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You’ve Evolved!
Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity

The Evidence for Evolution

Fossil Record
Fossils are the
preserved remains of
once-living organisms.
Fossils are created when
three (3) events occur:
1.) The organism must
become buried in
sediment; 2.) the
calcium in the bone or
other hard tissue must
mineralize; and 3.) the
surrounding sediment http://dailymail.co.u
must eventually harden Source: http://dailymail.co.uk
to form rock. The process of fossilization probably occurs rarely.
Usually, animals or plant remains will decay or be scavenged
before the process can begin. Only a fraction of the species that
have existed are known from fossils. Nonetheless, the fossils
that have been discovered are sufficient to provide detailed Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9
th

information on the course of evolution through time. edition figure 21.10

Dating Fossils
By dating the rocks in which fossils occur, we can get an
accurate idea of how old fossils are. In Darwin’s day, rocks were
dated by their position with respect to one another with a process
called relative dating; rocks in deeper strata are generally older.
Today, rocks are dated by measuring the degree of decay of certain
radioisotopes contained in the rock with a process called absolute
dating; the older the rock, the more of its isotopes have decayed.
Because radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate unaltered by

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temperature or pressure, the isotopes in a rock act as an internal forms occurred in the Eocene Period, 45-55 million years ago
clock, measuring the time since the rock was formed. This is a (MYA).
more accurate way of dating rocks and provides dates stated in
millions of years, rather than relative dates. When fossils are Modern-day members of the Equidae include horses,
arranged according to their age, from oldest to youngest, they zebras, donkeys, and asses, all of which are large, long-legged,
often provide evidence of successive evolutionary change. At the fast running animals adapted to living on open grasslands. These
largest scale, the fossil record documents the progression of life species, all classified in the genus Equus, are the last living
through time, from the origin of eukaryotic organisms, through the descendants of a long lineage that has produced 34 genera since
evolution of fishes, the rise of land-living organisms, the reign of its origin on the Eocene Period, approximately 55 MYA.
dinosaurs, and on to the origin of humans. Examination of these fossils has provided a particularly well-
documented case of how evolution has proceeded by adaptation
Given the low likelihood of fossil preservation and to changing environments.
recovery, it is not surprising that there are gaps or “missing
links” in the fossil record. Nonetheless, paleontologists
(scientists who study fossils) continue to fill the gaps in fossil
record. Today, fossil record is far more complete, particularly
among vertebrates; fossils have been found linking all the major
groups. For example, a four-legged aquatic mammal that
provides important insights concerning the evolution of whales
and dolphins from land-living hoofed ancestors was discovered.
Similarly, a fossil snake with legs has shed light on evolution of
snakes, which descended from lizards that gradually became
more and more elongated with simultaneous reduction and
eventual disappearance of limbs.

The recent discoveries of Ambulocetus, Rodhocetus, and

Pakicetus have filled in the gaps between whales and their
hoofed mammal ancestors. The features of Pakicetus illustrate
that intermediate forms are not intermediate in all
characteristics; rather, some traits evolve before others. In the
case of evolution of whales, changes occurred in the skull prior th
to evolutionary modification of the limbs. All three (3) fossil Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 21.10

