timber is susceptible to decay,
Uses
but can be treated with natural
Suitable for structural use. Used as
or chemical applications to add
a cladding material externally. Also
to its longevity. Careful detailing
used internally as a lining material
of timber can also help to extend
and for joinery and furniture.
its lifespan.
Timber is an environmentally
friendly building product as it is a
natural resource and requires low
levels of energy in its preparation.
Always source timber from an
accredited sustainable source.
Further Reading
Andrea Deplazes, Constructing

Architecture: Materials, processes,
structures – a handbook
Wood Marketing Federation of Ireland,

Woodspec: A guide to designing, detailing
and specifying timber in Ireland
322
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS
6.1.2 Wood Products
These are usually inexpensive Common Types

composite products made from Laminates: layers of wood glued
timber by-products and glue. together, e.g. plywood and
glulam (glued laminated timber).
They come in a variety of types, and
are generally classed according to Particle composite: timber
base wood product and the method ‘chips’ bonded together, e.g.
of manufacture. oriented strand board (OSB).
Fibreboard: e.g. chipboard,

medium-density fibreboard
(MDF) and hardboard.
Uses
Most suitable for cladding,
formwork and furniture
(structural application is
possible with glulam products).
Some timber products are
unsuitable for external use.
Further Reading
Yvonne Dean, Mitchell’s Building Series,

Materials Technology
y (see Chapter 13)
TIP
See Section 6.2 of this chapter for

details of the modular dimensions
of common wood products.
323
MATERIALS
6.1.3 Stone
Stone is a high-density, high- Common Types

strength natural material. A wide Igneous: basalt and granite.
variety of finishes and textures
Sedimentary: sandstone, limestone
are available. It belongs to the
and shale.
masonry group of materials.
Metamorphic: slate and marble.
Key factors in the selection
of stone include its hardness, Uses
granular size, patterning, colouring Traditionally, stone is used for
and finish. Stone can be finished load-bearing walls and columns.
in a variety of ways, from highly It is now more commonly used
polished to roughly carved, bush- as a cladding material. It can
hammered, and so on. be used as a floor surface or
for architectural details such as
windowsills, steps and reveals.
TIP
Further Reading
The key issues to be aware
Joanne Curran, Stone by Stone –
of in stone detailing are:
A guide to building stone in the
Northern Ireland environment • The coursing of solid stone walls.
• Fixings of stone cladding.
Theodor Hugues, Dressed Stone:
• The porosity of stone can
Types of stone, details and examples
affect its weathering and
staining over time.
324
6.1.4 Metal
Metal is a high-density material Common Types

with high thermal and electrical Metals are classified by their
conductivity. There are a wide chemical composition and density.
variety of pure and composite Heavy metals have a density of
metal alloys available. 4,500kg/m³ – e.g. lead, copper, iron
and zinc. Light metals are those with
Metals are generally finished with
a density of less than 4,500kg/m³ and
a smooth surface, but are prone to
include aluminium and magnesium.
corrosion. Alloys are often applied
Ferrous metals contain iron, while
to the surface to reduce this effect.
non-ferrous metals do not.
Uses
Metals such as iron and steel can
be used structurally. Sheet metals
are commonly used for cladding
and roofing. Aluminium window and
door profiles are another common
use of metal.
Further Reading
Burkhard Fröhlich, Metal Architecture:

TIP
Design and construction
Fire treatment is a critical issue

when it comes to choosing
metals, particularly those
used for structural support.
325
MATERIALS
6.1.5 Glass
A brittle transparent/translucent Common Types

material, glass has a high density Glass is typically available in sheet
and compressive strength, but form or as blocks. Some types of
it is prone to shattering due to glass have been developed to deal
low tensile strength. Its thermal with specific safety and structural
conductivity is average – but this requirements.
can be improved by applying
Uses
various coatings and layerings.
It is most commonly used in
Glass is made from metallic oxides windows and doors for light.
and silica which, under very high Structural applications are
temperatures, melt to form a liquid. possible, but expensive.
This is cooled to form solid glass.
Further Reading
TIP
Frank Kaltenbach, Translucent
materials: Glass, plastics, metals
Be aware of the U-value of the
Heinz W. Krewinkel, Glass Buildings: glass you choose. Double- and
Material, structure and detail triple-glazing improve the U-value
of doors and windows and help
minimise energy wastage.
326
6.1.6 Brick
Brick is a type of ceramic; an Common Types

inorganic material with high Clay or cement bricks.
compressive strength but low
Uses
tensile strength. It also has low
Traditionally brick was used for
thermal conductivity.
structural applications. Brick is
Bricks are made from clay or now often used as a cladding
cement, water and additives, or facing material, and can be
baked at high temperatures to made in prefabricated panels.
form small modular units. The firing
process ensures water resistance.
A wide variety of colours and

finishes are available in brick.
Further Reading
TIP
James W. P. Campbell,
Brick: A world history See Section 6.2 of this chapter for a
description of common brick bonds
Günter Pfeifer, Masonry
and for standard dimensions.
Construction Manual
Standard brick dimensions can vary
according to country of origin.
327
MATERIALS
6.1.7 Concrete
Concrete is a composite material Common Types

made from cement, water and Cast in-situ: concrete is poured
aggregates. It is fluid initially, and set in formwork on site.
but sets to form a hard, stone-like
Precast: concrete is cast in factory
material. Admixtures (additives)
conditions and brought to site as
can be added to concrete to
prefabricated solid elements.
improve elasticity, to speed up
or slow down setting times and Blocks: a common modular
to add colour. form of concrete used in
masonry construction.
Concrete is poured into formwork
to set, so the design of the Uses
formwork combined with the Concrete is commonly used for
type of aggregate used largely both structural and cladding
determines the finish of the applications. In combination with
concrete. Some finishes, such steel reinforcement, its structural
as polishing, are carried out performance increases.
after the concrete has set.
NB
Cement is a binder; a substance
that hardens and can bind other
Further Reading
materials together. It is the basic
Günter Pfeifer, Exposed Concrete: ingredient of concrete and mortar.
Technology + Design
David Bennet, Concrete Elegance,

Volumes 1–4
328
6.1.8 Insulation
The insulation value of a material Common Types

is determined by a low thermal Synthetic: materials such as
conductivity, which prevents heat polystyrene, polyurethane and
loss from the internal environment. Rockwool are commonly used.
Insulation can be integrated Non-synthetic: materials such as

into the formwork of concrete sheep’s wool, straw bales, hemp
or inserted as a separate layer and cellulose fibres have become
in a wall build-up. Insulation has increasingly popular due to their
become critical in achieving low- environmental benefits.
energy buildings.
Uses
Insulation can be applied externally,
internally or in a sandwich-style
composition in walls, floors and
roofs. Insulating materials can be
used to form the primary material of
construction – such as in straw-bale
construction. Also used to insulate
against sound transmission.
Further Reading
Margit Pfundstein, Insulating

Materials: Principles,
materials and applications
329
MATERIALS
6.1.9 Render & Screeds
Typically cement-based materials Common Types

are used to cover large areas with Traditionally some renders
few joints. have been made of lime plaster.
Recently there has been a rise in
Render and screeds are generally
the use of synthetic self-coloured
finish materials that are applied to
renders, which are resistant to
substrates such as plasterboard or
fading and shrinking.
blockwork walls or concrete floors.
They are made of a number of Uses
materials combined together. Render and screeds are non-
structural and are typically
applied to structural elements.
Render is commonly used in
masonry construction, while
screeds are commonly used
on concrete floor slabs.
Further Reading TIP
Alexander Reichel, Annette Hochberg

Render and screeds shrink when
and Christine Koepke, Plaster, Render,
drying, so the inclusion of joints
Paint and Coatings: Details, products,
is critical to prevent cracking.
case studies
Follow the manufacturer’s
guidelines on the number and
placement of movement joints.
330
6.1.10 Windows & Glazing
Nowadays windows tend to Roof lights come in many forms,

be either framed or unframed. and are favoured as they let in
When framed they are commonly more light than the same window
composite, i.e. made of more in a wall.
than one material. They can be
aluminium externally and wood
internally. Frameless glazing has
become more common in recent
years. Both double- and triple-
glazed windows are possible.
Glazing units can also be curved.
Further Reading
Bernhard Weller, Detail Practice:

Glass in building
TIP
Triple-glazed windows retain

more heat but let in less light.
331
MATERIALS
6.1.11 Material Selection Factors
1. Structural or Consider the structural needs of the project when

Non-structural selecting materials (e.g. spans and loads). This
Application will help dictate what materials are appropriate for
your particular design.
2. Cost Consider both the initial cost of the material and

the lifetime cost. Some materials may have a low
initial cost, but may have a limited lifespan or need
regular maintenance. High-cost materials such as
natural stone generally have a long lifespan and
so may be more cost-effective in the long run.
3. Location The location of the building project may dictate

suitable materials. Sites with high exposure, high
levels of pollution or danger of water penetration
may rule out vulnerable or high maintenance
materials. Use locally sourced materials where
possible, both for environmental reasons and for
the aesthetic value of local indigenous materials.
4. Timeframe of Materials that are labour intensive, such as

Construction bricks traditionally laid, are generally slower than
prefabricated materials. With cast in-situ concrete,
the curing time needs to be calculated into the
building programme. If time is a critical issue,
prefabricated elements will reduce construction
time.
332
5. Lifespan of The lifespan of the building needs to be considered

the Building when selecting materials. Buildings with a short
lifespan, such as a temporary pavilion, may
use materials that you would not consider for
a permanent structure.
6. Availability Check the availability of chosen materials before

specifying them, as you may have to allow for
order and delivery times. This is particularly
relevant for materials such as natural stone.
7. Maintenance Some materials such as external timber cladding

require regular maintenance. You should consider
this when making your selection, and consult with
your client as to the level of maintenance they are
willing to undertake. Clients are normally issued with
a building maintenance manual, which outlines the
maintenance required in a building after completion.
8. Environmental Sustainability, source and recycling possibilities

Considerations are all critical in the selection of materials. This
includes the disposal of demolition materials off
site and disposal of off cuts and waste during
construction. You should also consider the carbon
footprint of materials that are transported long
distances to the site.
9. Aesthetic See Section 6.1.12 for more detail on the aesthetic

Considerations considerations of material selection.
333
MATERIALS
6.1.12 Aesthetic Considerations
1. Weathering Weathering of some form occurs with all

architectural materials with exposure to rain, wind
and sun. Weathering can be additive (such as the
accumulation of dirt, algae and soot on a material)
or subtractive (such as the corrosion of stone due
to chemical reaction with acid rain).
2. Jointing Two clear strategies emerge in the detailing of

joints within materials – either the suppression
of joints, to create an impression of mass, or the
expression of joints, which leads to a reading of
the individual modular elements. Other important
considerations are joint colour, thickness and pattern.
3. Expression The choice of materials can impact significantly

on the reading of a project. Heavy materials such
as cast in-situ concrete give an impression of
solidity and permanence. Lightweight materials
such as glass and steel give an impression of
lightness and transparency.
4. Fixing Fixing methods (particularly for claddings)

can be exposed or concealed.
334
5. Finish and Most materials allow a range of options for surface

Treatment finish and treatment. This may serve a purely aesthetic
function or, in the case of varnishes and stains on
timber, help add to the lifespan of the material.
6. Colour Colour may be applied through paints or stains, or

and Texture may be inherent to the material, such as the rich
variety of colours available in natural stone.
7. Morality This is one of the most complex issues in the

and Honesty aesthetic principles of material selection.
Architects and theorists (including Adolf Loos
and John Ruskin) have applied morality to the
selection of materials, believing that the architect
should be ‘true’ to the material used. 'Honesty'
in these terms was understood to mean the
exposure of the natural characteristics and colour
of the materials and the avoidance of other
materials. Later theorists have questioned the
application of morality to building construction.
335
MATERIALS
6.2
Modular
Materials
337
MATERIALS
6.2.1 Standard Brick Dimensions
10
2 .5
m
m
m
5m
21
65mm Most bricks in Ireland and

the UK conform to standard
2 modular dimensions.
1
The physical dimensions
of a standard brick are:
215 × 102.5 × 65mm*

Fig. 107
1. Header (short face of a brick) The coordinating
2. Stretcher (long face of a brick) dimensions of a brick are:
225 × 112.5 × 75mm**
* Brick manufacturing
allows for tolerances of ± 2–6mm.
** A 10mm mortar
joint allows for this when
setting out brickwork.
338
6.2 MODULAR MATERIALS
6.2.2 Brick Specials
Special bricks are available from NB

most brick manufacturers and are Be careful about the colour and
shaped to allow for easy construction texture of brick specials. Always
of angles, arches, sills and copings. insist on test panels on site as
Brick specials are also commonly there can be variations in colour
used in restoration projects. across different brick batches.
The brick specials shown here are

available from Country Manor Bricks.
For a wider range of brick specials
see www.cmb.ie, www.ibstock.com.
or www.northcotbrick.com.
10
2.5 131
mm mm mm
.5 mm
187 173
65mm
75mm 60mm
mm
102
215
.5m
215
102.5mm mm
m
mm
215
Angled Brick Cant Brick
123mm
50mm
215
mm
Coping Brick
339
MATERIALS
6.2.3 Standard Concrete

Block Dimensions
10
m0
m
Concrete blocks come in a

m
0m
44
range of standard dimensions.

215mm
The physical dimensions of a
standard concrete block are:
440 × 215 × 100mm

Standard 100mm
As with bricks, the coordinating
1.3kg
dimensions of concrete blocks
allow 10mm for a mortar joint:
14
0
m
m
450 × 225 × 100 mm

m
0m
44
215mm
Solid 140mm
28kg 5MPa (5N/mm²)
21
5m
m
m
0m
44
215mm
Hollow 215mm
28kg 5MPa (5N/mm²)
340
6.2.4 Concrete Block Variations
Page 340 shows three common 450 Range

block sizes. However, there are Coordinating face size
a number of variations that may of 440 × 225mm giving
be used for specific purposes, 9.88 blocks per m²
such as cavity closers or lintels,
or for appearance or strength –
e.g. soap bar blocks.
Blocks also come in a variety

of finishes and strength
65
classes. Exposed or ‘fair- m
m
m
faced’ blockwork is commonly

m0
44
constructed using a finer-grade 215mm
aggregate for a smoother finish.
See www.roadstone.ie or
www.sellite.co.uk
k for more
Solid
details on concrete blocks.
13kg 5MPa (5N/mm²)
10
0m
m
m
0m
44
215mm
Solid
20kg 5MPa (5N/mm²)
341
MATERIALS
10
m0
m
15
m
0
0m
m
m
44
m
0m
300mm
44
215mm
Solid Cavity Closer

28kg 5MPa (5N/mm²) 22kg 5MPa (5N/mm²)
14
10
0
m
m0
m
m
m
0m
m
0m
44
44
215mm 215mm
Solid Hollow
21
14
5m
0m
m
m
m
0m
m
44
0m
44
215mm 215mm
Hollow Hollow
342
30
m
m
15
5 m
m
m
0m
44
m
21
5m
5m
21
215mm
215mm
Half Hollow Full Lintel

10
m0
10
m
m0
m
m
0m
m
44
140mm
0m
100mm
40
Soap Bar Soap Bar

10
0m
m
5m
m
21
65mm
Filler Block
3kg 15MPa (15N/mm²)
343
MATERIALS
14
m0
m
400 Range
m
0m
39
Coordinating face size
of 400 × 200mm giving 190mm
12.5 blocks per m²
Cavity Closer
17kg 5MPa (5N/mm²)
90
m
m
m
0m
19
m
m
0
39
m
0
19
m
190mm
190mm
Solid Half Hollow

