Wind shear

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For other uses, see Wind shear (disambiguation).

Cirrus uncinus ice crystal plumes showing high-level wind shear, with changes in
wind speed and direction
Wind shear (or windshear), sometimes referred to as wind gradient, is a difference
in wind speed or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind
shear. Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with a change in
altitude. Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with a change in lateral
position for a given altitude.[1]

Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small

distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather
features such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near
microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms, fronts, areas of locally higher
low-level winds referred to as low-level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions
that occur due to clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines, and
sailboats. Wind shear has significant effects on the control of an aircraft, and it
has been the sole or a contributing cause of many aircraft accidents.

Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking

across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream
that is flowing around the base of the tower.

Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the
wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice
versa. Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical
cyclone development but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into longer life
cycles which can then produce severe weather. The thermal wind concept explains how
differences in wind speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal
temperature differences and explains the existence of the jet stream.[2]

Down draft winds with associated virga allow these clouds in the eastern sky at
civil twilight to mimic aurora borealis in the Mojave desert.

Contents
1 Definition
2 Where and when it is strongly observed
3 Horizontal component
3.1 Weather fronts
3.2 Near coastlines
4 Vertical component
4.1 Thermal wind
4.2 Effects on tropical cyclones
4.3 Effects on thunderstorms and severe weather
4.4 Planetary boundary layer
4.4.1 Effects on flight
4.4.1.1 Gliding
4.4.1.2 Parachuting
4.4.1.3 Soaring
4.4.1.4 Impact on passenger aircraft
4.4.2 Sailing
4.4.3 Sound propagation
4.4.4 Effects on architecture
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Definition
Wind shear refers to the variation of wind over either horizontal or vertical
distances. Airplane pilots generally regard significant wind shear to be a
horizontal change in airspeed of 30 knots (15 m/s) for light aircraft, and near 45
knots (23 m/s) for airliners at flight altitude.[3] Vertical speed changes greater
than 4.9 knots (2.5 m/s) also qualify as significant wind shear for aircraft. Low-
level wind shear can affect aircraft airspeed during takeoff and landing in
disastrous ways, and airliner pilots are trained to avoid all microburst wind shear
(headwind loss in excess of 30 knots [15 m/s]).[4] The rationale for this
additional caution includes:

microburst intensity can double in a minute or less,

the winds can shift to excessive crosswinds,
40–50 knots (21–26 m/s) is the threshold for survivability at some stages of low-
altitude operations, and
several of the historical wind shear accidents involved 35–45 knots (18–23 m/s)
microbursts.
Wind shear is also a key factor in the formation of severe thunderstorms. The
additional hazard of turbulence is often associated with wind shear.

Where and when it is strongly observed

See also: Jet stream

Microburst schematic from NASA. The direction of travel is downward until the air
current hits ground level, at which point it spreads outward in all directions. The
wind regime in a microburst is completely opposite to a tornado.
Weather situations where shear is observed include:

Weather fronts. Significant shear is observed when the temperature difference

across the front is 5 °C (9 °F) or more, and the front moves at 30 knots (15 m/s)
or faster. Because fronts are three-dimensional phenomena, frontal shear can be
observed at any altitude between surface and tropopause, and can therefore be seen
both horizontally and vertically. Vertical wind shear above warm fronts is more of
an aviation concern than near and behind cold fronts due to their greater duration.
[2]
Upper-level jet streams. Associated with upper-level jet streams is a phenomenon
known as clear air turbulence (CAT), caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear
connected to the wind gradient at the edge of the jet streams.[5] The CAT is
strongest on the anticyclonic shear side of the jet,[6] usually next to or just
below the axis of the jet.[7]
Low-level jet streams. When a nocturnal low-level jet forms overnight above Earth's
surface ahead of a cold front, significant low-level vertical wind shear can
develop near the lower portion of the low-level jet. This is also known as non-
convective wind shear as it is not due to nearby thunderstorms.[2]
Mountains.[8]
Inversions. When on a clear and calm night, a radiation inversion is formed near
the ground, the friction does not affect wind above the top of the inversion layer.
The change in wind can be 90 degrees in direction and 40 knots (21 m/s) in speed.
Even a nocturnal (overnight) low-level jet can sometimes be observed. It tends to
be strongest towards sunrise. Density differences cause additional problems to
aviation.[2]
Downbursts. When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain-cooled
air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm, both speed and
directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three-dimensional
boundary. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical
wind shear will become.[9]
Horizontal component
Weather fronts
Main article: Weather fronts
Weather fronts are boundaries between two masses of air of different densities, or
different temperature and moisture properties, which normally are convergence zones
in the wind field and are the principal cause of significant weather. Within
surface weather analyses, they are depicted using various colored lines and
symbols. The air masses usually differ in temperature and may also differ in
humidity. Wind shear in the horizontal occurs near these boundaries. Cold fronts
feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather and may be preceded by
squall lines and dry lines. Cold fronts are sharper surface boundaries with more
significant horizontal wind shear than warm fronts. When a front becomes
stationary, it can degenerate into a line that separates regions of differing wind
speed, known as a shear line, though the wind direction across the front normally
remains constant. In the tropics, tropical waves move from east to west across the
Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins. Directional and speed shear can occur across
the axis of stronger tropical waves, as northerly winds precede the wave axis and
southeast winds are seen behind the wave axis. Horizontal wind shear can also occur
along the local land breeze and sea breeze boundaries.[10]