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The earliest known members of the horse family are species
in the genus Hyracotherium, did not look much like horses at all.
Small, with short legs and broad feet, these species occurred in
wooded habitats, where they probably browsed on leaves and
herbs and escaped predators by dodging through openings in the
forest vegetation. The evolutionary path from these small
creatures to the workhorses of today has involved changes in a
variety of traits, including:
· Size – the first horses were no bigger than dogs; some
was the size of a housecat. The modern equids can
weigh more than half a ton.
· Toe reduction – the first horses had four (4) toes on
its front feet and three (3) on its hind feet encased in
fleshy pads. The feet of modern horses have a single
toe enclosed in a tough bony hoof.
· Tooth size and shape – the teeth of Hyracotherium
were small and relatively simple in shape. Through
time, horse teeth have increased greatly in length and
have developed a complex pattern of ridges on their
molars and premolars. Accompanying these changes
have been alterations in the shape of the skull that
strengthen the skull to withstand the stresses imposed
by continual chewing.
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All these changes may be understood as adaptation to
changing global climates. In particular, during the late Miocene
and early Oligocene (20-25 MYA), grasslands became
widespread in North America where much of horse evolution
occurred. As horses adapted to these habitats, long-distance and
high speed locomotion probably became more important to
escape predators and travel great distances.
By contrast, the greater flexibility provided by multiple
toes and shorter limbs, which was advantageous for ducking
through complex vegetation, was not longer beneficial. At the
same time, horses were eating grasses and other vegetation that
contained grit and other hard substances, thus favoring teeth and
skulls better suited for withstanding such materials.
Homology
As vertebrates evolved, the same bones were sometimes put to
different uses. For example, the forelimbs of vertebrates are
homologous structures, that is, structures with different
appearances and functions all derived from the same body part
in a common ancestor.
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 5th edition figure 21.14
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Embryological Development
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 5th edition figure 21.15
In many cases, the evolutionary history of an organism can
be seen to unfold during its development, with the embryo
exhibiting characteristics of the embryos of its ancestors. For
example, early in their development, human embryos
possess gill slits, like fish; at later stage, every human
embryo has a long bony tail, the vestige of which we carry
to adulthood as the coccyx at the end of our spine. Human
fetuses even possess a fine fur (called lanugo) during the
fifth month of development. These relict developmental
forms suggest that our development has evolved with new
instructions layered on top.
The observation that seemingly different organisms may
exhibit similar embryological forms provides indirect, but
convincing, evidence of a past evolutionary relationship. Slugs
and giant ocean squids, for example, do not bear much
superficial resemblance to each other, but the similarity of their
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embryological forms provides convincing evidence that they are
both mollusks
Vestigial Structures
Many organisms
possess vestigial
structures that
have no apparent
function, but that
resemble
structures their Source: Raven, et al., Biology 5th edition figure
21.17
presumed
ancestors had. Human, for example, possess a complete set of
muscles for wiggling their ears, just as a coyote does. Boa
constrictors have hip bones and rudimentary legs. The skeleton
of a baleen whale, which contains pelvic bones, as other
mammal skeletons do, even though such bones serve no known
function in the whale. It is difficult to understand vestigial
structures such as these as anything other than evolutionary
relics, holdovers from the evolutionary past. They argue strongly
for the common ancestry of the members of the groups that share
them, regardless of how different they have subsequently
become.
Evidence from Biochemistry and Genetics
Blood tests show that human blood is more like the
rabbit’s blood than a frog’s blood or an insect’s blood.
Furthermore, human blood is more like an ape blood, and is
more like an ape’s blood than rabbit’s blood. Notice that the
closer the groups are in structure, the closer their blood
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chemistry. This is one (1) more piece of evidence of relationship
and common ancestral origin.
Modern genetics also provides evidence of evolution.
All organisms use the same genetic code to synthesize proteins.
A universal genetic code is consistent with the idea that all
organisms evolved from a common ancestor that used that code.
Theories of Evolution
Selection
Selection is the process where some individuals
leave behind more progeny or offspring than others, and the
rate which they do so is affected by phenotype or behavior.
There are two types of selection:
Natural selection – environmental conditions
determine which individuals in a population produce
the most offspring.
Artificial selection – the breeder selects for desired
characteristics. It is usually human interference that
creates the chance for artificial selection.
Natural Selection
Natural selection produces evolutionary change
when in a population, some individuals that possess certain
inherited characteristics produce more surviving offspring
than individuals lacking these characteristics.
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As a result, the population will gradually come to
include more and more individuals with advantageous
characteristics. In this way, the population evolves and
adapts better to its local circumstances.
THREE (3) SAMPLES OF NATURAL SELECTION
· Selection to Avoid Predators
th
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.7
Many of the most dramatic documented instances of
adaptation involve genetic changes, which decrease the
probability of capture by predator. An example is the pocket
mice from the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico whose color
matches the background.
In these areas, the black rock formations produced when
lava cooled contrast to the surrounding bright glare of the dessert
sand. The pocket mice in figure (A) matches the color of the
cooled lava and the one of figure (B) is light colored to match
the white sand.
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· Selection to Match Climatic Conditions uptake of insecticide, whereas alleles at the kdr and dld-r genes
decrease the number of target sites, thus decreasing the binding
Many studies of ability of insecticide. Other alleles enhance the ability of the
selection have focused on insects’ enzymes to identify and detoxify insecticide molecules.
genes encoding enzymes.
Often investigators fined the
enzyme allele frequencies Source: http://new.coolclassrooom.org
vary with latitude, so that one
allele is more common in northern populations, but is
progressively less common at more southern locations. An
example is seen in studies of a fish the mummichog (Fundulus
heteroclitus), which ranges along the eastern coast of North
America. In this fish, geographic variation occurs in allele
frequencies for the gene that produces the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to
lactate (for release of energy when there is not enough oxygen). th
Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.7
Biochemical studies show that enzymes formed by these alleles
function differently at different temperatures, thus explaining
their geographic distributions. The form of the enzyme more
frequent in the north is a better catalyst at low temperatures than
the enzyme from the south. Moreover, studies indicate that at
low temperatures, individuals with the northern allele swim
faster, and presumably survive better, than individuals with the
alternative alleles.