19
24
0m
7m
m
m
m
m
0m
5m
39
36
249mm 190mm
‘Poroton’ Terracotta Block Hollow

(6N/mm²) 18kg 5MPa (5N/mm²)
344
6.2.5 Brick & Block Modules
Bricks and concrete blocks work in The illustration below shows how
modules – this allows for ease of bricks and blocks work together.
construction of combined block- This means courses can be aligned
and brickwork. to allow ease of setting out for
openings and for the insertion
of elements such as wall ties.
10
0
m
m
11
0m
m
m
0m
10
44
2.
5m
m
65mm
65mm
65mm
215mm
m
5m
21
m
0m
m
5m
44
21
345
MATERIALS
6.2.6 Brick Bonds
Stretcher Bond
This is the most commonly used
modern brick bond because
it is the simplest to construct
for single-leaf brickwork
walls or for brick cladding.
This bond is less common

in historical brick buildings.
346
English Bond
This bond was often used
for solid brick walls as the
combination of stretchers
and headers allowed for
easy construction of solid
double-brick-thick walls.
347
MATERIALS
Flemish Bond
An even regular rhythm of
stretcher, header, stretcher.
Also commonly used in solid

brick walls, and therefore less
common in modern construction.
348
Stack Bond or Unbonded

The regular grid means this
type of brick bond is not
suitable for structural uses
and is typically used for infill
or cladding purposes.
349
MATERIALS
Stack Bond or Unbonded

Again, the regular grid means
this type of brick bond is not
suitable for structural uses
and is typically used for infill
or cladding purposes.
350
Soldier Course
Usually found over a window or
opening, forming the window
or door head. Can be threaded
through with reinforcement bars
or supported by a steel lintel.
A soldier course is sometimes

integrated into a solid wall for
decorative effect.
351
MATERIALS
6.2.7 Sheet Material
Height (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm)
Plywood 2,440 1,220 4; 6.5; 9; 12; 15; 18
OSB 2,440 1,220* 9; 11; 18
MDF 2,440 1,220 3.5; 6; 9; 12; 15; 18; 25; 32
Hardboard 2,440 1,220 3.5
Chipboard 2,440 1,220 15; 18
Perspex 2,050 1,016 3; 4; 5; 6
* Other sizes available
Oriented Strand Board (OSB) Most timber sheet material sizes

OSB is an engineered wood product have their origins in imperial
formed by layering strands of wood dimensions (feet and inches).
chips in specific orientations.
There is a good selection of
These are compressed and bonded
sheet material available from
together with wax and resin.
Strahan Timber. Their website
MDF is also a good source of
This is also an engineered wood information on finishes and
product made from fine wood fibres sizes of timber-based sheet
that are heated under pressure material (see www.strahan.
and combined with wax and resin. ie). Information can also be
MDF is more dense than plywood. found at www.mstc.co.uk.
352
6.2.8 Sheet Glass
Max. Height (mm) Max. Width (mm) Thickness (mm)
Clear Float 3,000 1,600 2–19
Toughened 4,500 2,500 6
2,720 1,270 4–19
2,550 1,550 4–19
Laminated 2,440 1,220 4.4–45
Toughened Glass More information on glass

Toughened glass has increased dimensions can be found in
strength compared with standard the Architect's Pocket Book
k by
sheet glass. The benefit of toughened Charlotte Baden-Powell (p. 269).
glass is that it will, if broken, shatter
General information can be
into small pieces. As such, it is less
found at www.pilkington.com.
likely to cause injury.
Laminated Glass
Laminated glass has a middle layer of
polyvinyl between two or more layers
of glass. This layer prevents the glass
from breaking up into large pieces
when the glass is smashed, as the
sheet remains in one piece.
353
MATERIALS
6.2.9 Glass Blocks
Length (mm) Width (mm) Depth (mm)
115 115 80
190 190 80 orr 100
240 240 80
240 115 80 Typically there is a

10mm mortar joint
300 300 100
between glass blocks.
Reglit
This product is a cast glass with a
U-shaped profile that is translucent
but not transparent. It has good
strength and insulation properties.
For a full range of Reglit

information, see www.reglit.com.
354
6.2.10 Other Materials
Slate Fibre Cement Panels

A good range of slate A range of fibre cement
products, dimensions and panels are available from:
finishes are available from
www.tegral.com
the following suppliers:
www.bluebangor.ie
www.capcoroofing.ie
www.marleyeternit.co.uk
www.monier.co.uk
www.tegral.com
355
MATERIALS
6.2.11 Softwood Timber Sizes
Standard Sawn Softwood Timber Sizes (12–44 mm)
(mm) 25 38 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300
12 • • • • • •
16 • • • • •
19 • • • • • • •
22 • • • •
25 • • • • • • • • • • • •
32 • • • • • • • • •
36 • • • •
38 • • • • • • • • • •
44 • • • • • • • • •
These charts (above and opposite)

Softwood
refer to sawn timber sizes. Finished
Softwood refers to wood from
timber is planed and the dimensions
coniferous trees, such as fir,
shown are reduced.
pine and spruce. In general it
is relatively easy to work and is
used widely in the construction
of buildings.
356
Standard Sawn Softwood Timber Sizes (47–300 mm)
(mm) 25 38 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300
47 • • • • • • • • •
50 • • • • • • • • • •
63 • • • • • • • •
75 • • • • • • • • •
100 • • • • •
150 • • •
200 •
250 •
300 •
Reduction from sawn NB

sizes by planing: Rough sawn timber is slightly
larger than finished timber.
Structural Timber
This allows for the shrinkage
3mm up to 100mm
associated with planing and
5 mm over 100mm
drying.
Joinery/Cabinetry
7mm up to 35mm
9 mm over 35mm
11mm up to 150mm
13mm over 150mm
357
MATERIALS
6.2.12 Hardwood Timber Sizes
Standard Sawn Hardwood Timber Sizes (19 –100 mm)
(mm) 50 63 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300

This chart refers to
19 • • • • •
sawn timber sizes.
25 • • • • • • • • • • • Finished timber
is planed and the
32 • • • • • • • • •
dimensions shown
38 • • • • • • • • • are reduced.
50 • • • • • • • •
63 • • • • • •
75 • • • • • •
100 • • • • • •
Planing is the Structural Timber Joinery/Cabinetry

process used to give 3mm up to 100mm 7mm up to 25mm
a smooth surface 5mm for 101–150mm 9mm for 26–50mm
to a rough piece of 6mm for 151–300mm 10mm for 51–100mm
timber. 12mm for 101–150mm
Wood Trim
14mm for 151–300mm
Reductions from 6mm up to 25mm
sawn sizes by planing 7mm for 26–50mm Flooring
are as follows: 8mm for 51–100mm 5mm up to 25mm
9mm for 101–105mm 6mm for 26–50mm
10mm for 151–300mm 7mm for 51–300mm
358
6.2.13 Glulam Beam Sizes
Standard Glulam Beam Sizes (180–1,035 mm)
(mm) 65 90 115 140 165 (mm) 115 140 165 190 215
180 • 630 • •
225 • • 675 • • •
270 • • 720 • •
315 • • • 765 • • •
360 • • • 810 • •
405 • • • 855 • •
450 • • • 900 • •
495 • • • 945 • •
540 • • • 990 •
585 • • 1,035 •
Glulam is a type of structural For further information on

timber composed of several glulam dimensioning, loads
layers of timber glued together. and specification, see
This laminating process enables www.donaldsonandmcconnell.co.uk
greater spans using timber, which
has a lower embodied energy
than steel and concrete.
359
MATERIALS
6.2.14 Standard Steel Sections
Hollow (square) / SHS Hollow (circular) / CHS Hollow (rectangular) / HRS
Universal beam
orr I-beam or
L-shaped section universal column
Hot-rolled Steel NB
This is steel formed by heating and The internal radius of any
rolling. There is greater dimensional right-angled steel section will
variation when compared to cold- be equal to, or greater than,
rolled steel. the thickness of the steel.
Cold-rolled Steel
In this process, steel is formed
at room temperature. This gives
a better finish and allows tighter
tolerances.
360
6.2.15 Hot-rolled Steel Sizes
Square Circular* Rectangular Universal**
40 × 40mm 26.90mm 50 × 30mm 406 × 140mm

50 × 50mm 42.40mm 60 × 40mm 356 × 171mm
60 × 60mm 48.30mm 80 × 40mm 356 × 127mm
70 × 70mm 60.30mm 90 × 50mm 305 × 165mm
80 × 80mm 76.10mm 100 × 50mm 305 × 127mm
90 × 90mm 88.90mm 100 × 60mm 305 × 102mm
100 × 100mm 114.30mm 120 × 60mm 254 × 146mm
120 × 120mm 139.70mm 120 × 80mm 254 × 102mm
140 × 140mm 168.30mm 150 × 100mm 203 × 133mm
150 × 150mm 193.70mm 160 × 80mm 203 × 102mm
160 × 160mm 219.10mm 200 × 100mm 178 × 102mm
180 × 180mm 244.50mm 200 × 120mm 152 × 89mm
200 × 200mm 273.00mm 200 × 150mm 127 × 76mm
250 × 250mm 323.90mm 250 × 100mm
300 × 300mm 406.40mm 250 × 150mm
** These are nominal sizes.
350 × 350mm 457.00mm 300 × 100mm
Allowances should be
400 × 400mm 508.00mm 300 × 200mm
made for tolerances.
400 × 200mm
450 × 250mm
* Diameter sizes
500 × 300mm
361
MATERIALS
6.2.16 Cold-rolled Steel Sizes
Square Circular* Rectangular Universal**
25 × 25mm 26.90mm 50 × 25mm 406 × 140mm

30 × 30mm 33.70mm 50 × 30mm 356 × 171mm
30 × 40mm 42.40mm 60 × 30mm 356 × 127mm
50 × 50mm 48.30mm 60 × 40mm 305 × 165mm
60 × 60mm 60.30mm 70 × 40mm 305 × 127mm
70 × 70mm 76.10mm 70 × 50mm 305 × 102mm
80 × 80mm 88.90mm 80 × 40mm 254 × 146mm
90 × 90mm 114.30mm 80 × 60mm 254 × 102mm
100 × 100mm 139.70mm 90 × 50mm 203 × 133mm
120 × 120mm 168.30mm 100 × 40mm 203 × 102mm
140 × 140mm 193.70mm 100 × 50mm 178 × 102mm
150 × 150mm 219.10mm 100 × 80mm 152 × 89mm
160 × 160mm 244.50mm 120 × 40mm 127 × 76mm
180 × 180mm 273.00mm 120 × 60mm
200 × 200mm 323.90mm 120 × 80mm
** These are nominal sizes.
250 × 250mm 355.60mm 140 × 80mm
Allowances should be
300 × 300mm 406.40mm 150 × 100mm
made for tolerances.
457.00mm 160 × 80mm
508.00mm 180 × 80mm
180 × 100mm
200 × 100mm
* Diameter sizes
200 × 120mm
200 × 150mm
250 × 150mm
300 × 100mm
300 × 200mm
400 × 200mm
362
Advantages of Cold-rolled Steel
• It has greater strength than hot-rolled steel

for the same size section.
• Very tight tolerances are possible, and can be

consistently repeated when more are required.
• A great range of shapes is possible.
• A high-quality finish is possible.
• Conventional jointing methods (such as riveting,

bolting, welding and adhesives) can be used.
• Cold-rolled steel tends to be lighter, making it

easy to transport and erect.
363
MATERIALS
6.3
Material
Observation
365
MATERIALS
Case Study: Beach Promenade
Developing an intimate knowledge This case study highlights the

and understanding of materials potential when using appropriate
and how they are used to make materials that relate to context
buildings is essential for architects. and reinforce an architectural idea.
It is important to build up a The promenade design is so subtle

knowledge of existing materials, – at first you wonder what work has
both recent and historic, been undertaken in terms of an
that have been used in the intervention. But you then become
construction of the buildings, aware of the long linear meandering
as well as the streetscapes and form the promenade takes.
landscapes, of our cities.
366
6.3 MATERIAL OBSERVATION
Beach Promenade, Porto You move towards the beach and

Architect: Eduardo Souto de Moura. the view. Leaning on the rail you
Project referenced with the kind permission notice it is warm to the touch,
of Eduardo Souto de Moura which is unexpected; you may have
assumed it would be cold, as its
form suggests. It is made of metal,
most likely steel. It is painted with
some kind of fibrous paint that gives
it a textured feel under the hand.
367
MATERIALS
Fig. 108
1. Alternating vertical bar types: The physical experience of
circular rods and flat metal plates. the place draws you into the
2. Railing is fixed to the ground design and an understanding
every third vertical plate. of the project.
On closer inspection you notice

a rhythm and pattern (or order)
to the railing that was not at first
apparent.
368
Fig. 109
1. The top rail is twice
the width of the
upright section.
2. The shadow creates
its own pattern.
3. The effect of weathering
on the metal railing finish
brings it materially closer
3
and in harmony with the
palette of the beach.
369
MATERIALS
Fig. 110
1. Elements are butt-jointed The considered and unobtrusive
and welded to each other. detailing of the railing, together
with its elegant linear form,
enhances the design of the
promenade and seaside context.
Fig. 111
Sketch eleva
ation
370
Fig. 112
On-site sketch of railing
form in plan
plan, section and
elevation/3D
on/3D
Fig. 113
On-site sketch –
elevatio
on, upper and
lower plans
lans and section
371
7
Structure
Engineering as a catalyst to inspire creativity

is not the generally held view. But in the
Greek word techne, the unity of engineer–
architect describes a sharing of design
values, the diagram and calculation, the
concept and proportion being viewed as
cycles of poetic invention.
The mystery is in the unseen calculation

of exact balance, of up versus down, of
substance versus immateriality, of light
against shadow.
—Cecil Balmond
Structures are designed for strength, stability and
durability. The fundamental purpose of any structure
is to transmit loads from the point of application
to the point of support, and ultimately through the
foundations to the ground. The design process
requires an architect to have a good knowledge
and understanding of the nature of structure and
the various elements involved, so that they can
best exploit its potential. While it is the structural
engineer who will analyze a structure to ensure
adequate performance, knowing what structural
options are available to you as an architectural
student is key. Establishing the basic elements of
your structure through exploration allows design
to express itself through structure, where it has
meaning and relevance to the design concept.
In this chapter, we discuss the basic options
for foundations. We show some basic structural
forms and conditions. We then go through sizing of
structural elements and give some rules of thumb
for use of timber, concrete and steel systems in
the early design stages. Finally, we show one case
study that highlights the potential structure has as
an integrated element in a design concept.
STRUCTURE
7.1
Foundations
375
STRUCTURE
7.1.1 Building Loads
All structures require a foundation Building loads can be divided

to take all the loads safely to the into three categories:
ground. This is to avoid uneven
Dead load is the weight of the
settlement or, in the worst case,
structure itself, including any
failure of the structure.
permanently fixed items.
The height and weight of a building
Live load is a moving or variable
as well as its use and the ‘load-
load added to the building (e.g.
bearing capacity’ of the soil will
occupants’ loose furniture) and
influence the choice of foundation
the effect of wind and snow loads.
and determine its depth below
ground. The choice of foundation Imposed load is any load which
will be influenced by decisions the structure must sustain, other
about the construction above than the weight of the structure
ground. It will also be influenced itself, but excluding wind load.
by the relationship the building has
NB
with the surrounding topography.
Loads are measured in kilo
NB Newtons/metre squared (kN/m²)
As soil under the building
compresses, the building sinks
slightly. This is called settlement.
Load-bearing capacity (LBC)

refers to a soil’s ability to support
loads without undue distortion.
376
7.1 FOUNDATIONS
7.1.2 Types of Foundations
Strip Foundation
A strip foundation provides a Concrete as a material performs
continuous support to a load- well under compression but not
bearing wall below ground. when tension is applied.
It is commonly used for

domestic-scale construction and
contains steel to reinforce the
concrete when under tension.
1
Inside Outside
Fig. 114
1. Wall
2. Strip foundation with steel reinforcement
377
STRUCTURE
Raft Foundation
A raft foundation is used where
the load-bearing capacity of the
soil is not good, but it can bear
a continuous slab where the
loading is spread out over the
whole slab.
The edges of the slab are

deepened to take the load of the
walls. A raft foundation is thicker
than a ground-bearing slab and
'floats' on the ground.
378
7.1 FOUNDATIONS
Pad Foundation
A pad foundation is used where
the support required is at specific
points where the structure meets
the ground.
A ‘framed’ structure, where the load