Near coastlines
File:20150226-08h40 to 09h45 - JBay - Wind shear.ogv
Wind shear along the coast with low-level clouds moving towards the east and
higher-level clouds moving towards the south-west
The magnitude of winds offshore is nearly double the wind speed observed onshore.
This is attributed to the differences in friction between landmasses and offshore
waters. Sometimes, there are even directional differences, particularly if local
sea breezes change the wind on shore during daylight hours.[11]

Vertical component
Thermal wind
Main article: Thermal wind
Thermal wind is a meteorological term not referring to an actual wind, but a
difference in the geostrophic wind between two pressure levels p1 and p0, with p1 <
p0; in essence, wind shear. It is only present in an atmosphere with horizontal
changes in temperature (or in an ocean with horizontal gradients of density), i.e.
baroclinicity. In a barotropic atmosphere, where temperature is uniform, the
geostrophic wind is independent of height. The name stems from the fact that this
wind flows around areas of low (and high) temperature in the same manner as the
geostrophic wind flows around areas of low (and high) pressure.[12]

The thermal wind equation is

{\displaystyle f\mathbf {v} _{T}=\mathbf {k} \times \nabla \left({\boldsymbol

{\varphi }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {\varphi }}_{0}\right)\,,}{\displaystyle f\mathbf {v}
_{T}=\mathbf {k} \times \nabla \left({\boldsymbol {\varphi }}_{1}-{\boldsymbol
{\varphi }}_{0}\right)\,,}
where the φ are geopotential height fields with φ1 > φ0, f is the Coriolis
parameter, and k is the upward-pointing unit vector in the vertical direction. The
thermal wind equation does not determine the wind in the tropics. Since f is small
or zero, such as near the equator, the equation reduces to stating that ∇(φ1 − φ0)
is small.[12]

This equation basically describes the existence of the jet stream, a westerly
current of air with maximum wind speeds close to the tropopause which is (even
though other factors are also important) the result of the temperature contrast
between equator and pole.

Effects on tropical cyclones

Strong wind shear in the high troposphere forms the anvil-shaped top of this mature
cumulonimbus cloud, or thunderstorm.[13]
See also: Tropical cyclogenesis § Weak vertical wind shear
Tropical cyclones are, in essence, heat engines that are fueled by the temperature
gradient between the warm tropical ocean surface and the colder upper atmosphere.
Tropical cyclone development requires relatively low values of vertical wind shear
so that their warm core can remain above their surface circulation center, thereby
promoting intensification. Vertical wind shear tears up the "machinery" of the heat
engine causing it to break down.[tone] Strongly sheared tropical cyclones weaken as
the upper circulation is blown away from the low-level center.

Effects on thunderstorms and severe weather

Main article: Severe thunderstorm
Severe thunderstorms, which can spawn tornadoes and hailstorms, require wind shear
to organize the storm in such a way as to maintain the thunderstorm for a longer
period. This occurs as the storm's inflow becomes separated from its rain-cooled
outflow. An increasing nocturnal, or overnight, low-level jet can increase the
severe weather potential by increasing the vertical wind shear through the
troposphere. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear
weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then
quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air and causes the
thunderstorm to dissipate.[14]

Planetary boundary layer

Depiction of where the planetary boundary layer lies on a sunny day

See also: Ekman layer, Ekman spiral, Planetary boundary layer, and Surface layer
The atmospheric effect of surface friction with winds aloft forces surface winds to
slow and back counterclockwise near the surface of Earth blowing inward across
isobars (lines of equal pressure) when compared to the winds in frictionless flow
well above Earth's surface.[15][failed verification] This layer where friction
slows and changes the wind is known as the planetary boundary layer, sometimes the
Ekman layer, and it is thickest during the day and thinnest at night. Daytime
heating thickens the boundary layer as winds at the surface become increasingly
mixed with winds aloft due to insolation, or solar heating. Radiative cooling
overnight further enhances wind decoupling between the winds at the surface and the
winds above the boundary layer by calming the surface wind which increases wind
shear. These wind changes force wind shear between the boundary layer and the wind
aloft and are most emphasized at night.