· Selection for Pesticide Resistance

A particularly clear example of selection in action in

normal populations is provided by studies of pesticide resistance
th
in insects. The widespread use of insecticides has led to the rapid Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.7
evolution of resistance in more than 400 pest species. For
example, the resistance allele at the pen gene decreases the

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The Relationship and Differences of Natural Selection and
Evolution
Natural selection is a process, whereas evolution is the
historical record, or outcome, of change through time. An
example is how giraffes evolved to have longer necks from their
ancestors. Through the process of natural selection, longer-
necked giraffes are more successful in survival and pass the
long-neck trait on to their offspring.
Natural selection can lead to evolution, but natural
selection is only one (1) of several processes that can result to
evolutionary change. The five (5) agents of evolutionary change
are mutation, gene flow, nonrandom mating, and genetic drift.
Natural selection can occur without producing
evolutionary change; only if variation is genetically based will
natural selection lead to evolution. An example is an offspring
who do not resemble its parents because of its experience on
different environments during growth and not because it is
different genetically.
Charles Darwin is an English Naturalist who wrote the
book: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
In Darwin’s time, most people believed that the different kinds
of organisms resulted from direct actions of a creator. Darwin
was a part of a five-year navigational mapping expedition
around the coast of South America, aboard H.M.S. Beagle.
During the voyage, he studied a wide variety of plants and
animals on continents and islands in distant seas. Darwin
repeatedly saw characteristics of similar species varied
somewhat from place to place. These geographical patterns
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suggested to him that lineages change gradually as species
migrate from one area to another.
On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin encountered a variety
of different finches on various islands. The 13 species of finches,
although related slightly differed in appearance, particularly in
their beaks. Darwin thought that all these birds had descended
from a common ancestor from the South American mainland
several million years ago. Eating different foods on different
islands, the finches' beaks had changed during their descent.
The diversity of Darwin’s finches:
· Ground finches – feed on seeds that they crush in their
powerful beaks
· Warbler finches – feed on insects with their smaller and
narrower beaks
· Fruit/bud/cactus finches – feed on fruit/bud/cactus and
other insects they attract
· Sharp-beaked ground finches – include “vampires” that
sometimes creep up on seabirds and use their sharp beaks
to pierce seabirds’ skin and drink their blood.
· Wood-pecker finches – pick up a twig, cactus spine, or
leaf stalk, and trim it into shape with their beaks, and
then poke it into dead branches to pry out grubs.
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have imposed selection on just about every conceivable aspect