is carried to the ground through
columns, is an example of where
pad foundations would be used.
379
STRUCTURE
Pile Foundation
A pile is a cylindrical-shaped form Piles can be either grouped
either driven into or cast in the together and connected with a
ground to support a structure pile ‘cap’, or they can be joined
above ground. by a ground beam.
A pile foundation is used when a Piles are classified as deep

solid footing, such as bedrock, is foundations, and are most
a long distance below the ground commonly used in medium-
floor level. In this case, a precast to high-rise construction.
pile is driven into the ground
under force or a pile hole is made
and filled with reinforcing steel
and concrete.
Fig. 115
1. Ground beam
2. Structure above ground/column
3. Pile cap
4. Pile
5. Contiguous piles
380
7.1 FOUNDATIONS
381
STRUCTURE
Retaining Wall
Retaining walls are required to hold There are various types of
back the ground where there is a retaining walls suitable for
change in level, or in basement specific construction and
construction. There is a tendency road-building projects.
for the wall to overturn due to the
pressure imposed on it from the
ground, necessitating the toe of the
foundation indicated in the diagram.
t = h/10–14
where
t = thickness
h
h = wall height
382
7.1 FOUNDATIONS
Ground-bearing Slab
A slab is a horizontal structural
element of reinforced concrete.
It is cast/poured on site (in-situ).
A ground-bearing slab rests

on the ground as the name
suggests and is commonly
used in conjunction with a strip
foundation which supports the
walls separately.
383
STRUCTURE
7.2
Structural
Systems
A structural system comprises the elements of

a building that are acting structurally, bringing
the building loads to the ground. Not all walls,
for example, perform a structural role.
All materials have optimum and maximum
capacities in terms of achievable span lengths
and loading capabilities. However, once the
load-bearing capacity of any material is reached
in terms of span/size, the construction/structural
system will need to change. It is therefore
very useful from a design perspective to have
some idea of the limits and possibilities of
the various construction materials in use.
385
STRUCTURE
7.2.1 Vertical Elements
The primary structural function of Fig. 116

vertical elements in a building is to 1. Plane wall
transmit loads from the building roofs 2. Wall with piers
and floors to the foundations. 3. Folded wall
4. Diaphram wall
There are numerous types of walls
5. Curved wall
and columns that can perform this
6. Columns, piers,
function. Some structural wall and
stanchions, box
column types are shown in Fig. 116.
sections
For more detailed information about
walls and their construction, see
Chapter 8 – Principles of Construction.
386
7.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
1 2
3 4
5 6
387
STRUCTURE
7.2.2 Horizontal Elements

2
Timber Joists Supported by Walls NB

At the scale of domestic construction, Loadings will vary depending on
it is common to use timber joists location, e.g. roof joists will normally
to span from one wall to another. have a smaller load than floor joists.
The wall in this case can be either
A span refers to the distance
timber stud or masonry. The length
between two supports.
of the span will determine the size
of the joists. The joists are normally See Section 7.3.1 for timber joist
supported by walls in this case size/load spanning tables.
and will be spaced at centres of
300–600mm depending on the loads
and the joist size and strength. Fig. 117
Floorboards act as a secondary 1. Load-bearing wall
structural support. 2. Timber joist
388
Concrete Slabs
Depending on its span, a concrete
slab can be simply supported,
one-way spanning or two-way
spanning. It can be supported
by masonry or concrete walls
or by a framed structure below.
Where a framed structure is
used, infill walls are required.
Fig. 118
1. Concrete slab
2. Load-bearing wall
389
STRUCTURE
7.2.3 Cantilever
A cantilever is a horizontal projection

supported by a downward force
behind the fulcrum.
In principle, a slab that is

supported along two-thirds of its
length can ‘cantilever’ for one- ²⁄⁄³ ¹⁄⁄³
third of the remaining length.
The cantilevered slab thickness = L/7

where L = slab length.
NB
Cantilevers are commonly used
on projecting balconies.
390
7.2.4 Arch
1
An arch is a structure that spans

while also supporting weight from
above. The arch shown here is
semicircular in shape. 2
NB
The best form for an arch is the
inverted shape of a hanging rope or
chain, which is formed only by the
action of its own weight. This is also
known as a 'catenary arch'.
A multiple arch form will behave

similarly to a barrel vault (see
Section 7.2.5) from a structural
viewpoint.
Fig. 119
1. Semicircular arch
2. Gothic arch
3. Inverted catenary arch
391
STRUCTURE
7.2.5 Vault System
A barrel vault can be made in

brick, steel, timber or concrete, or
a combination of these materials.
The vertical wall element can

be replaced with a column and
beam frame.
There is a tendency for the load on

a barrel vault to cause the vault to
push out sideways, so this needs to
be addressed in the design of the
structure. The flatter the arch, the
greater the pressure.
A multiple barrel vault is possible

where the base of adjoining vaults
span from one support to another.
Fig. 120
1. Beam
392
7.2.6 Portal Frame System
A frame takes its support from

its fixings at ground level and
its joint connections, which are
either fixed or pinned. It also
needs lateral support from
secondary purlins that span
between each portal frame
at roof level.
NB
Lateral support is support that
helps prevent a structure from
moving sideways.
393
STRUCTURE
7.2.7 Truss
A truss is a framing device In domestic construction, a roof

designed to span a space and truss span is more likely to be
to support other elements in 8–10m. The majority of timber
a structure. It can be made of roof trusses used in domestic
timber, steel or concrete. construction are prefabricated.
There are multiple types of NB

truss arrangements, with spans For further information on truss
ranging from 5–40m. A king post types and spans, refer to Fiona
truss is shown below. Further Cobb, Structural Engineer’s
detail is given in Section 8.3.3. Pocket Book k (pp. 26–27).
394
7.2.8 Girder
A girder is a support beam made

up of a framework of posts and
struts. It can be made of timber,
steel or concrete. Lattice girders
are typically made from RSA (rolled
sectional angles) or from tubular
steel sections. Plate girders are made
from I-sections made up of individual
plates or plates added to an existing
I-section to make it stronger.
There are several different

configurations possible. The
example below is a Warren girder.
395
STRUCTURE
7.2.9 Stressed Skin and Shell Structures
Multiple forms are possible with

timber stressed skin and shell
structures. Some examples are
illustrated here.
NB
For further information on
concrete stressed skin forms,
refer to Friedbert Kind-Barkauskas,
Concrete Construction
Manuall (pp. 152–153)
396
7.2.10 Space Frame Structures
Space frames are three-dimensional

frameworks in which all the
members are interconnected and
act as a single entity, resisting
loads from all directions.
The frame is made up of top and

bottom chords with diagonal chords
mediating between the two.
Space frames are designed

to span very large spaces.
They can also be configured to form

both the roof and walls of a structure.
NB
space frame structures, refer to
Architecture (p. 136).
397
STRUCTURE
7.3
Sizing of
Structures
399
STRUCTURE
7.3.1 Timber Joists
A suspended timber floor consists The spacing of joists from centre

of small, closely spaced elements to centre (c/c) ranges from
called joists. Timber joists are 300–600mm. Traditionally, floor
classified by their strength. boarding required closer spacing
in the region of 400mm c/c, but the
The joists span from one support
increased use of sheet material
to another. These supports can
flooring commonly allows for
be either masonry or timber
spacing of joists at 600mm c/c.
walls, or a beam. As well as end
support, joists will require what is As with all floors, they must
known as lateral support. This is support their own weight (dead
the introduction of intermediate load) and the load that will be
stiffening elements between joists, imposed on them. The extent of
known as strutting or blocking. this live load will depend on the
building’s use.
Additional strength also comes
from the sheet or board covering
fixed to the top of the joists.
400
7.3 SIZING OF STRUCTURES
401
STRUCTURE
In summary, the strength of In public buildings, the loadings

a suspended timber floor can be as much as three
will be determined by: times the load for domestic
situations. Because of the
• its span;
larger spans involved in larger
• the spacing of joists;
buildings, joists start to become
• the strength of timber used;
unworkable at this scale.
• the flooring surface
it is fixed to; In order to span greater lengths
• the loading on the floor. in timber, engineered timbers
are required.
As an architect in the early
stages of design, it is helpful NB
to be able to estimate the size All sizing tables in this section
and spacing of joists to more are for preliminary design
accurately develop a design. guideline purposes only.
With this in mind, on the

Fig. 121
following pages we have
Span tables for timber joists
included a span table for
guidance on joist sizes relative The table opposite indicates the permissible
to their proposed span. Imposed span of joists (in metres) in relation to the
loads and dead loads are also spacing of joists (in millimetres) and assumes
indicated. a domestic loading of: imposed load of
1.5kN/m² and dead load of 0.25kN/m².
The joist sizes are the minimum permissible

sizes at 22% moisture content. The permissible
span is the clear span between supports.
* Where joists span distances of greater

than 2.5m, strutting is used to prevent the
joists from twisting. See Section 8.1.6.
402
Strength Class A Strength Class B Strength Class C
Size (mm) 300 400 600 300 400 600 300 400 600
35 × 100 2.02 1.81 1.48 2.12 1.92 1.67 2.21 2.00 1.74
35 × 115 2.33 2.07 1.69 2.43 2.21 1.92 2.54 2.30 2.00
35 × 125 2.54 2.24 1.83 2.65 2.40 2.09 2.76 2.50 2.18
35 × 150 3.04 2.66 2.17 3.18 2.88 2.51 3.31 3.01 2.62
35 × 175 3.54 3.08 2.51 3.71 3.37 2.93 3.87 3.51 3.05
35 × 200* 4.04 3.50 2.85 4.25 3.85 3.34 4.42 4.01 3.49
35 × 225* 4.51 3.91 3.19 4.78 4.33 3.73 4.98 4.51 3.93
44 × 100 2.19 1.98 1.66 2.29 2.08 1.81 2.39 2.16 1.89
44 × 115 2.52 2.28 1.89 2.63 2.39 2.07 2.74 2.48 2.16
44 × 125 2.74 2.48 2.05 2.87 2.59 2.25 2.98 2.71 2.35
44 × 150 3.28 2.98 2.43 3.44 3.12 2.72 3.58 3.25 2.83
44 × 175 3.84 3.45 2.82 4.02 3.65 3.16 4.18 3.79 3.30
44 × 200 4.38 3.92 3.20 4.59 4.16 3.62 4.78 4.33 3.77
44 × 225* 4.94 4.38 3.57 5.17 4.69 4.08 5.38 4.88 4.24
63 × 150 3.71 3.37 2.91 3.89 3.52 3.07 4.04 3.64 3.20
63 × 175 4.33 3.93 3.37 4.54 4.12 3.58 4.72 4.28 3.73
63 × 225 5.58 5.06 4.28 5.83 5.29 4.61 6.07 5.51 4.80
75 × 150 3.94 3.58 3.11 4.12 3.74 3.26 4.29 3.89 3.40
75 × 175 4.60 4.17 3.63 4.81 4.37 3.80 5.01 4.54 3.96
75 × 225 5.91 5.37 4.67 6.19 5.61 4.89 6.44 5.84 5.09
403
STRUCTURE
7.3.2 Engineered Timber Beams
When the required span of Glulam can be used for arches,

a floor is no longer feasible portal frames and floor beams,
with ordinary timber joists, a columns, rafters and A-frames,
number of engineered timber purlins and joists.
alternatives are available.
Glulam beams come in standard
Glulam Beams widths of 65, 90, 115, 140, 165, 190
Glulam beams are an economical and 215mm.
way of spanning longer distances
The table opposite gives
in timber. Glulam structures can
permissible loads for glulam roof
span up to 50m depending on the
beams for spans of 4–13m for a
section size and the configuration
beam with varying depths and a
of the structure. They are designed
standard width of 115mm.
as engineered, laminated
structural components. They Please refer to Section 6.2.13 for
are made by bonding together standard glulam sizes available.
accurately planed timber strips,
For further information, see:
with their grain in the longitudinal
www.donaldsonandmcconnell.
direction of the member. This
co.uk/glulamspecifiersguide.pdf
forms a structural unit of great
strength and dimensional stability.
One of the great advantages of

glulam is that it can be curved
and formed to a variety of
shapes to suit different structural
and design requirements.
Fig. 122
Glulam beam
404
Glulam Beam Depth (mm)
Span (m) 315 360 405 450 495 540
4.0 9.67 12.30 15.40 18.90 22.60 26.80
4.5 7.58 9.75 12.10 14.80 17.80 21.10
5.0 5.55 7.85 9.81 12.00 14.40 17.00
5.5 4.17 6.19 8.07 9.87 11.80 14.00
6.0 3.19 4.77 6.74 8.25 9.91 11.70
6.5 2.49 3.74 5.32 6.99 8.40 9.96
7.0 1.97 2.97 4.25 5.82 7.21 8.54
7.5 1.57 2.39 3.34 4.72 6.24 7.40
8.0 1.27 1.94 2.80 3.87 5.16 6.47
8.5 1.03 1.59 2.31 3.20 4.28 5.56
9.0 1.31 1.97 2.67 3.58 4.67
9.5 1.08 1.60 2.24 3.02 3.94
10.0 1.34 1.89 2.56 3.35
10.5 1.13 1.60 2.18 2.87
11.0 1.36 1.86 2.46
11.5 1.16 1.60 2.12
12.0 1.38 1.84
12.5 1.19 1.59
13.0 1.02 1.38
Fig. 123
Table of permissible loads for glulam beams
A standard width of 115mm is assumed in each case. Loads are given in kN/m².
405
STRUCTURE
Ply-webbed Beams
The structural advantage of Ply-webbed beams are used for
ply-webbed beams comes from larger spans in the region of 12–15m
the use of plywood as a shear- where solid timber is not a feasible
resistant material. or realistic option. They allow
greater spanning distances with
The result is a saving of material;
less beam/floor depth.
a stiffer, lighter beam than other
timber solutions for the same span/ The web part of the beam can be
loads. This makes ply-webbed substituted with a steel lattice,
beams an economical alternative. making a composite timber and
steel beam. The advantage of this is
that services can pass through the
voids in the lattice part of the beam.
406
1 2
Fig. 124
1. Ply-webbed beams
2. Solid timber element
3. Plywood sheeting
407
STRUCTURE
7.3.3 Concrete Framed Structures
When it comes to RC (reinforced from floor to floor. It also assists

concrete) frames, there are a greatly when it comes to setting out
number of rules of thumb that can a building on site, as it allows for
be helpful in the early stages of easy coordination of dimensions.
design to assist in calculating basic
NB
spans and slab thicknesses.
Where a structural grid is used, it
A framed structure usually implies will have implications for the layout
the use of a structural grid. The grid of rooms and walls.
is overlaid on each plan level to
align structural elements that repeat
Lift Core
A solid structural element
inserted into the structural grid,
typically cast in-situ concrete.
The lift core can contribute to
stiffness of the overall structure.
408
1 2
Fig. 125
Structural grid
1. Column
2. Grid line
3. Lift core
409
STRUCTURE
Alignment of Columns Fig. 126

Generally, columns are in the same Structural grid
position in plan from one floor to 1. Forces
the next, as this allows a direct 2. Alignment
transfer of forces to the foundation.
Columns are more economical

when they are constructed to
the same size.
A structural grid allows for clear

setting out of columns and other
structural elements.
410
3 2
Transfer Slab
A transfer slab can be introduced A transfer slab is commonly used
where a complete change of between basement and ground
column grid layout is required on floor level where the floor layout
an upper level. The thickness of above is significantly different.
the transfer slab allows for the
Other transfer structures include
changing location of column loads
beams and trusses.
as the loads are transferred within
the depth of the slab.
Fig. 127
1. Column grid A
2. Column grid B
3. Transfer slab
411
STRUCTURE
7.3.4 Framed Concrete Structures
If you choose a concrete structure One-way Spanning Slabs

consisting of concrete floor slabs, The slab thickness in mm equals the
beams and columns, there will span length in metres divided by
be a proportionate relationship between 24 and 27, depending on
between the slab thickness the span (see diagram opposite).
and the distance the slab must
NB
span between supports.
125mm is normally the
The following diagrams show a minimum concrete floor
general arrangement of columns, thickness for fire resistance.
beams and slabs, and the ratio of
All ratios and dimensions given
slab thickness to span length.
are for guideline purposes only.
However, with a concrete slab In the actual design process,
other factors play a part in the structural sizes are determined
eventual thickness of the slab. In by calculations based on
particular, steel reinforcement the individual circumstances
requires a minimum amount of particular to each project.
concrete between the bars and
the exposed edge of the concrete
element to prevent rusting by
exposure to the elements.
412
One-way spanning slabs NB