Effects on flight
Main articles: Aeronautics and Gliding
Gliding

Glider ground launch affected by wind shear

In gliding, wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing
phases of the flight of a glider. Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on
ground launches, also known as winch launches or wire launches. If the wind
gradient is significant or sudden, or both, and the pilot maintains the same pitch
attitude, the indicated airspeed will increase, possibly exceeding the maximum
ground launch tow speed. The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect
of the gradient.[16]

When landing, wind shear is also a hazard, particularly when the winds are strong.
As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing,
airspeed decreases while sink rate increases, and there is insufficient time to
accelerate prior to ground contact. The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and
use a higher approach speed to compensate for it.[17]
Wind shear is also a hazard for aircraft making steep turns near the ground. It is
a particular problem for gliders which have a relatively long wingspan, which
exposes them to a greater wind speed difference for a given bank angle. The
different airspeed experienced by each wing tip can result in an aerodynamic stall
on one wing, causing a loss of control accident.[17][18]

Parachuting
Wind shear or wind gradients are a threat to parachutists, particularly to BASE
jumping and wingsuit flying. Skydivers have been pushed off of their course by
sudden shifts in wind direction and speed, and have collided with bridges,
cliffsides, trees, other skydivers, the ground, and other obstacles.[citation
needed] Skydivers routinely make adjustments to the position of their open canopies
to compensate for changes in direction while making landings to prevent accidents
such as canopy collisions and canopy inversion.

Soaring
Soaring related to wind shear, also called dynamic soaring, is a technique used by
soaring birds like albatrosses, who can maintain flight without wing flapping. If
the wind shear is of sufficient magnitude, a bird can climb into the wind gradient,
trading ground speed for height, while maintaining airspeed.[19] By then turning
downwind, and diving through the wind gradient, they can also gain energy.[20] It
has also been used by glider pilots on rare occasions.

Wind shear can also produce wave. This occurs when an atmospheric inversion
separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind
encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by thermals coming up from
below, it will produce significant shear waves that can be used for soaring.[21]

Impact on passenger aircraft

Effect of wind shear on aircraft trajectory. Note how merely correcting for the
initial gust front can have dire consequences.

Wreckage of Delta Air Lines Flight 191 tail section after a microburst slammed the
aircraft into the ground. Another aircraft can be seen flying in the background
past the crash scene.
Following the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191, in 1988 the U.S. Federal
Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on-board wind
shear detection systems by 1993. The installation of high-resolution Terminal
Doppler Weather Radar stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by
wind shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid
wind shear conditions.[22]

Sailing
Wind shear affects sailboats in motion by presenting a different wind speed and
direction at different heights along the mast. The effect of low-level wind shear
can be factored into the selection of sail twist in the sail design, but this can
be difficult to predict since wind shear may vary widely in different weather
conditions. Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for low-level
wind shear, for example using a boom vang.[23]

Sound propagation
See also: Speed of sound
Wind shear can have a pronounced effect upon sound propagation in the lower
atmosphere, where waves can be "bent" by refraction phenomenon. The audibility of
sounds from distant sources, such as thunder or gunshots, is very dependent on the
amount of shear. The result of these differing sound levels is key[colloquialism]
in noise pollution considerations, for example from roadway noise and aircraft
noise, and must be considered in the design of noise barriers.[24] This phenomenon
was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s, contributing
to the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers.[25]

Hodograph plot of wind vectors at various heights in the troposphere.

Meteorologists can use this plot to evaluate vertical wind shear in weather
forecasting. (Source: NOAA)
The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity
normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from
listeners on the ground, producing an acoustic shadow at some distance from the
source.[26] In 1862, during the American Civil War Battle of Iuka, an acoustic
shadow, believed to have been enhanced by a northeast wind, kept two divisions of
Union soldiers out of the battle,[27] because they could not hear the sounds of
battle only six miles downwind.[28]

Effects on architecture
Wind engineering is a field of engineering devoted to the analysis of wind effects
on the natural and built environment. It includes strong winds which may cause
discomfort as well as extreme winds such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and storms which
may cause widespread destruction. Wind engineering draws upon meteorology,
aerodynamics, and several specialist engineering disciplines. The tools used
include climate models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels, and numerical
models. It involves, among other topics, how wind impacting buildings must be
accounted for in engineering.[29]

Wind turbines are affected by wind shear. Vertical wind-speed profiles result in
different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those
at the top of blade travel, and this, in turn, affects the turbine operation.[30]
This low-level wind shear can cause a large bending moment in the shaft of a two-
bladed turbine when the blades are vertical.[31] The reduced wind shear over water
means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas.
[32]

See also
Aviation safety
Low level windshear alert system
Sailing
Cumulonimbus and aviation
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