of the fruit fly, including body size, eye color, growth rate, life
span, and exploratory behavior, with a consistent result, which
is selection of trait leads to strong and predictable evolutionary
response.
In one classic experiment, scientists selected for fruit
flies with many bristles (stiff, hair-like structures) on their
abdomen. At the start of the experiment, the average number of
bristles was 9.5. Each generation, scientists picked out the 20%
of the population with the greatest number of bristles and
allowed them to reproduce, thus establishing the next
generation. After 86 generations of such selection, the average
number of bristles had quadrupled, to nearly 40. In a similar
experiment, fruit flies were selected for either the most or the
fewest number of bristles. Within 35 generations, the
populations did not overlap at all in range of variation.
The figure
shows that one (1)
population of
Drosophila was
Source: Raven, et al. selected for low
Biology 5th edition figure
21.12 number of bristles
and the other for
high numbers. Note
that not only did the
means of
Artificial Selections populations change
greatly in 35
th
Application Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 21.1 generations, but also
Laboratory Experiments that all individuals
A favorite subject for artificial selection inside the in both experimental populations lie outside the range of the
laboratory is the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Geneticists initial population.

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Agriculture Domestication also

Artificial selection have been practiced in agriculture for
many centuries. Familiar livestock, such as cattle and pigs, and
crops, like corn and strawberries, are greatly different from their
wild ancestors. These differences have resulted from generations
of selections for desirable traits like milk production and corn
stalk size.
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9th edition figure 21.6
Referring to the figure, Teosinte, which can be found today
in a remote part of Mexico, is very similar to the ancestor of
modern corn. Artificial selection has transformed it to the
form we know today.
Domestication
Artificial selection has also been responsible for the great
variety of breeds of cats, dogs, pigeons, cattle, and other
domestic animals. In some cases, breeds have been
developed for particular purposes. Greyhound dogs, for
example, were bred by selecting for maximal running
abilities, with the end result being an animal with long legs
and tail, an arched back, and great muscle mass.
has led to
unintentional
selection for some
traits. In recent years,
as part of an attempt
to domesticate the
silver fox, Russian
scientists have Source: Raven, et al. Biology 5th edition figure 21.8
chosen the most
docile animals in each generation and allowed them to
reproduce. Within 40 years, most foxes were exceptionally
tame, not only allowing themselves to be petted, but also
whimpering to get attention and sniffing and licking their care
takers. In many respects, they became like domestic dogs. It was
not only their behavior that changed, these foxes also began to
exhibit other traits seen in some dog breeds, such as different
color patterns, floppy ears, curled tails, and shorter legs and tails.
Presumably, the genes responsible for docile behavior either
affect these traits as well or as closely linked to the genes for
these other traits.
Lamarck’s Theories of Evolution
A French naturalist, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-
1829), made observations of fossils and existing organisms. He
saw pieces of evidence that organisms had changed through
time.
His observations were based on two basic facts: (1) fossil
records showed that organisms in the past were different from
those living today, and (2) organisms are well-adapted to their
environment.