Typical spans: 4–8m One-way spanning slabs
Slab thickness L/24–27 have structural strength
Example: span = L = 5m in the shortest direction.
Slab thickness = 5000/24 = 208mm
413
STRUCTURE
Two-way spanning slabs NB

Typical spans: 6–11m Two-way spanning slabs
Slab thickness L/24–40 have structural strength
Example: span = L = 6m in two directions.
Slab thickness = 6000/40 = 150mm
414
7.3.5 Pad Foundation
Typically columns are taken down

to a pad foundation below ground,
independently of a ground floor slab.
As a rule of thumb pad foundations

tend to be three times the width of
the column they support, and equal
in depth to the width of the column.
If the unstable ground

conditions require it, these
guide dimensions will vary.
415
STRUCTURE
7.3.6 Steel Structural Elements
The main advantage of steel over NB

concrete as a structural material is its All ratios and dimensions given
capacity to span greater distances are for guideline purposes only.
with less material. It is also faster to In the actual design process,
assemble on site. structural sizes are determined
by calculations based on
The following examples give some
the individual circumstances
options available to you, and
particular to each project.
guideline span/depth ratios are again
given to allow initial calculations at
the early design stage.
h
Steel beam typical height to
length ratio h/L = 1/20–1/30
Span range = 3–50m
L = length
h = height
416
A truss made up only of RSAs

(L-shaped angles) can span a
maximum of 35m and have a span/
depth ratio of 12–15m. Tubular
sections can achieve greater spans
and would have a span/depth ratio
of 15–18m. This arrangement is also
known as a lattice girder.
Truss typical h/L = 1/10–1/15

Span range = 8–75m
1. Span
2. Depth
417
STRUCTURE
7.4
The Potential
of Structure
As an architect, it is relevant to consider the design

of buildings as an all-encompassing process. This
is also true when it comes to the structures that
hold up our buildings. To this end, we must always
seek out the potential structure can provide, so
that we can exploit it where possible and allow it
to reinforce and/or represent an architectural idea
in context. The house illustrated on the following
pages is an inspiring example of how structural
design can enhance architectural design.
419
STRUCTURE
7.4.1 Larger Structural Elements
Photo courtesy
of Ros Kavanagh
Hall House, designed by Grafton It has been described as a house

Architects in 1999, is a three-storey where corners never meet; this
house located in Dublin. theme is made explicit by the
inventive use of structure between
It occupies a corner infill site and is
the external and internal living
read externally as a brick box with a
spaces at first floor level.
separate layer of stone wall.
Project referenced with the kind permission

of Grafton Architects
420
7.4 THE POTENTIAL OF STRUCTURE
Because the site is located on

the north-eastern corner of an
urban block and in order to take
advantage of the best light, the
accommodation is stacked and
pushed to the outer edges of the
site, creating a stepped void of
courtyards and terraces that relate
to the interior at all three levels.
421
STRUCTURE
First floor plan

1. Dining/Kitchen
3 2. Living
3. Entrance courtyard below
4. Decked terrace
1
At first floor level, the main living The connected nature of these two
spaces surround and open onto a internal and external living spaces
terrace decked in timber which is is reinforced and held delicately by
reached by stairs from the lower the structural form, which can be
entrance court. clearly read in the living spaces.
422
Ground floor plan Second floor plan
423
STRUCTURE
Section B–B
1. Terrace
Section A–A
1. Terrace
2. Entrance courtyard
424
1 2
First floor plan

1. Dining/Kitchen
2. Living
3. Decked court
4. External access courtyard
425
STRUCTURE
The volumetric arrangement Fig. 128

and location of the three External areas shown as red
external spaces is indicated 1. External outdoor area 2nd floor level
on this drawing. The view is 2. External outdoor area 1st floor level
towards the north-east. 3. External outdoor area ground level
4. Top floor
5. First floor
6. Ground level
426
1
2
Because of the L-shaped form of Fig. 129

the living space, the concrete slab Floor slabs to be supported as red
overhead requires support along 1. Outer edge of slab carried by load-
its edges. bearing walls here
2. Ceiling slab of first floor living spaces
This is easily achieved on the outer
3. Floor slab of first floor living spaces
edges of the slab, as the load-
bearing walls carry the slab along
that edge.
427
STRUCTURE
Fig. 130 Along the inner edges of the

1. Inner edge requiring support L-shaped slab, however, it is difficult
to achieve support as the slab
spans are significant and the slab
will require continuous support
along both lengths.
428
0mm
7,30
5,30
0m
m
429
STRUCTURE
A typical structural solution Fig. 131

that is commonly proposed is a 1. Downstand beam
framed structure of columns and 2. Column framework
beams (as indicated above) with
a downstand beam providing the
continuous support.
A downstand beam in this

instance would probably be
about 250–300mm in depth.
430
Fig. 132
1. Downstand beam
2. Column framework
The actual solution adopted uses a The deep beam is held back from
concrete structure with a downstand the external wall, which allows the
beam also. However, because structure to read independently.
the beam depth is increased to
Because there is no column at the
1m this allows the columns to be
corner where the beams cross,
pushed further back from the corner
this allows the space to open up
junction. The beam’s greater depth
internally and connect with the
allows a greater span between
external terrace, reinforcing the
columns. The columns are also
architectural concept.
lengthened in one direction.
431
STRUCTURE
The diagram above shows the Fig. 133

first floor structure in red, with 1. First floor structure
the supporting ground floor 2. Ground floor structure
structure in grey underneath,
viewed from the north-east.
432
Structure in context – view from Photo courtesy

dining area (terrace to the right). of Ros Kavanagh
433
STRUCTURE
Photo courtesy
of Ros Kavanagh 1 2
Structure in context – view from Fig. 134

living room (terrace to the right). 1. Position of structure in living area
2. Terrace
434
Photo
©Dennis Gilbert
Structure in context – external view Fig. 135

at night from second floor level. 1. Living area
2. External terrace
The concept of the house as a place
where the corners never meet is
further reinforced by the glass-
to-glass corner junction where a
column has been ‘removed’.
435
8
Principles of
Construction
Construction is the mother tongue

of the architect. The architect is
a poet who thinks and speaks in
terms of construction.
—Auguste Perret
From an architect’s point of view, an understanding
of how buildings are made underpins the conceptual
design, organisation and planning of a building.
The materials and construction systems chosen
for your designs will influence both the expression and
the reading of a building. In this chapter, we outline the
principles of commonplace construction types.
We focus on construction of both domestic and
medium-scale buildings.
We begin by explaining the functions of the
building envelope and then look at the primary
elements of construction in turn: floors, walls and
roofs. We list each element’s primary functions
and the common forms and compositions in each
case. We also look at ways of making openings
and junctions within each element.
While new materials and techniques evolve
continuously, our aim here is to encourage an
understanding of construction from first principles.
A sound understanding of these principles
provides freedom to be innovative and experimental
in our approach to design technologies and
construction, a core skill for an architect.
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION
Overview
Building methods have evolved continuously, so it is helpful to
look back to see where current building practice has come from to
understand why we build the way we do.
Historically, buildings have been constructed from homogeneous
materials at a slow pace and to well-known familiar details using
traditional techniques. This knowledge was passed on from generation
to generation as construction methods evolved slowly.
In contrast to this, in the 20th century in particular, innovation in
relation to materials, processes and forms of construction has led to the
need for a different approach.
The rapid expansion of new technology has meant radical
changes in how we build and an increased level of complexity in
the process of building. An increased awareness of environmental
performance has led to developments in standards of insulation
and enclosure performance. The application of science is seen as a
means of predicting the likely performance of materials under given
conditions, thereby reducing the time necessary for tests and trials.
When there is no time to research, existing information is
interpreted and traditional details are modified or fundamentally
re-thought to include new requirements, such as insulation.
The building envelope is a physical separator between
the internal and external building environments.
The many functions of the building envelope can be
divided into three categories:
• support: to resist and transfer loads;

• control: the flow of heat, air, moisture and sound;
• finish: the aesthetic consideration.
All of the above parameters need to be achieved within

a framework of building regulations and compliance
with relevant British, Irish and European standards.
You need to be aware of the building systems and
methods of construction that are particular to your
local climate and the availability of materials, and
local skill levels.
We recommend the following books for further reading:

Constructing Architecture: Materials, processes, structures (2008)
by Andrea Deplazes as a very good overall construction book.
A Visual Dictionary of Architecture (2011) by Francis D.K. Ching
Introduction to Architectural Technology
y (2008) by Pete Silver and Will McLean
101 Rules of Thumb for Low Energy Architecture (2013) by Huw Heywood
Definitions
Breather Membrane Leaf

The purpose of a breather membrane is to allow The term 'leaf' refers to an outer or inner wall in
water vapour to permeate through from the a cavity or sandwich external wall build-up.
insulation into the cavity and yet prevent water
from the cavity entering the insulation. Thermal Insulation
Insulation in buildings provides a means of
Build-up maintaining the internal temperature of a
Build-up refers to the various differing materials building, by providing a layer of insulation in
that make up a wall, floor or roof construction which heat flow is reduced. Insulating materials
and the order in which they are placed from are assigned a quantitative measure of their
inside to outside. insulating capability, known as a U-value. The
U-value is a measure of a material's ability to
Cold Bridge resist heat flow, which will vary depending on
One of the basic principles of modern building the thickness of that material. The lower the
construction is to provide a continuous layer U-value, the greater is the ability of the material
of thermal insulation throughout the external to insulate against heat loss. All buildings will
layer of the building. Where the insulation layer lose heat over time, but the wall, floor and roof
is broken by a non-insulating material, it is said build-up will determine the rate at which the
to have bridged the insulation layer, hence the heat will be lost. The thermal insulation layer
term ‘cold bridge’. plays a big part in this.
Composite Vapour Barrier

Composite refers to elements made up of A vapour barrier is a plastic or foil sheet that
more than one material. An example would be resists the passing of moisture through a wall,
an alu-clad window, which is made up of ceiling or floor build-up in a building.
aluminium cladding on the exterior, wood on
the interior and glazing between. It is known as Weep Holes
a composite window. Weep holes are small openings left in the outer
wall of masonry construction as an outlet for
Flashing water inside a building to move outside the wall
A flashing is a thin continuous piece of sheet and evaporate.
metal or other impervious material installed to
prevent the passage of water into a structure
from an angle or joint.
8.1
Floors
441
Floors can be divided into While issues to do with moisture

two categories: ground penetration and organic growth
and upper floors. are not relevant on upper floors,
a number of other issues arise.
Ground floors must:
Upper floors should:
• Keep the heat in and the cold
out (in warmer climates, the • Resist the spread of fire
opposite is the case – floors between levels.
must keep heat out). • Provide sound insulation.
• Be able to withstand the
Upper floors may also be designed
loads bearing on them
to accommodate services – pipes,
(dead and live loads).
cables, wiring, etc.
• Prevent the growth of
organic matter up through All floors, ground and upper, should
the floor plate. be durable enough to withstand
• Protect the interior of the expected wear and tear.
building against moisture
penetration from the ground.
• Provide a safe and comfortable
finish on which to walk.
Ground floors below the external

ground level, including basement
floors, are not covered here.
basement construction, refer to
Architecture (pp. 153–161).
442
8.1 FLOORS
8.1.1 Ground Floor Slab
The most common floor is a concrete (compressed rubble and gravel)

cast in-situ steel reinforced slab. or on rigid insulation.
Cast in-situ is concrete that is
Typically a concrete cast in-situ
poured on site into a mould. Precast
slab is around 150mm deep.
concrete arrives already cast and set,
and is used where the ground needs
Fig. 136
to be spanned.
1. Insulation
Cast concrete is widely used 2. Concrete slab
in domestic and larger-scale 3. Hardcore
construction. The concrete is cast 4. DPM/Radon barrier
into a mould on a layer of hardcore
2
1
4 3
443
A cast in-situ concrete slab Finally, most cast in-situ floors

must also include a damp-proof are finished with a screed. The
membrane (DPM), which prevents screed is a thin layer of finer
water from penetrating through concrete than the slab itself. This
the slab. The DPM is usually a can be exposed in the finished
heavy-duty plastic or polythene internal floor or can provide a
sheet. Care must be taken when level base for alternative floor
this is laid to ensure that it is finishes such as tiles, carpet, etc.
not pierced or damaged by the
The screed is typically 75mm
hardcore, or this may result in
thick, but should be thicker if
water infiltration. This DPM can
water-based underfloor heating
also function as a radon barrier.
is to be included. When using
Radon is a naturally occurring
water-based underfloor heating,
radioactive gas, which can cause
the pipes are embedded in the
lung cancer when allowed to build
concrete screed and the screed
up in internal environments. For
is typically 100mm thick.
more information on radon, its
effects and how to reduce risk,
refer to the Radiological Protection
Institute of Ireland (www.rpii.ie)
or the UK Society for Radiological
Protection (www.srp-uk.org). To
avoid piercing the radon barrier/
DPM with the hardcore or rough
concrete slab, a thin layer of sand
(‘sand blinding’) is added between.
444
8.1 FLOORS
1 2
3 4 5
Fig. 137
1. Concrete screed
2. Concrete slab
3. Hardcore
4. DPM/Radon barrier
5. Insulation
445
8.1.2 Alternative Ground Floor Slab
A common alternative build-up to The screed in this build-up is known

the one shown on page 443 is where as a ‘floating screed’ because it is
a concrete screed is separated from said to ‘float’ on the insulation.
the slab by the insulation and the
An advantage of this build-up is
DPM. The slab is protected against
that internal spaces heat up more
moisture penetration as the DPM
quickly, as the screed is thinner than
stops any moisture before it comes
a full slab and so does not absorb a
into contact with the insulation
large amount of heat. This build-
and screed.
up is often used with underfloor
heating, as the insulation reflects
Fig. 138
the heat back into the room.
1. Concrete screed
2. Insulation
1 2
446
8.1 FLOORS
8.1.3 Suspended Ground Floor
The suspended timber floor was The principle of this form of

widely used historically, but has construction is that the timber floor
been largely abandoned in favour is ‘suspended’ on low brick walls
of the concrete slab due to its which separate the floor plate from
lower cost, speed of construction the ground level. This construction
and simpler build-up. is dependent on adequate
ventilation, which is necessary to
The traditional suspended ground
prevent condensation build-up
uild in
floor has very poor thermal
the underfloor cavity, leading to rot
performance, so renovation work
in the timber elements.
often includes the addition of
insulation below floorboard level.
Fig. 139
447
Constantly rising standards in the

thermal performance requirements
of the building fabric have given
rise to better forms of building
construction. As well as reducing
the heat flow through the building
structure, a well insulated and
sustainably constructed building
fabric means lower CO2 emissions
and less need for heating as we
move towards carbon-neutral
building.
448
8.1 FLOORS
2 3 4 5
6 7
Fully insulated wall and floor Fig. 140

1. Slab
2. Internal lining
3. Solid block wall
4. External insulation
5. External render
6. DPM/Radon barrier
7. Insulation
449
8.1.4 Upper Floors
Upper floors must span between

load-bearing elements (see
Chapter 7 for more information on
spans). Floors can be supported
on load-bearing walls or structural
frames. The following are types of
upper floors.
Cast In-situ Concrete Floors

These are not commonly used in
domestic construction. Labour-
intensive, they are capable of
forming complex shapes.
Precast Concrete Slabs

These smaller factory-made
slabs lie side by side and span
between structural elements.
450
8.1 FLOORS
Timber Joists
This is the most common form of
domestic construction for upper
floor levels. Closely spaced timber
joists span from wall to wall.
Suitable for both masonry and
timber frame wall construction.
Frame Structure
When constructing upper level
floors, decking elements span
between beams which are
supported on columns. The
frame structure may be made
of timber, steel or concrete.
These decking elements can be

constructed of timber (such as
plywood or other processed sheet
timber), precast concrete slabs,
metal or composite panels of
metal and concrete.
451
8.1.5 Timber Joist Upper Floors
In domestic construction, upper The joists are typically connected

floors are typically constructed from to (and supported off) blockwork
timber joists, spanning between walls by joist hangers. These are
structural walls. Common timber folded metal ‘shoes’, which hold
joist sizes for domestic construction the joists in place and are bedded
are 225–250mm × 50–75mm, and are into the mortar layers in the
spaced at 300–600mm centres. A blockwork courses.
timber joist floor can span up to 6m
Plasterboard is often fixed below
depending on the joist dimensions,
the joists to form the ceiling, and
spacing of joists and the loads.
floorboards or sheet decking
above to form the floor finish.
1 2 3 4
Fig. 141
1. Joist hanger
5 2. Timber joists
3. Timber floorboards
4. Plasterboard
5. Cavity wall
452
8.1 FLOORS
8.1.6 Strutting
Where joists have to span distances

of greater than 2.5m, strutting is used
to prevent the joists from twisting
along their lengths.
Strutting should be placed at a

central point along the span length
and can be solid pieces of timber
or diagonal timber battens (called
‘herringbone strutting’). Galvanized Fig. 142
metal strutting has become available 1. Herringbone strutting
in recent years. 2. Solid block strutting
453
8.1.7 Engineered Joists
To span greater distances than

solid timber allows (up to six
metres) engineered joists can
be used at the domestic scale.
These trusses have been designed
to be lighter and stronger than
solid timber. Three main types
are commonly used: l-joists,
metal web joists and LVL joists
(laminated veneered lumber).
Fig. 143 1
1. l-joist
454
8.1 FLOORS
8.1.8 Composite Metal Floors
This type of flooring has the It is commonly used in medium-

advantage of allowing services scale commercial or industrial
(e.g. wires, pipes) to run applications and in large-scale
within the metal profiles. construction. It is unusual in
domestic construction.
Fig. 144
1 2
1. Steel reinforcement
2. Reinforced concrete
3. Profiled metal sheeting
455
8.2
Walls
The role of the wall in building As well as these technical

is six-fold. It must: requirements, a wall should be
considered from an aesthetic
• carry loads;
point of view in the context
• keep the heat in and the
of the overall design.
cold out (or vice versa);
• control air movement;
• minimize the passage of sound;
• resist the spread of fire;
• protect the building against
moisture movement.
457
8.2.1 Solid Walls
Traditionally, walls were made Commonly the modern composition

of solid construction, generally of the solid wall is block, with an
from a combination of masonry outer layer of insulation finished
(stone, brick) and mortar. They with render externally. External
may have been sealed externally insulation increases the building’s
with some type of render. ability to retain heat, which means
that it requires less energy to heat
Although the traditional build
for the same amount of time than
of walls was solid construction,
it would have previously. External
solid walls are now achieved in
insulation allows for easier thermal
a variety of different ways.
junctions at openings and reduces
the likelihood of cold bridges.
Fig. 145
1. 3D view
2. Load-bearing wall
3. External insulation
4. Internal lining
5. External lining
2 3
Inside Outside
1 4 5
Section
458
8.2 WALLS
8.2.2 Cavity Wall Construction
In domestic construction in Ireland This wall type is commonly used in

in the 20th century, the enclosing wall domestic construction typically one
tended to be a ‘cavity wall’ build-up. to three storeys high. The inner leaf
can vary in width from 100–215mm
In cavity walls, the inner leaf
depending on the plan layout,
typically acts structurally, but
number of storeys and the structural
both leaves are tied together
requirements of the design.
at points for stability.
NB
Although cavity wall construction
is still used today, more energy-
Fig. 146
efficient construction systems
1. 3D view
(including timber framed walls)
2. Cavity
have become more common.
3. Inner wall/leaf
4. Location of insulation 2
5. Outer wall/leaf
6. Air gap 1
Inside Outside
6
4
Section
459
8.2.3 Timber Frame Construction
There are two main construction Platform frame construction

types common to timber building (Fig. 147) allows a building to
systems today, namely ‘platform be made up in panels which
frame’ and ‘post and beam’. act structurally and fit together
to make the building. The wall
Modern advances in technology
panels are continuous from floor
have lead to the production of
to ceiling and perform a structural
factory-made platform frame
role, carrying the loads of the
timber housing. This method of
intermediate floors and roof.
construction lends itself to off-site
prefabrication of walls and floors,
which are then assembled on site. NB
See Section 7.3.2 for information
about engineered timber elements
used in timber frame construction
today.
Fig. 147
460
8.2 WALLS
With post and beam construction, carried and the spacing between
the structural loads are carried vertical posts. In the case of
by vertical (posts) and horizontal post and beam construction, the
(beams) timber elements (Fig. 148). infill walls are non-load-bearing
These elements can be either solid between the structural elements,
or laminated (see Section 6.2.13 for unlike platform frame construction
sizes of laminated glulam elements). in which the walls themselves
Using solid timber has limitations perform a structural role.
in terms of the loads that can be
Fig. 148
461
8.2.4 Timber Frame with

Self-supporting Cladding
Masonry (brick, rendered The breather membrane protects

blockwork or stone) can the insulation and timbers by
be used as an outer layer allowing moisture that gets into
to protect a timber frame the wall (most likely from outside)
building against weathering. to escape.
A ventilated cavity of air is The vapour barrier prevents

needed to allow any moisture moisture in the internal air of the
or water that finds its way building from passing into the wall.
into the cavity to drain out.
Outside
Fig. 149
1
1. Masonry wall cladding
2 2. Ventilated cavity
3. Breather membrane
3
4. Sheathing board
4 5. Insulation
6. Timber stud
5
7. Vapour barrier
6 8. Internal lining
Inside
462
8.2 WALLS
Sheathing board is integral to

the stability of the timber framed
wall, as it provides strength and
stiffness. Common sheathing
materials include marine ply.
In order to avoid cold bridging

where the vertical studs occur,
an additional layer of insulation
can be fixed to the inside face
of the stud wall.
Fig. 150
2. Ventilated cavity
3. Breather membrane 8
5
4. Sheathing board
7
5. Insulation 4
6. Primary load-
6 3
bearing wall
7. Vapour barrier 1
8. Internal lining
Inside Outside
Section
463
8.2.5 Timber Frame with

Supported Cladding
When cladding with timber With horizontal cladding, the

externally, it is necessary to battens run vertically behind (see
consider the direction of the Fig. 151), while vertical cladding
cladding timbers because a requires counter-battens to
ventilated cavity must be maintained achieve a continuous air cavity.
to avoid build-up of moisture.
Counter-battens are a double
layer of battens running both
horizontally and vertically, which
maintain a clear air gap.
Outside
Fig. 151
1
1. Horizontal timber cladding
2 2. Ventilated cavity
and battens
3
3. Breather membrane
4 4. Sheathing board
5. Insulation
5
6. Timber stud
6 7. Vapour barrier
8. Internal lining
7
Inside
464
8.2 WALLS
8.2.6 Infill Walls
The use of framed structures, NB

whether they are steel, timber or Infill walls do not perform
concrete, necessitates the need a structural role.
for infilling walls to completely
enclose the building.
Fig. 152
1. Structural frame
2. Infill walls
465
8.2.7 Concrete Frame with

Brick Wall Cladding
Masonry can be used as a Fig. 153

cladding on multi-storey 1. Infill thermal block wall
framed buildings to protect 2. Concrete floor slab
against weathering. 3. Downstand beam
The masonry outer wall is carried
5. Steel wall tie
by the main structural frame.
This structural frame can be
7. Rigid insulation
concrete, steel or timber.
8. Flashing
A ventilated cavity of air is still 9. Steel angle
required to allow any moisture
that finds its way into the cavity
to drain out. The wall build-up for
this reason is similar to that of a
cavity wall.
When building a brick cavity

wall, the outer brick leaf is tied
back into the inner leaf with wall
ties. This happens for building
up to three stories. For taller
buildings, due to the increasing
load of greater heights, it is also
necessary to support the outer
leaf at each floor level. This is
done by means of a continuous
steel angle, as shown in Fig. 153.
466
8.2 WALLS
4
1
Section
467
The example in Fig. 154 shows a The cavity location allows for
concrete framed structure with a continuous insulation, which
downstand beam to the edge of minimizes any cold-bridging
the concrete slab. A continuous issues. The inside wall acts as infill
steel support is set into the and does not perform a structural
concrete, which provides fixing role. Wall ties are also required at
points for a steel angle that carries regular intervals horizontally and
the load of the brick outer wall. staggered vertically.
Fig. 154
1. Concrete frame
2. Block infill wall
1
3. Floor
4. Downstand beam
5. Steel support
6. Insulation
7. Brick outer leaf
2
7 6
468
8.2 WALLS
8.2.8 Rain Screen Wall System
A rain screen wall is a wall that has The cladding is ventilated by a

an open-jointed cladding system, cavity. The main advantage of this
which deflects the majority of system is that the cavity improves
rainwater away from the building. the thermal performance of the
building envelope, and there is
reduced thermal bridging due to
the location of the insulation.
Section
469
8.2.9 Concrete Sandwich Panel Wall
Sandwich panel construction Sandwich panel walls tend to be

involves two layers of concrete precast off site and are used where
with an intermediate layer of rigid multiple walls are required. They are
insulation. The outer and inner fixed together on site.
concrete walls are tied together
It is possible to form a sandwich
at regular intervals across the
panel wall on site. However, it is a time-
insulation-filled cavity.
consuming and technically difficult
process, which makes it expensive.
Fig. 155
1. Inner leaf concrete
2. Insulation
3. Outer leaf concrete
Section
470
8.2 WALLS
8.2.10 Curtain Walling
A curtain wall is an outer covering of A curtain can be fixed to either

a building where the outer walls are a steel or concrete framed
non-structural. The main function of structure, along the slab or
‘curtain walling’ is to keep out the beam edge and vertically
effects of the elements. to columns or stanchions.
As the curtain wall is a sealed system

and is non-structural, it can be made
of a lightweight material, which can
reduce construction costs.
4 5
Section
Fig. 156
1. Frame
2. Glass or other lightweight cladding panels
3. Fixing elements
4. Floor closer
2 3
5. Concrete floor slab
471
8.3
Roofs
Alongside the potential of roofs in Roofs perform some basic

terms of architectural expression, functions. They must:
they form a critical component
• keep out the rain;
of the building envelope.
• help maintain the internal
temperature of the building;
• prevent both excessive
heat loss and heat gain;
• help stabilize the external walls;
• provide sound protection to
the interior of the building;
• resist the spread of fire;
• be strong enough to withstand
the anticipated loads.
473
8.3.1 Flat & Pitched Roofs
Roofs are divided into two clear

categories: flat and pitched.
There are few totally flat roofs;

most are slightly pitched to allow
rainwater to run off. Flat roofs are
classified as those with a pitch of
70° ≤ Wall
10º or less.
10°–70° = Pitched Roof
Flat Roof ≤ 10°
474
8.3 ROOFS
Pitched roofs are those

between 10º and 70º. Any
element sloped at more than
70º is classified as a wall.
Pitched roofs are sub-divided

into shallow, medium and
45°–70° = Steep Pitch
steep pitches. Any roof over
45º is considered steep,
those between 30º and 45º
are considered medium pitch,
while those between 10º and
30º are a shallow pitch.
30°–45° = Medium Pitch
10°–30° = Shallow Pitch
475
8.3.2 Pitched Roofs

1 2
Mono Pitched Roof

The simplest form of pitched
roof is one that slopes in one
direction – a ‘mono pitch’.
The roof is supported by the
walls below, and rain runs off
the roof to the lower edge.
Fig. 157
1. Direction of flow of water
2. Rainwater collected at a gutter
Lean-to Roof
A mono-pitched roof that leans
against a wall or structure is called
a ‘lean-to’ roof. This is typically
used for building types that are
attached to main structures,
such as sheds, greenhouses or
small extensions. The structure
of the roof runs from the larger
structural wall to the lower
wall of the lean-to element.
476
8.3 ROOFS
Simple Pitched Roof

This is the most common roof
form. Two sloping planes meet the
ridge – the high point of the roof.
Rain drains to the edges of the
sloping planes.
Butterfly Roof
In a butterfly roof, the sloped
planes slope inwards and rain
drains to a central gutter.
NB
The profile of the roof is determined
by the following factors:
• Ease of construction: simple

forms are easier to build.
• Span: mono-pitch and lean-to
roofs are generally suitable for
shorter spans than pitched or
butterfly roofs.
• Aesthetic considerations.
477
8.3.3 Trusses
Pitched roofs are most commonly

constructed with trusses.
These are a series of parallel
elements, constructed on site.
The most common material for
King Post Truss
construction of trusses is timber,
although steel is sometimes used
to span greater distances.
There are a number of common

timber truss shapes. Cut roofs
are made on site, whereas
prefabricated roofs are made more
economically off site but have
Queen Post Truss
certain limitations. Prefabricated
roof trusses are more commonly
used today.
Further information on trusses is

given in Section 7.2.7.
Mansard Truss
478
8.3 ROOFS
2 3 4 5
6 7 8
Fig. 158
1. Hip rafter
2. Valley rafter
3. Ridge
4. Common rafters (or trusses)
5. Purlin
6. Hipped gable
7. Jack rafter
8. Gable
479
In a typical pitched roof Fig. 159

construction, a series of parallel 1. Wall plate
trusses sit on a timber wall plate, 2. Timber truss
which rests on the external walls. 3. Load-bearing wall
1 2
480
8.3 ROOFS
These trusses are braced to Three types of bracing

make them stable and minimize are commonly used:
the impact of lateral loads.
• ridge bracing;
Fig. 160 • diagonal bracing;
1. Horizontal bracing • horizontal bracing –
2. Diagonal bracing at the base of the truss.
3. Ridge bracing
1 3
481
Insulation is fixed between the Small timber battens are then

trusses and is covered with a fixed to the trusses – through the
waterproof membrane. This is waterproof layer. Tiles or slates
fixed to the trusses. are then fixed to or hung from
the battens.
The junction of the wall and roof
is called the eaves junction (see
Section 8.4.7 for more detail).
A horizontal element fixed to the Fig. 161

underside of the trusses is called 1. Waterproof membrane
the soffit. This was traditionally 2. Timber battens
made of timber, but other materials 3. Slates/Tiles
are sometimes used. 4. Insulation
5. Gutter
The fascia is the horizontal
6. Fascia
element fixed to the outer edge
7. Soffit
of the trusses. The gutter is often
fixed to the fascia.
482
8.3 ROOFS
1 2 3 4
6 7
483
8.3.4 Roof Finishes
Typical roof finishes for pitched Typical roof finishes

roofs in the UK and Ireland include: for flat roofs include:
• slate; • bitumen and roofing felt;

• concrete tile; • asphalt;
• clay tile; • sheet metal;
• sheet metal. • thermoplastic sheeting;
• sedum roofs;
Other less common roofing
• grass roofs.
materials include:
• thatch;
• timber shingles.
‘Unit’ roofing materials – i.e. those

composed of small modular
elements such as tiles and slates
– are unsuitable for use on flat
or shallow pitched roofs. For
more detailed information on
appropriate roof pitches for roof
finishes, see Chapter 6: Materials.
484
8.3 ROOFS
8.3.5 Flat Roof Construction
Similar to internal upper floor roof measuring 6 × 3m, the optimal

levels, roof construction can be solution would be to design the
slab construction (precast or cast roof so that the slope is across the
in-situ), timber joists or composite 3m dimension.
metal decking. In domestic
A wall upstand at the edge of a roof
construction, timber joist flat roof
is called a parapet. A parapet is
construction is the most common.
commonly topped by coping, which
Almost all flat roofs accommodate can be of metal, stone or concrete.
some slope to allow rainwater run-
The verge is the edge of the roof
off. The recommended slope is 1 in
running with the falls, while the
40 (known as the fall of the roof). It
fascia runs perpendicular to the
is good practice to allow rainwater
falls. The gutter is usually fixed
to run off in the shorter dimension
to the fascia.
of a flat roof. For example, in a
Fig. 162
4 1. Gutter
2. Fascia
1 5 3. Falls
4. Coping
3
6 5. Parapet
6. Flashing
2 7. Verge
8. Soffit
7
485
8.3.6 Flat Roof Build-ups
Cold Deck Roof