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As basis, for his observations, these assumptions
developed:
1. The Theory of Need
2. The Theory of Use and Disuse
3. The Theory of Transmitting Acquired Traits
· Theory of Need
Lamarck believed that organisms change because they
need to. It seemed, according to him, that there is natural
tendency for organisms to make themselves better and more
suited to their environment.
For example, birds developed wings because their
ancestors developed the need to fly. Elephants have long trunks
for gathering food; lions have powerful claws and jaws for
capturing prey; and deer have long, swift legs for escaping
predators. Therefore, each organism adapts to suit its particular
way of life.
Lamarck further believed that changes happened
because organisms were able to reshape their bodies in many
new ways. Body, structures, he explained, could be altered-
changed in size or shape depending on the needs of the
organism.
For example, birds trying to use their front limbs for
flying could eventually change those limbs into wings, the same
way birds with short legs could develop long legs by stretching
into deeper water. Then, if these animals had no more need for
the structures they had developed through time, these body parts
would decrease in size or eventually disappear.
· Theory of Use and Disuse
Lamarck further explained that organisms developed
specialized characteristics by the use or disuse of organs. For
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example, a deer that runs swiftly to escape wolves will develop
strong running muscles in its legs. An animal like the giraffe has
to keep reaching up to tall shrubs and trees for food. Each
generation of giraffes had a slightly longer neck. After hundreds
of thousands of years, the short-necked giraffes became the
present-day long necked giraffes. In the case of snakes, the legs
and short bodies, which were believed to be present in their early
ancestors eventually disappeared. It became necessary for
snakes to walk through narrow places. They began to stretch
their bodies and to crawl rather than walk.
· Theory of Acquired Traits
Lamarck explained that an organism acquired a body
structure (for example, characteristic structure to its offspring.
He thought that if an organism acquired a body structure
(for example, long limbs, legs, or necks) during its lifetime, it
could pass on that characteristic structure to its offspring.
According to him, this is how evolution occurs.
Lamarck and Darwin’s Observations Compared
Lamarck’s giraffe
1. Original, short-necked ancestor
2. Keeps stretching neck to reach leaves higher up on tree
3. And stretching
4. And stretching until neck becomes progressively longer
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Source: www.tumblr.com
Darwin’s giraffe
1. Original group exhibits variation in neck length
2. Natural selection favors longer necks; better chance to
get leaves of trees. Favored characteristics pass on to
next generation.
3. After many generations, the group is still variable, but
shows a general increase in neck length.
Source: www.tumblr.com
Five (5) Agents of Evolutionary Change
There are different types of winter squash such as
acorn, butternut, Hubbard, pumpkin, and spaghetti squash.
All are members of the same species, Cucurbita maxima.
Humans were able to produce such a variety of squash.
Both natural selection and artificial selection are
mechanisms of change in the gene pool of a population. The
key difference is that in artificial selection, humans ensure
that individuals with the more desirable traits are allowed to
reproduce. In natural selection, those individuals who are
best suited to their environment survive and reproduce.
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There are five (5) agents of evolutionary change: mutation,
gene flow, nonrandom mating, genetic drift, and selection.
· Mutation
Mutation is a permanent change in a cell’s DNA. It includes
changes in the nucleotide sequence, alteration of gene
position, gene loss or duplication, and insertion of foreign
sequences. Mutation from one allele to another can
obviously change the proportion of a particular alleles in a
population. Mutation is the ultimate source of genetic
variation and thus makes evolution possible.
· Gene Flow
Gene flow is the movement of alleles from one (1)
population to another. It can be a powerful agent of change
because members of two different populations may exchange
genetic materials. Sometimes gene flow is obvious as when
animal moves from one place to another. If the characteristics of
the newly arrived animal differ from those of the animals already
there, and if the newcomer is adapted well enough to the new
area to survive and mate successfully, the genetic composition
of the receiving population may be altered. Other important
kinds of gene flow are not obvious such as drifting of gametes
or immature stages of plants or marine animals from one place
to another.
Source: evolution.berkeley.edu
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· Nonrandom Mating a single seed. Isolated human populations are often

Nonrandom mating happens when individuals with dominated by genetic features characteristic of their
certain genotypes sometimes mate with one another more particular founders.
commonly than would be expected on a random basis.
Inbreeding (mating with relatives) is a type of nonrandom
mating that causes frequencies of particular genotypes to differ
greatly. Inbreeding does not change the frequency of the alleles,
but rather increases the proportion of homozygous individuals
because relatives are likely to be genetically similar and does
produce offspring with two (2) copies of the same allele. By
increasing homozygosity in a population, inbreeding increases Source: free-stock-illustration.com
the expression of recessive alleles. It is for this reason that
marriage between close relatives is discouraged and to some Bottleneck effects – Even if organisms do not move from
degree outlawed, because it increases the possibility of place to place, occasionally their populations may be
producing children homozygous for an allele with one or more drastically reduced in size. This may result from
of genetic disorders. flooding, drought, epidemic disease, and other natural
forces, or from progressive changes in the environment.
· Genetic Drift The resultant alterations and loss of genetic variability
Generic drift happens in small populations where has been termed the bottleneck effect. The parent
frequencies of particular alleles may change drastically by population contains roughly equal numbers of blue and
chance alone. Such changes in allele frequencies occur yellow individuals. By chance, the few remaining
randomly, as if frequencies were drifting. If gametes of only a individuals that comprise the next generation are mostly
few individuals form the next generation, the alleles they carry blue.
may by chance not be representative of the parent population
from which they were drawn. There are two (2) related causes
of decreases in population size, the founder effects and the
bottleneck effects:

Founder effects – when one (1) or a few individuals

disperse and become the founders of a new, isolated th
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.6
population at some distance from their place of origin.
Many self-pollinating plants start new populations from