In this flat roof system, the insulation A critical factor in the success of
is positioned between the joists the cold deck roof is that there
with the decking and waterproof must be a minimum of 50mm
layer above. Because the decking clear ventilation space above the
is above the insulation, it is ‘cold’, insulation. This is to prevent a
hence the term ‘cold deck roof’. build-up of moisture which could
cause the timbers to rot and the
insulation to become saturated.
Fig. 163
1. Waterproof membrane The advantage of positioning the
2. Joists insulation between the joists is that
3. Roof decking (typically the overall thickness of the slab is
marine plywood or OSB) reduced, making a thin roof profile.
5. Plasterboard
6. Insulation 1 5
7. Vapour barrier
Outside 3 4
Inside 7
486
8.3 ROOFS
Warm Deck Roof

In this flat roof system, the Ventilation is not necessary in the
insulation is positioned above warm deck roof as the air between
the joists and decking with the joists is the same temperature
the waterproof layer above. as the internal room temperature
Because the decking is below and not prone to condensation.
the insulation, it is ‘warm’. The build-up of a warm deck roof is
thicker than that of a cold deck roof.
Fig. 164
1. Waterproof membrane
2. Roof decking (typically marine
plywood or OSB)
3. Joists
4. Insulation
5. Vapour barrier
1
6. Plasterboard 6
4 5
487
Concrete Warm Deck Roof

This type of flat roof can be Concrete slabs can be used
constructed with a cast in-situ for larger spans than timber
or precast slab. Insulation sits joist flat roofs, but are more
above the slab. expensive to construct.
In order to achieve a fall, a

screed can be laid to falls on
top of the insulation.
Fig. 165
2. Insulation
3. Concrete slab
4. Screed laid to falls
1 2 3
488
8.3 ROOFS
Inverted Warm Deck Roof

In this flat roof system, the The insulation must be weighed
insulation is positioned above the down with ballast to prevent it
the joists, decking and waterproof becoming dislodged during storms.
layer. It is a version of the warm This ballast can be in the form of
deck roof (see p. 487). concrete paving slabs or gravel.
Because the insulation is above

the waterproof layer, it is allowed Fig. 166
to get wet. Therefore specialist 1. Roof decking (typically
insulation must be used, as marine plywood or OSB)
the function of most forms of 2. Joists
insulation is dramatically reduced 3. Waterproof membrane
by water saturation. 4. Ballast
5. Insulation
6. Plasterboard
1 2 3 5 6
489
8.4
Openings
& Junctions
Critical to the success of a building envelope

are openings and junctions. The junctions
between elements such as walls and floors
should be detailed to prevent these becoming
weak points in the thermal and environmental
enclosure. Openings such as windows and
doors must be designed to allow movement
of light, air and people, without giving rise to
problems of thermal breaks or water ingress.
491
8.4.1 Forming an Opening
In order to form an opening in above the opening and spreads it

a wall, whether it is a door or a to the walls on either side. A lintel
window, it is necessary to insert can be made of timber, steel or
a structural element that spans an concrete depending on the type
opening. This element, usually a of wall it is in and the loads it
lintel, carries the load of the wall needs to carry.
492
8.4 OPENINGS & JUNCTIONS
8.4.2 Lintel in Timber Framed Wall
In timber frame construction, the What is known as a double

method of forming an opening header (two timbers spanning
in a wall is different. A number of the opening) is positioned above
additional timber elements are the opening to form a window
inserted into the stud wall to make head or lintel.
the opening.
Trimmer studs strengthen the stud

vertically. Cripple studs provide
additional vertical support.
2
Fig. 167 4
1. Opening
2. Short cripple 1 5
3. Double header
4. Typical stud
5. Trimmer stud 6
6. Sill
7. Cripple stud
493
8.4.3 Steel Lintel in Cavity Wall
In cavity wall construction,

1
it is necessary to provide a
lintel to both the internal and
2
external walls. This can be
done in a number of ways.
3
In Fig. 168, the internal wall is

carried by a precast concrete
lintel. The external wall of brick
is supported by a steel angle
4
fixed back to the inner leaf.
The steel angle runs beyond
the length of the opening and
5
bears on the wall on either end.
Its main benefit is that it allows
6
the brick coursing to continue
uninterrupted on the external 7
leaf, as can be seen in Fig. 169.

8
Fig. 168
1. Brick outer leaf
2. Insulation
4. Inner block wall
9
5. Stepped DPC
6. Concrete lintel
7. Weep holes
8. Steel lintel
Inside Outside
9. Window
494
8.4.4 Steel Lintel

8 5
6
4
1
This 3D drawing of the cavity wall shows
how the stretcher bond in the brick can
Fig. 169 continue across the window opening
1. Brick outer leaf uninterrupted with the use of a steel
2. Insulation lintel. Also indicated is the damp-proof
3. Ventilated cavity course (DPC), which allows any water
4. Weep hole that enters the cavity to be carried out
5. Inner block wall by gathering on the DPC and finding
6. Concrete lintel its way out via weep holes in the outer
7. Steel lintel leaf. Weep holes are located in the brick
8. DPC joints at regular intervals.
495
8.4.5 Insulated Metal Lintel
A pressed metal insulated lintel

1 2
will carry both the inner and outer
leaves across a window or door
3
opening. The benefit of these lintels
is that they are pre-insulated and
4
come in standard sizes.
The line of thermal insulation

must join up with the window
frame (as it does in this detail) to 5
avoid creating a cold bridge.
Inside Outside
Fig. 170
1. Inner block wall
2. Brick outer leaf
3. Insulation
5. Stepped DPC
6. Insulated lintel
7. Window
496
8.4.6 Sill Detail
When we take a large-scale section

3
through the window at windowsill
level, we call it a ‘sill detail’. Again,
the critical issues here are continuity
of the thermal layer, and the
avoidance of water penetration.
The window and the sill must be

designed to carry water away 1
from the wall to prevent water 4
ingress. This detail shows a cavity

wall with a pressed metal sill
and timber and metal window. 5
2
6
Inside Outside
Fig. 171
1. Timber sill
2. Inner block wall
3. Window
4. Pressed metal sill
5. Insulation
6. Brick outer leaf
497
8.4.7 Eaves Junction
Fig. 172
1. Insulation
2. Cavity closer
1
3. Inner block wall
4. Concrete lintel
5. Air flow
6. Brick outer leaf
7. Steel lintel 2
8. Window
1
5
3
6
4
7
Inside Outside
Where an external wall meets In the roof build-up, a continuous

a roof, this junction is known airflow is critical to the performance
as either an eaves or a parapet of the roof. The flow of air ensures
junction depending on whether the the movement of moisture out of the
edge of the roof projects beyond structure, avoiding condensation.
the line of the wall or sits behind
an upstand in the wall.
498
8.4.8 Parapet Junction
Fig. 173 7
1 2
2. Flashing lapped over
roof membrane
3. Gravel
3
4. Rigid insulation
5. Concrete roof 8
4
6. Inner block wall
7. Pressed metal capping
5
8. Vapour barrier 9
9. Brick outer leaf

10. Insulation 10
6 11
Inside Outside
With a flat roof, a continuous airflow A ‘capping’ to the top of

is not required when constructing a the wall also helps to direct
warm deck flat roof. water onto the roof and away
from the building façade.
A waterproof membrane is applied in
this instance to the flat roof area with
an upstand of a minimum of 150mm,
again to protect against a build-up of
water entering the building.
499
8.4.9 Threshold Detail
The junction between inside In the detail shown in Fig. 174, the
and outside at floor level is damp-proof membrane (DPM)
known as the threshold. under the slab is lapped with the
damp-proof course (DPC). This
A level threshold occurs
prevents water from entering the
when the ground level outside
building. A drain directly outside the
and the finished floor level
door frame gathers any water from
inside are the same.
the surrounding ground and the
This continuity in level is glazing.
important for the building
in use, as it allows all users
to access the building by
avoiding the need for steps.
Fig. 174
1. Screed
2. Insulation
3. Slab
4. DPM
5. Internal floor finish
6. Drain
7. Sand blinding
8. External finish
9. Lapped DPM and DPC
10. Hardcore
500
Inside Outside
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10
501
References &
Further Reading
503
References for Chapter Opener Quotes
Chapter 1: Getting Started in Architecture

Heidegger, Martin (1977) Basic Writings. New York: Harper & Row, p. 357
Pallasmaa, Juhani (2009) The Thinking Hand: Existential and embodied wisdom in
architecture. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, p. 52.
Chapter 2: Principles of Representation

Zu Qhi (2007) ‘The cultural context of design and the corporeal dynamism of drawing as
the foundations for the imagination of construction’. In: Marco Frascari, Jonathon Hale
and Bradley Starkey (eds), From Models to Drawings. London: Routledge, p. 82.
Chapter 3: Drawing Annotations

Frascari, Marco (2007) ‘Introduction’. In: Marco Frascari, Jonathon Hale and Bradley Starkey
(eds), From Models to Drawings. London: Routledge, p. 3.
Chapter 4: Working Through Drawing

Brown, Christopher (2008) ‘Straight Lines’. In: Marc Treib (ed.), Drawing/Thinking:
Confronting an electronic age. London and New York: Routledge, p. 142.
Chapter 5: Surveying
Bannister, Arthur, Stanley, Raymond and Baker, Raymond (1998) Surveying. Harlow:
Longman Ltd, p. 1.
Chapter 6: Materials
Manfred Sack, quoted by Deplazes, Andrea (2008) Constructing Architecture: Materials,
processes, structures – a handbook. Basel: Birkhauser, p. 19.
Chapter 7: Principles of Construction

Auguste Perret, quoted by Frampton, Kenneth (1995) Studies in Tectonic Culture: The
poetics of construction in nineteenth and twentieth century architecture. Joint
publication of Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts and The
MIT Press, p. 153.
Chapter 8: Structure
Balmond, Cecil (2002) Informal. Munich: Prestel, p. 13.
504
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
Further Reading
Chapter 1: Getting Started in Architecture

Bielefeld, Bert and Skiba, Isabella (2007) Basics Series: Technical Drawing.
Basel: Birkhauser.
Reekie, Fraser (1976) Draftsmanship (3rd edition). London: Edward Arnold.
[See Chapter 1]
Schilling, Alexander (2007) Basics Series: Model building. Basel: Birkhauser.
Chapter 2: Principles of Representation

[See Chapters 3 and 8]
Zell, Mo (2008) The Architectural Drawing Course: Understand the principles and
master the practices. London: Thames & Hudson. [See Chapters 3, 4 and 9]
Chapter 3: Drawing Annotations

Adler, David (1999) Metric Handbook: Planning and Design Data. Oxford:
Architectural Press.
Baden Powell, Charlotte (2001) Architect’s Pocket Book. Oxford: Architectural
Press. [See pp. 29–32]
Bielefeld, Bert and Skiba, Isabella (2007) Basics Series: Technical drawing.
Basel: Birkhauser.
Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government. Technical
Guidance Documents. Document K: Stairways, ladders, ramps and guards.
Available at: www.environ.ie/en/TGD
Hochberg, Annette, Hafke, Jan-Henrik and Raab, Joachim (2009) Scale Open
Close: Windows, doors, gates, loggias, filters. Basel: Birkhauser.
Chapter 4: Working Through Drawing

Zell, Mo (2008) The Architectural Drawing Course: Understand the principles and
master the practices. London: Thames & Hudson. [See Chapters 1, 2 and 6]
505
Chapter 5: Surveying
Bannister, Arthur, Stanley, Raymond and Baker, Raymond (1998) Surveying. Harlow: Longman Ltd.
Whyte, W.S. (1997) Basic Surveying (4th edition). London: Butterworth Heinemann.
Chapter 6: Materials
Baden Powell, Charlotte (2001) Architect’s Pocket Book. Oxford: Architectural Press.
Dean, Yvonne (1996) Mitchell’s Building Series: Materials technology. Harlow:
Longman Ltd.
Deplazes, Andrea (2008) Constructing Architecture: Materials, processes, structures –
a handbook. Basel: Birkhauser.
Specific Materials References (as mentioned in text)

Bennet, David (2006–2008) Concrete Elegance, Volumes 1–4. London: RIBA Publishing.
Campbell, James W.P. (2003) Brick: A world history. London: Thames & Hudson.
Curran, Joanne (2010) Stone by Stone – A Guide to Building Stone in the Northern Ireland
Environment. Belfast: Appletree Press.
Dean, Yvonne (1996) Mitchell’s Building Series: Materials technology. Harlow: Longman Ltd.
[See Chapter 13]
Deplazes, Andrea (2008) Constructing Architecture: Materials, processes, structures –
a handbook. Basel: Birkhauser. [See pp. 77–112]
Fröhlich, Burkhard and Schulenburg, Sonja (2003) Metal Architecture: Design and construction.
Basel: Birkhauser.
Hugues, Theodor, Steiger, Ludwig and Weber, Johann (2005) Dressed Stone: Types of stone,
details and examples. Basel: Birkhauser
Kaltenbach, Frank (2004) Translucent Materials: Glass, plastics, metal. Basel: Birkhauser.
Krewinkel, Heinz W. (1998) Glass Buildings: Material, structure and detail. Basel: Birkhauser.
Pfeifer, Günter (2005) Exposed Concrete: Technology + design. Basel: Birkhauser.
Pfeifer, Günter (2001) Masonry Construction Manual. Basel: Birkhauser.
Pfundstein, Margit (2008) Insulating Materials: Principles, materials and applications.
Basel: Birkhauser.
Reichel, Alexander, Hochberg, Annette and Koepke, Christine (2004) Plaster, Render, Paint
and Coatings: Details, products, case studies. Basel: Birkhauser.
Wood Marketing Federation of Ireland (2001) Woodspec: A guide to designing, detailing
and specifying timber in Ireland. Wicklow: Wood Marketing Federation of Ireland.
506
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
Chapter 7: Principles of Construction

Ching, Frank (2009) Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, systems and design.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
d (4th edition). Hoboken, NJ:
Ching, Frank (2008) Building Construction Illustrated
John Wiley.
Deplazes, Andrea (2008) Constructing Architecture: Materials, processes,
structures – a handbook. Basel: Birkhauser.
Ford, Edward R. (1996) The Details of Modern Architecture. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Foster, J.S. and Greeno, Roger (2007) Mitchell’s Building Series. Part 2: Structure
& Fabric (7th edition). Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Chapter 8: Structure
Ching, Frank (2009) Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, systems and design.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Cobb, Fiona (2009) Structural Engineer's Pocket Book. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Moussavi, Farshid (2010) The Function of Form. New York: Actar.
Stacey, Michael (2010) Concrete: A studio design guide. London: RIBA Publishing.
507
Index
509
A colouring, 25, 129, 213, 215, 258–59, 264

ABS/PLA 3D printers, 42, 43 hatching, 199–205
adhesives, see glues lettering, 206–7
aluminium, 325, 331, 440 scaling up or down, 91–93
annotations for drawings, 97, 139–55, 196, 278, 288 stairs and ramps, 157–77
arrows, 147, 149, 153, 167, 177, 182, 183, 185, windows and doors, 179–97
188, 189 See also line weights; lines, types of
dimensioning (plans), 144–45, 278, 306, 308, architectural drawings, types of, 87
309 cut-away drawings, see axonometric
dimensioning (sections and elevations), projections
146, 307, 308, 309 detailed drawings, 90, 193, 231, 276–79, 283,
floor levels, 144, 146, 148, 278, 307 316–17
north points, 147 digitally produced drawings, see CAD
revision blocks, 141 'exploded' drawings, see axonometric
scales, 149 projections
section arrows, 148 freehand drawings, 23, 31, 129, 132–35, 212,
sheet planning, 154–55, 276–79 216, 260
title blocks, 140–43 general arrangement (GA) drawings, 90,
arches as structural elements, 391, 404 276, 315
architectural drawings hard-line drawings, 31, 33, 129, 212, 217,
communicating ideas, 95, 219, 245, 248, 226–27, 260, 285, 314, 315
260, 280 overlays, 31, 33, 213
concept development, 245, 248, 269, paraline drawings, see 3D projections
270–71, 273 sheet planning, 154–55, 276–79
conventions, 105, 137, 147, 169, 182, 216 tracing, 212, 214, 246–47
defined, 86 working (tender or construction) drawings,
equipment, 13–33 90, 112, 140, 193, 200, 214, 276–79, 282
principles of, 86–135 See also 2D projections; 3D projections;
in project development, 269–83 perspective drawings; presentation
scale, 28, 87, 89–90, 105, 112, 119, 152, drawings
193–95, 200 architectural drawings, working methods, 218–83
See also sketches and sketching; surveying adding depth, 258–59, 264
architectural drawings, techniques, 136–217 object studies, 224–27
annotations, see annotations for drawings observing, 222–43, 285, 302, 304, 305
510
INDEX
recording, 222–43, 285, 288, 302, 312–13 walls, 330, 341, 452, 462
sequencing images, 245, 248–52 board, see card; plasterboard; softboard
student exercises, 228–31 Botha Bui (Walker), 238–39
See also photography breather membranes, 440, 462, 463, 464
arcs, drawing, 20 bricks
axonometric projections, 87, 100, 101, 105, 108, bonds, types of, 346–51, 495
110–12 as a building material, 327, 332, 462
exploded, 105, 113, 253 cladding, 466–68
concrete blocks combination, 345
B drawing, 200
backing boards, 15 joints, 292, 338, 340, 495
backing sheets, 14, 308 lintels, 341, 343, 351
Baker, Raymond, 284 as a measuring method, 292–94
Balmond, Cecil, 372 special bricks, 339
balsa wood, 61, 64, 66–67 standard dimensions, 292, 293, 327, 338
bandsaws, 36, 38–39 types of, 327
Bannister, Arthur, 284 uses, 327
Barcelona Pavilion (Mies van der Rohe), 85 Brown, Christopher, 218
barrel vaults as structural elements, 392 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 115
bass wood, 66 building laboratory, 35–57
Beach Promenade, Porto (Souto de Moura), building loads, 373, 376, 385, see also load-
366–71 bearing capacity
beams building regulations, 160–61, 162, 176, 439, see
downstand beams, 430, 431, 468 also fire regulations
in foundations, 380, 381 build-up (construction methods and materials),
glulam, 359, 404–5, 461 278, 329, 440, 446, 447, 459, 466, 486, 487, 498
ply-webbed beams, 406–7
post and beam wall construction, 460, 461 C
sizes, 359, 430 CAD (computer-aided design)
steel, 360, 416 drawings, 91, 117, 258–59, 263
as structural elements, 380, 392, 404–7 in model-making, 42, 117, 275
belt sanders, 36, 45 See also 3D digital images
blockwork Cahir housing (Maguire), 264
drawing, 201 cantilevers as structural elements, 390
511
Capel Street, Dublin, 250–52 cleanliness in the studio, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 47, 214
card and board, types of cold bridges, 440, 458, 496
brown card, 70 collage, 129, 248–49, 256, 257, 275
corriboard, 69 columns, 386
foamboard (foamcore), 68, 76, 77 in concrete framed structures, 409, 410–11
grey card, 68 in foundations, 379, 380–81, 415
ivory board, 69 measuring, 300
mounting board, 70 types of, 387
card and board, working with compasses, 20–21, 289
curves, making, 74–75 concrete
cutting, 40, 44, 57, 64, 72 as a building material, 165, 328, 332, 334, 377
gluing, 60, 61, 62, 72, 73, 76, 77 cast in-situ, 328, 332, 334, 383, 408, 443–46,
joints, making, 68, 72, 76–77 450, 485, 488
laminating, 72 in cast models, 59, 78
model-making, 68–70, 72–77, 78, 79–80 drawing, 200
scoring, 57, 75, 77 in foundations, 377, 380, 383
cardboard, see card and board framed structures, 408–14, 466–68, 471
case studies lintels, 492, 494, 495, 498
Beach Promenade, Porto (Souto de Moura), mixing and mixers, 37, 47
366–71 precast, 328, 443, 450, 451, 470, 485, 488, 494
Hall House, Dublin (Grafton Architects), reinforced, 377, 383, 408, 412, 443, 455
420–35 sandwich panel walls, 470
O'Flaherty House, Kinsale, County Cork screeds, 444, 445
(Walker), 99 uses, 328
Precast Concrete House, Howth, Co. Dublin concrete blocks, 328
(FKL Architects), 269–83 brickwork combination, 345
cement, 328, 330, 355 see also concrete standard dimensions, 340
Chan, Caryn, 230–31 varieties available, 341–43
chipboard, sheet dimensions, 352 concrete slabs
chisels, 36, 50, 55 flooring, 443–46, 449, 450, 451, 471
circles, drawing, 20, 21, 23 roofs, 485, 486, 488
circumference, measuring, 74, 300 spans and loads, 389, 411, 412, 413, 414,
cladding, 253, 462–68, 469 427, 428
materials, 322, 323, 324, 325, 327, 328, 462 thickness required, 408, 411, 412, 413, 414, 443
512
INDEX
transfer slabs, 411, 412–14 Doherty, Killian, 253

construction Dolan, James, 226–27
definitions, 439, 440 doors
overview, 438–39 architraves, 180, 196
principles of, 436–501 frames, 180, 182, 187, 196, 197
construction, types of glazing, 326, 500
floors, 441–55 hinges, 180, 187, 190
junctions, 431, 435, 458, 491 leaves, 180, 188, 189, 191, 196, 197
openings, 345, 351, 458, 491–97 lintels, 196, 496
roofs, 473–89 setting out, 196–97
walls, 457–71 structural openings, 196, 197
curves terminology, 180
drawing, 22, 23, 108–9 thresholds, 500–501
measuring, 300–301 types of, 186–92
in model-making, 74–75 drafting brushes, 19
cutting mats, 30, 57, 64 drafting tape, 14, 15, 24
drawing boards, 14–15
D drawing ink, 15, 19, 27, 214
damp-proof course (DPC), 495, 500, 501 drawings, see architectural drawings;
drawing, 205 perspective drawings; presentation
damp-proof membranes (DPM), 443, 444, 445, drawings
446, 449, 500, 501 drills and drilling, 36, 46
drawing, 205 Dublin, 246–47
decking Capel Street, 250–52
flooring, 451, 452 Hall House (Grafton Architects), 420–35
roofs, 485, 486–89 James Joyce Library, University College
dimensions Dublin Belfield, 304
chain dimensions, 306 Marsh's Library, 308–11
dimension lines, 151, 155 Precast Concrete House, Howth
elevations, 308, 309 (FKL Architects), 269–83
plans, 144–45, 278, 306, 308, 309 Dulwich Picture Gallery, London (Soane), 233
and scale, 28, 92 dust masks, 36
sections, 146, 307
See also 2D projections; 3D projections
513
E floor plans, 96, 99, 101, 144, 169, 278, 422–23, 425
ear protectors, 37 floorboards, 388, 447, 451
earth, drawing, 201 floors, construction principles, 441–55
elevations, 97, 98, 102, 154 floors, function, 442
aligning, 154, 226, 315 floors, types of, 443–55
annotations, 148 foam
dimensions, 308, 309 cutting, 41, 57, 71
in object drawing, 226, 227 gluing, 60, 71, 76, 77
obliques, 106 model-making, 68, 71, 76, 77
for presentations, 256–57 See also foamboard
sectional, 175 foamboard (foamcore), 68, 76, 77
sketches, 240, 241, 309, 310, 311, 371 foundations, 375–83
environmental considerations, 322, 329, 332, 333, beams in, 380, 381
438, 448, 459 building loads, 373, 376
equipment requirements columns in, 379, 380–81, 415
architectural drawing, 13–33 concrete, 377, 380, 383
model-making, 42–43, 59–65 pad foundations, 379, 415
safety equipment, 36–37, 39, 55 piles, 380–81
surveying, 288, 289 types of, 377–83, 415
eraser shields, 19 frames
erasers, 19, 289 concrete framed structures, 408–14, 466–68,
471
F door, 180, 182, 187, 196, 197
façades, see elevations in flooring, 450, 451
fibre cement panels, 355 portal frame systems, 393, 404
fire regulations, 161, 167, 177 space frame structures, 397
FKL Architects, 269–83 walls, 460–64, 466–68, 493
flashing, 440, 467, 485, 499 window, 181, 194, 195, 295, 331
'flexi-curves', 22 Frascari, Marco, 136
floor levels, 96, 101, 144, 169, 411 French curves, 22
annotations for, 144, 146, 148, 278, 307 furniture
ground floors, 442, 443–47 in architectural drawings, 96, 101, 105, 125,
thresholds, 500–501 127, 128, 133, 238, 253
upper floors, 442, 450–52 materials, 322, 323
514
INDEX
G sheet dimensions, 352

Gallagher, Gemma, 228–29 hardcore, drawing, 203
Gaudí, Antoni, 85 hardwood, 322
Glasnevin Chapel (O'Daly), 267 timber sizes, 358
glass Heidegger, Martin, 10
as a building material, 326, 334
drawing, 205 I
profiled, 69, 354 Igualada Cemetery (Miralles and Pinos), 240–43
sheet dimensions, 353 ink marks, removing, 19
types of, 69, 326, 353 insulation, 329, 439, 440
uses, 326, 471 drawing, 203
U-value, 326 floors, 443, 446, 447, 449, 501
glass blocks, 326 in lintels, 496
dimensions, 354 roofs, 482, 486, 487, 488, 489
gloves, 37 types of, 329
glue guns, 63 uses, 329
glues, 60–63, 323 walls, 449, 458, 462, 463, 464, 467, 468, 470,
acrylic resin glues, 60, 71 495, 497
clear synthetic resin glues, 60 isometric projections, 87, 105, 107, 108, 109,
PVA glues, 62 254, 267
wood glues, 61, 62, 71
glulam (glued laminated timber), 323, 359, 404 J
beams, 359, 404–5, 461 James Joyce Library, University College Dublin,
uses, 323, 404 304
goggles, safety, 36, 39, 55 joints, 334
Gorman Architects, 266 bricks, 292, 338, 340, 495
Grafton Architects, 420–35 card, 68, 72, 76–77
granular fill, drawing, 204 glass blocks, 354
guillotines, 40, 72 render and screeds, 330
steel, 363, 370
H types of, 76–77, 370
Hall House, Dublin (Grafton Architects), 420–35 joists (timber), 400, 401
hammers, 50 floors, 451, 452–54
hardboard, 323 joist hangers, 452
515
roofs, 388, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489 121, 129, 150
sizes and spacing, 400–403, 452 contour lines, 152
spans and loads, 388, 400, 402 curved lines, 22, 23
as structural elements, 388, 400–403 dash-dot lines, 150, 166, 168
strutting 400, 402, 453 dimension lines, 151, 155
junctions, construction principles, 431, 435, dotted lines, 182, 186, 226, 253
458, 491 horizon lines (HLs), 120, 122, 123, 131
eaves junctions, 482, 498 leader lines, 151, 155
parapets, 485, 498 section lines, 101, 103, 150, 153, 278
thresholds, 500–501 standard lines, 150
void lines, 152
K lintels, 492
knives, 19, 30, 57, 64, 71, 72 see also scalpels brick, 341, 343, 351
doors, 196, 496
L insulated, 496
laser cutting machines, 44 materials, 351, 492, 493, 494–95, 498
laser melting machines, 42 windows, 181, 493, 494, 495, 496
laser pointers, 289 load-bearing capacity (LBC), 332, 376, 378, 385
levels, 288, 289 Loos, Adolf, 335
lift core (in concrete framed structures), Lynch, Sean, 85, 266
408, 409
line weights, 18, 20, 150, 216–17 M
hard-line drawings, 217 Maguire, Conor, 264
for hatching, 200 mallets, 50, 55
light (construction) lines, 18, 112, 121, 129, Marsh's Library, Dublin, 308–11
150 masking tape, 24, 75
in 3D projections, 105 masonry, chiselling, 36, 55
in 2D projections, 103, 150 mastic asphalt, drawing, 204
lines, types of, 150–53 materials, 318–71
break lines, 151, 153, 166, 169, 177 aesthetic considerations, 334–35
broken (dashed) lines, 98, 101, 150, 152, 166, for cladding, 322, 323, 324, 325, 327, 328, 462
169, 177, 182, 183 composite, 323, 325, 328, 331, 406, 440, 451
centre lines, 151 hatching used in drawings, 200–205
construction (setting-out) lines, 18, 112, model-making, 59, 66–76, 77, 78–83
516
INDEX
observing, 228, 229, 235, 365–71 model-making, safety issues, 60, 64, 71, 72
selecting, 319, 332–35, 366, 437 model-making, techniques
See also named type of material bases, making, 72, 79–80
Mayline parallel motions 15, see also parallel cast model making, 65, 78–83
motions curves in, 74–75
McGowan, Conor, 265 cutting, 64, 68, 70, 71, 72
MDF (medium-density fibreboard), 323, 352 digital modelling, 42, 267, 275
in model-making, 72, 78 gluing, 60–63, 71, 72, 73, 76, 77
sheet dimensions, 352 joints, making, 68, 72, 76–77
measurement methods, 292–301 moulds, making, 78, 79–81
body measurements, 296–99 oil, using, 78, 80
brick sizes, 292–94 painting and staining, 66, 68
equipment, 288, 289 model-making and photography, 265, 274, 275
radius, measuring, 300–301 models, types of, 84–85
window panels, 295 block models, 71
measuring systems cast models, 59, 65, 78
imperial, 89, 145, 352 contour models, 68, 84
metric, 89, 145, 307, 402, 412 display (presentation) models, 59, 85
metal site models, 84, 272
as a building material, 325 sketch models, 59, 65, 69
cutting, 36, 37, 38, 48, 49, 57 structural analysis models, 85
drilling, 36 working models, 274–75
flooring, 454, 455 See also model-making
gluing, 61, 63 Moleskine notebooks, 27
model-making, 59
safety issues, 36, 37 N
types of, 325 'nets', 18, 112, 129, 213
uses, 325 notebooks, 27, 269, see also sketch books
See also aluminium; steel
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 85 O
Miralles, Enric, 240–43 oblique projections, 87, 105, 106
modelling clay, 65 O'Daly, Emer, 267
model-making, equipment, 42–43, 59–65 O'Flaherty House, Kinsale, County Cork
model-making, materials, 59, 66–76, 77, 78–83 (Walker), 99
517
openings, construction principles, 345, 351, 458, mechanical pencils, 17, 216
491–97, see also doors; lintels; windows with parallel motions, 18
Ordnance Survey (OS) maps, 288, 289, 302 with set-squares, 18
orientation of buildings, 97, 147, 272, 302, 303 pens
orthographic projections see 2D projections drawing (drafting) pens, 32–33, 214, 222, 223
OSB (oriented strand board), 323, 352, 486, fine pens, 33, 289
487, 489 nib thicknesses, 33
sheet dimensions, 352 paper types for, 214
Perret, Auguste, 436
P perspective drawings, 87, 95, 105, 107, 115–35,
Pallasmaa, Juhani, 10 255, 260
paper, types of, 209–15 'cone of vision' (CV), 118
butter paper, 31, 212, 213 distortion, 102, 107, 115, 118
cartridge paper, 27, 212, 215 foreshortening effect, 95, 102, 107, 115, 133
detail paper, 212, 213, 214 freehand sketches, 132–35
graph (gridded) paper, 15, 289, 305, 308 one-point perspective, 116, 118–29, 135, 275
for presentation drawings, 213, 214, 215 station point (SP), 118, 119, 120, 122, 130–31
sizes, 31, 142, 143, 211, 212, 213, 246, 308 three-point perspective, 117, 135
sketch paper, 31, 33, 111, 212, 213 two-point perspective, 116, 131, 135
tooth (texture), 210, 257 vanishing point (VP), 116, 117, 120, 121, 122,
tracing paper, 19, 212, 214, 246, 289 124, 126, 131, 132
vellum, 212, 214 Perspex
watercolour paper, 212, 215 cutting, 38, 48, 57
weights, 210, 212, 213, 214, 215 sheet dimensions, 352
paper, working with photocopiers (for scaling drawings), 91–93
cutting, 40, 64, 72 photography
gluing, 60, 61, 62 models, 265, 274, 275
parallel motions, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19 for observing and recording, 228, 229,
pencils 230, 235
cleaning the lead, 17 sketches, combined with, 246, 255, 275
clutch pencils, 17, 216, 217, 289 in surveying, 289, 296, 297, 304, 310
coloured pencils, 25, 213, 222, 258–59, 264 tracing from, 246–47, 250
graphite pencils, 225, 260, 264 photo-montages, 246–47
lead types (weights), 17, 150, 200, 215, 217 Photoshop, 266, 267
518
INDEX
Pinos, Carme, 240–43 Q