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· Selection
This agent is already introduced to you in the discussion
of the evolution theories. Refer to pages 8 and 9 of this handout
for the discussion of the two (2) types of selection which are
natural and artificial.
The Evolution of Humans
In 1897, Charles Darwin published another ground
breaking book, “The Descent of Man”. In this book, he
suggested that humans evolved from the same African ape
ancestors that gave rise to the gorilla and the chimpanzee. Little
fossil evidence existed at that time to support Darwin's case, but
numerous fossil discoveries made since then strongly support his
hypothesis.
The story of human evolution begins around 65 million
years ago, with a group of small, arboreal (species that live in
trees) mammals called Archonta. These primarily insectivorous
mammals had large eyes that were most likely nocturnal (active
at night). Their radiation gave rise to different types of
mammals, including bats, tree shrews, and other primates, the
order of mammals that contains humans.
40 million years ago, the Archonta split in to two (2) groups:
Prosimians
· Looked like a cross between a squirrel and a cat.
· Common in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
· Nocturnal, have grasping digits, and binocular vision.
· An example of prosimian that survive today is the tarsier.
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Anthropoids
· Known as the higher primates; include monkeys, apes,
and humans.
· Diurnal, feeding mainly in fruits and leaves.
· Live in groups of complex interactions.
· Tend to care for their young for prolonged periods,
allowing for a long childhood of learning and brain
development.
· New World monkeys - anthropoids migrated to South
America
· Old World monkeys – a group of anthropoids that
remained in Africa.
Homonoids
· Apes have larger brains than monkeys and they lack
tails. The living apes consists of the gibbon,
orangutan, gorilla, and chimpanzee. Fossils
discovered suggest the first possible Hominoid:
o Ramapithecus – 8 million year-old jaw with
teeth found in India. Fossils indicate they are
closely related to orangutan.
o Proconsul – has many characteristics of Old
World monkeys but lacks tail and has apelike
hands, feet, and pelvis.
· Apes evolved knuckle-walking, supporting their
weight on the back sides of their fingers.
· Hominids became bipedal and walking upright.
Five (5) to 10 million years ago, the world’s climate began
to get cooler, and the great forests of Africa were largely
replaced with savannas and open woodland. In response to
these changes, the hominids, which were bipedal arose. In
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every case where fossils allow determination to be made, the
hominids are bipedal, walking upright. Bipedal locomotion
is the hallmark of hominid evolution. There are two major
groups of hominids: The Australopithecus and the Homo:
Australopithecus
· First hominid
· Walked upright and lived in Africa over 3 million
years ago
· Had a small brain
· Weighed about 18 kilograms and were about 1 meter
tall
· Dentition was distinctly hominid, but their brains
were not any larger than those of apes
· Australopithecus africanus – a skull of a five-year-
old individual, still with his milk teeth. While the
skull had many apelike features such as a projecting
face and a small brain, it had distinctly human
features as well (a rounded jaw unlike pointed jaw of
apes). The ventral position of the foramen magnum
(the hole at the base of the skull from which the
spinal cord emerges) suggested that the creature
walked upright. Raymond Dart, the anatomy
professor who discovered the skull, concluded it was
a human ancestor. Scientists now estimate the skull
to be 2.8 million years old.
· Australopithecus robustus – second kind of
Australopithecus, which was unearthed in South
Africa. It had massive teeth and bones.
· Australopithecus boisei – nicknamed the “Nut-
cracker man”. It had a great bony ridge, a Mohawk
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haircut of bone, on the head to anchor its immense
jaw muscles.
· Australopithecus afarensis - nicknamed “Lucy”. The
skeleton was 40% complete and over 3 million years
old. The shape of the pelvis indicated that Lucy was
a female, and her leg bones proved she walked
upright. Her brain was no larger than that of a
chimpanzee, about the size of an orange.
Homo
· African origin
· Have larger brain than Australopithecus and most
likely used tools
· Homo habilis – means “handy man”. Found with
stone tools near its fossil. Its skull suggests a brain
volume of 680 cubic centimeters that which is larger
than the Australopithecus. Homo habilis was small
in stature, with arms longer than legs and a skeleton
much like Australopithecus.
· Homo rudolfensis – the skull which was 1.9 million
years old, had a brain volume of 750 cubic
centimeters and many characteristics if human
skulls. It was assigned to a different species than
Homo habilis because of its substantial brain
expansion.
· Homo ergaster – have even larger brains that Homo
rudolfensis, with skeletons less much like the
Australopithecus and more like a modern human in
both size and proportion.
Homo erectus
· Evolved in Africa and migrated from there to Europe
and Asia.
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· About 1.5 meters tall, a lot larger than a homo
habilis.
· It had a large brain, about 1000 cubic centimeters and
walked erect.
· Its skull had prominent brow ridges and a rounded
jaw like modern humans.
· Lived in tribes of 20 to 50 people, often dwelling in
caves.
· Successfully hunted animals, butchered those using
flint and bone tools, and cooked them over fire.
· Survived for over a million years, longer than any
species of human.
· Java man – Homo erectus found in Java. Structure of
its thigh bone indicated it was an excellent walker
and skull cap suggested a very large brain.
· Peking man – Homo erectus found in Peking (now
Beijing) China that closely resembled Java man.
The evolutionary journey to modern humans entered its
final phase when modern humans first appeared in Africa
about 600,000 years ago.
Three (3) Species of Modern Humans
· Homo heidelbergensis – has more advanced
anatomical features than Homo erectus such as a
bony keel running along the midline of the skull, a
thick ridge over the eye socket, and a large brain.
· Homo neanderthalensis – short, stocky, and
powerfully built. Their skulls were massive, with
protruding faces, heavy, bony ridges over the brows,
and larger brain cases. They made diverse tools,
03 Handout 2
SH1633
including scrapers, spearheads, and hand axes. They
lived in huts or caves and took care of their injured
and sick. They buried their dead, often placing food,
weapons, and even flowers with the bodies which
suggests that they believed in life after death. This is
the first evidence of the symbolic thinking
characteristic of modern humans.
Homo sapiens
· They are the only surviving species of the genus
Homo, and are the only surviving hominid. The
skulls are modern in appearance, with high, short
braincases, vertical foreheads with only slight brow
ridges, and a cranial capacity of roughly 1550 cc,
within the range of modern humans.
o Cro-Magnons – fossils of Homo sapiens that had
complex social organization and are thought to
have had full language capabilities. They lived by
hunting and made beautiful cave paintings
throughout Europe.
REFERENCES
Capco, C. e. (2010). You and the natural world biology . Quezon City:
Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Evolution theories and biodiversity. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/science/found/gr12_bio/unit3.p
df
In darwin's footsteps. (2014, September 4). Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/05/science/in-darwins-
footsteps.html
Mason, K. A., Losos, J. B., & Singer, S. R. (2014). Biology 10th edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill Education.
*Property of STI
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