plans, 96, 98, 106, 169, 197 Qi Zhu, 86
aligning, 226, 315
dimensions, 144–45, 278, 306, 308, 309 R
floor plans, 96, 99, 101, 144, 169, 278, 422–23, radius, measuring, 74, 300–301
425 radon barriers, 443, 444, 445, 449
in object drawing, 226, 227 railings, 230–31, 367–71
reflected plans, 96 ramps, 176–77, 305
roof plans, 96, 100 building regulations, 176
rotated, 254 handrails, 177
scale, 90 landings, 176
site plans, 90, 96, 145, 258–59 in private buildings, 177
sketch plans, 240, 305–6, 308, 371 in public or semi-public buildings, 177
working drawings, 276–79 rise, 176
plaster, drawing, 203 Rapidograph pens, 214, 222, 223
Plaster of Paris, 65, 78–83 Raymond, Stanley, 284
plasterboard, 330, 452, 486, 487, 489 Reglit, 69
Plaza De Les Glories Catalanes (McGowan), 265 Renaissance, 115
pliers, 54 render, 330, 449, 458
plywood, 323 resin, 59, 78, 352
drawing, 204 roof plans, 96, 100
marine plywood, 463, 486, 487, 489 roofs
in model-making, 72, 78 ventilation, 486, 487
ply-webbed beams, 406–7 roofs, construction principles, 473–89
sheet dimensions, 352 roofs, finishes, 484
Polychrome coloured pencils, 25, 213 roofs, function, 473
Precast Concrete House, Howth, Co. Dublin roofs, structural elements
(FKL Architects), 269–83 copings, 339, 485
presentation drawings, 19, 282–83 eaves junctions, 482, 498
elevations, 256–57 falls, 485, 488
paper types for, 213, 214, 215 fascias, 482, 483, 485
title blocks, 141 flashing, 485, 499
projections, 106–7, 109, see also 2D gutters, 476, 477, 482, 483, 485
projections; 3D projections insulation, 482, 486, 487, 488, 489
519
joists, 388, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489 sections, 97, 98, 103, 196
parapets, 485, 498 adding depth, 264
roof lights, 96, 152 aligning, 154, 226, 315
soffits, 482, 483, 485 annotations, 148, 149, 153, 154
trusses, 394, 478–83 dimensions, 146, 307
verges, 485 in object drawing, 226, 227
waterproof membranes, 482, 483, 486, 487, sectional elevations, 175
488, 489, 499 site sections, 97, 256–57
roofs, types of sketches, 238–39, 240–41, 307, 371
flat roofs, 474, 484, 485–89, 499 working drawings, 276
pitched roofs, 474–77, 478, 480, 484 set-squares, adjustable, 16
rubbers, 19, 289 shading, 258–59, 260, 261
rules (rulers), 30, 289 sketch books, 26–27, 222, 232–43, 289, see also
cork-backed rules, 31 notebooks
safety rules, 30, 57 sketches and sketching
scale rules, 28–29, 89 analytical sketches, 232, 233, 236
steel rules, 31 concept sketches, 269, 270–71, 273
triangular rules, 29 elevations, 240, 241, 309, 310, 311, 371
Ruskin, John, 335 freehand sketches, 132–35
models, 59, 65, 69
S object studies, 224–25
Sack, Manfred, 318 for observing and recording, 222, 224–25,
safety issues, 30, 35, 36–37, 38, 41, 45, 57, 353 228, 229, 231, 232–34, 236–43
model-making, 60, 64, 71, 72 paper types for, 31, 33, 111, 212, 213
safety equipment, 36–37, 39, 55 photographs combined, 246, 255, 275
stairs and ramps, 161 plans, 240, 305–6, 308, 371
sand blinding, 444, 501 proposals, 134, 234, 260
saws, 36, 38–39, 48–49 sections, 238–39, 240–41, 307, 371
scalpels, 16, 30, 57, 64, 72 for sequencing images, 250–52
scenography, 265 site sketches, 280–81, 288, 304–7, 309–17, 371
screeds, 330, 444, 445, 488, 501 structural strategy sketches, 237
drawing, 203 with watercolour, 222, 260–63
floating, 446 See also sketch books
screwdrivers, 46, 53 SketchUp, 266
520
INDEX
slate as a building material, 324, 355, 484 terminology, 158, 160

sliding bevel gauges, 52 treads, 158, 159, 160
Soane, Sir John, 233 Stanley knives, 57, 64
softboard, 36 steel
softwood, 322, 356 as a building material, 165, 325, 334, 377
timber sizes, 356–57 drawing, 201
Souto de Moura, Eduardo, 366–71 lintels, 492, 494–95
spans spans and loads, 416–17
concrete slabs, 389, 411, 412, 413, 414, 427, standard sections, 360, 361, 362, 417
428 structural elements, 416–17
load-bearing capacities, 332, 385, 400, 402, steel, cold-rolled, 360
404, 405, 406, 450 advantages, 360, 363
timber, 359, 388, 400, 402, 404, 405, 406 sizes, 362
trusses, 394, 478, 481 steel, hot-rolled, 360
spirit levels, 56 sizes, 361
spray mount, 61 steps, 305, 324, 500, see also stairs
squares, 16, 51, 52 stone
stairs as a building material, 324, 332, 333, 334,
balustrades, 158, 159 335, 462
building regulations, 160–61, 162 drawing, 204
going, 158, 160, 161, 163, 171, 172 types of, 324
handrails (guard rails), 158, 159 uses, 324, 458, 462, 485
landings, 158, 164, 165 stressed skin and shell structures, 396
multiple flights, 168–69 structural systems, 385–97
nosing, 160 arches, 391, 404
pitch, 160, 164, 165 beams, 380, 392, 404–7
in private buildings, 161, 164, 167, 171, 172, 173 cantilevers, 390
in public or semi-public buildings, 161, defined, 385
162–67, 171, 172, 173 girders, 395, 417
rise and risers, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, horizontal elements, 388–90
164, 171, 172, 174 joists, 388, 400–403
setting out, 162–67 portal frame system, 393, 404
shapes, 170–75 sizing of structures, 399–417
spiral and helical, 171–75 space frame structures, 397
521
stressed skin and shell structures, 396 see also axonometric projections; isometric
trusses, 394 projections; oblique projections
vaults, 392 timber, 322
vertical elements, 386–87 cutting, 38, 48, 64
See also floors; roofs; walls drawing, 202
structure engineered timber, 404–7, 454, see also
nature of 372–73, see also structural systems glulam
potential, 419–35 flooring (suspended), 447, 448, 449
surveying, 284–317 planed, 202, 356, 357, 358
checklist for on-site work, 302, 303 safety issues, 37
defined, 284, 288 sanding, 45
elements, 308–15 sheet dimensions, 352
equipment, 288, 289 spans, 359, 388, 400, 402, 404, 405, 406
maps, using, 288, 289, 302, 304 standard sawn sizes, 356–59
measurement methods, 288, 292–301 unwrought, 202
photography, 289, 296, 297, 304, 310 wall frame construction, 460–64, 493
sketching on site, 280–81, 288, 304–7, wrought, 202
309–17, 371 See also hardwood; joists; softwood; wood
windows, 308–15 trusses, 394
surveying techniques, 291–317 for roofs, 394, 478–83
spans and loads, 394, 478, 481
T 2D projections (orthographic projections), 87,
tape, see drafting tape; masking tape 95–103, 106, 260, see also elevations; plans;
tape measures, 288, 289 sections
templates (for drawing), 23
texture U
drawing, 229, 258–59 utility knives, 57, 64, 71, 72
materials, 324, 335, 339, 367
paper, 210, 257 V
scale issues, 257 vapour barriers, 440, 462, 463, 464, 486, 487, 499
theodolites, 288, 289 vaults, see barrel vaults
3D digital images, 266–67 ventilation, in construction
3D printers, 42–43 floors, 447
3D projections, 87, 100, 101, 105–13, 260, roofs, 486, 487
522
INDEX
walls, 462, 464, 466, 467, 469, 498 weep holes, 440, 494, 495
ventilation, safety issues, 41, 71 windows, 331
fixed light, 181, 182
W frames, 181, 194, 195, 295, 331
Walker, Robin, 99, 238–39 glazing, 194, 195, 326, 331, 440
walls, construction principles, 457–71 hinges, 182, 183, 184, 194, 313
walls, structural elements, 386, 457 lintels, 181, 493, 494, 495, 496
blockwork, 330, 341, 452, 458, 462 as a measuring method, 295
concrete sandwich panels, 470 sash (casement), 181, 185, 194
frames, 460–64, 466–68, 493 surveying, 308–15
insulation, 449, 458, 462, 463, 464, 467, 468, terminology, 181
470, 495, 497 types of, 182–85
leaves, 440, 459, 466, 468, 470, 494, 495, 496, windowsills, 181, 195, 324, 493, 497
497, 498 wire cutters, 41, 71
lining, 449, 458, 462, 463 wood
parapets, 485, 498 as a building material, 165, 322
sheathing board, 462, 463, 464 chiselling, 55
ventilation, 462, 464, 466, 467, 469, 498 gluing, 61
wall plates, 480 grain, 66
See also cladding; junctions; openings laminates, 323
walls, types of, 387 model-making, 66–67
cavity walls, 452, 459, 466, 494, 495, 497 staining, 66
curtain walling, 471 types of, 322
infill walls, 461, 465, 467 uses, 322
load-bearing, 324, 377, 388, 389, 427, 450, wood products, 323
457, 458, 461, 480 See also named type of wood; timber
rain screen wall systems, 469
retaining, 382 X
solid walls, 458 X-Acto knives, 30
watercolour, 129, 222, 260–63
waterproof membranes, 482, 483, 486, 487, 488,
489, 499
wax, 78
weathering, 324, 334, 369, 462, 466
523
Acknowledgments
& Credits
525
We would like to acknowledge the

following people who have enabled
this book to happen. Sincere thanks to:
Hugh Campbell and John Tuomey for their input and support. Sarah Lappin,
our advising editor, who has made insightful and clear comments all of which
has helped strengthen the book. Gerry Cahill, Wendy Barrett and all the staff
and students in UCD School of Architecture who have contributed to the book.
Conor & David, the graphic design studio, for their love of craft and their
professionalism.
Finally thanks to Dermot Boyd for his advice and Catherine Gorman and Peter
Dawson for their positive words.
526
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS & CREDITS
Image are listed by page number. 39, 40, 41 Courtesy University College Dublin (UCD)
Any images not listed were supplied by 42L UCD/Laser
the authors and designers of the book. 42R, 43, 44L UCD
44R Edwin Jebb/ UCD
T = Top 45 UCD
B = Bottom 60R Courtesy Bolton Adhesives
C = Centre 65L Image of FIMO® Soft Block, Provided by
L = Left Staedtler (UK) Ltd.
R = Right 84, 85 UCD
85, 99 Henk Snoek, Courtesy of Simon Walker
100–103, 110–113, 118–133, 135 Courtesy of Simon
Walker
229 Gemma Gallagher/UCD
230, 231 Caryn Chan/UCD
238–39 Sketch courtesy of Dermot Boyd
240–41 Sketch courtesy of Michael Pike
242–43 Sketch courtesy of Gerry Cahill
253 Killian Doherty, Architectural Field Office
264 Conor Maguire
265 Conor McGowan, Piero Giovannini,
Federica Zoboli, Francesca Liebowitz,
Liliana Tubak, Beatrice Gambato,
Nelly Vitello, Ilaria Saggese, Carolina Biascia
267 Emer O'Daly, O'Daly Architects
270–81 Courtesy of FKL Architects
282 Verena Henze, courtesy of FKL Architects
283 Courtesy of FKL Architects
302 © Ordnance Survey Ireland/Government of
Ireland, Copyright Permit No. MP 000315
367–71 Courtesy Eduardo Souto de Moura
397 shutterstock.com/Parnumas Na Phatthalung
420 Ros Kavanagh, Courtesy Grafton Architects
421–24 Courtesy Grafton Architects
433–34 Ros Kavanagh, Courtesy Grafton Architects
435 © Dennis Gilbert/VIEW, Courtesy Grafton
Architects
527
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Anne Gorman, Cons. Dip., BArch, MRIAI

Principal of Gorman Architects,
Anne has over fifteen years experience
in practice and has been teaching
in University College Dublin in design
and technology for eight years. She
is a visiting critic to CCAE in Cork,
DIT Dublin School of Architecture
and is currently completing a masters
in University College London.
Miriam Delaney, BArch, MRIAI, MA

Miriam is an architect and lecturer,
with 7 years experience in practice and
9 years teaching. She graduated from
University College Dublin (BArch) in
2003 and from UCL (MA Arch. History) in
2011. Miriam has taught architecture in
UCD, Queens University Belfast and is
currently a year master (first year) at
the Dublin School of Architecture, DIT.
Advising Editor: Dr. Sarah A. Lappin,

Lecturer in Architecture, School
of Planning, Architecture and Civil
Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast.
528

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First published by

School of Architecture UCD, 2011

© Anne Gorman and Miriam Delaney

Anne Gorman and Miriam Delaney have asserted their

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

A catalogue record for this book is

Designed by Conor & David

Introduction: Tools of the Trade 8

1. Getting Started in Architecture 10

3. Drawing Techniques 136

4. Working Through Drawing 218

8. Principles of Construction 436

References & Further Reading 503

Acknowledgements & Credits 525

6000 5800 5600 5400 5200

All the work of the hand is rooted in thinking.

1.1.1 Drawing Board & Parallel Motion

Drawing boards come in various

A0: working area of 1270 × 920mm

Common materials include timber,

Keep your hands clean – ink and

Secure each corner of the paper

1.1.2 Adjustable Set-square

Set-squares are used for drawing NB

1.1.3 Clutch Pencil & Eraser

Pencil leads range from grades 9B

More information on lead weights

Always use a clutch pencil –

After sharpening your pencil, dip

Slowly turn the pencil as you draw

Start your drawing from the top and

Putty rubbers are more effective

A compass is used for drawing

1.1.5 French Curves

French curves are used for drawing

An alternative to French curves is

1.1.6 Circle Templates

For drawing small circles,

fiddly on small diameters.

Do not draw curves – including

door swings – freehand on a

technical drawing. Always use

a compass or circle template.

1.1.7 Drafting/Masking Tape

Masking tape is a type of pressure-

Drafting tape is less strong than

1.1.8 Colouring Pencils

‘Polychrome’ colouring pencils

1.1.9 Sketch Book

Sketch books (Fig. 8) are used to

Moleskine brand notebooks

Use a sketch book with heavy

Do not use a lined sketch book.

1.1.10 Scale Rule

1:1 0 10mm 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

1:1 and 1:100

Triangular-shaped scale rules are

1.1.11 Scalpel & X-Acto Knife

See Section 1.3.2 for

Use a cutting mat and safety rule

when using a scalpel – cuts and

Always ensure you dispose of

a sharps bin when available