Textbook

INDEX
S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 Antenna Introduction-I 1
2 Antenna Introduction-II 13
3 Antenna Introduction-III 27
4 Antenna Fundamentals 42
5 Antenna Fundamentals-II 56
Week 2
6 Antenna Radiation Hazards-I 71
7 Antenna Radiation Hazards-II 86
8 Dipole Antennas-I 109
9 Dipole Antennas-II 123
10 Dipole Antennas-III 137
Week 3
11 Monopole Antennas-I 150
12 Monopole Antennas-II 165
13 Loop Antennas 180
14 Slot Antennas 194
Week 4
15 Linear Arrays-I 210
16 Linear Arrays-II 229
17 Linear Arrays-III 248
18 Planar Arrays 263
Week 5
19 Microstrip Antennas (MSA) 278
20 Rectangular MSA 295
21 MSA Parametric Analysis-I 310
22 MSA Parametric Analysis-II 324
23 Circular MSA 337
Week 6
24 Broadband MSA-I 349
25 Broadband MSA-II 362
26 Broadband MSA-III 377
27 Broadband MSA-IV 391
28 Broadband MSA-V 403
Week 7
29 Compact MSA-I 415
30 Compact MSA-II 428
31 Compact MSA-III 442
32 Tunable MSA-I 455
33 Tunable MSA-II 467
34 Circularly Polarized MSA-I 482
Week 8
35 Circularly Polarized MSA-II 495
36 Circularly Polarized MSA-III 507
37 MSA Arrays-I 519
38 MSA Arrays-II 530
39 MSA Arrays-III 546
Week 9
40 Helical Antennas-I 560
41 Helical Antennas-II 573
42 Helical Antennas-III 588
43 Helical Antennas-IV 601
44 Helical Antennas-V 613
Week 10
45 Horn Antennas-I 627
46 Horn Antennas-II 641
47 Horn Antennas-III 660
48 Horn Antennas-IV 679
49 Horn Antennas-V 694
Week 11
50 Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Antennas-I 707
51 Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Antennas-II 720
52 Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Antennas-III 731
53 IE3D Session TA-I 746
54 IE3D Session TA-II 759
55 IE3D Session TA-III 773
Week 12
56 Reflector Antennas-I 790
57 Reflector Antennas-II 804
58 Reflector Antennas-III 819
59 Reflector Antennas-IV 831
60 Lab Session 844
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Department of Electrical Engineering
India Institute of Technology, Bombay
Module - 1
Lecture - 1
Antennas Introduction-I
Hello everyone, welcome to the exciting world of antennas. I am going to conduct 30 hours
lecture series on antennas. Antennas are required everywhere, any wireless communication
requires antennas. Look at your mobile phone. It has multiple bands. It may be having a
GSM900, 1800, 3G, 4G, Wi-Fi, GPS, so it requires multiple antennas to receive the signal.
Similarly, let’s say a radio transmitter has to transmit the signal and your radio has to receive
the signal, we need to send signal to satellite or receive the signal from satellite so we need
antennas. Any defense communication is almost you know incomplete without the use of
antennas. So, welcome to the exciting world.
So, we are going to talk about antennas, I am the course coordinator, my name is Girish
Kumar, I am professor at IIT Bombay and I joined IIT Bombay in 1991. Just to tell little bit
about myself; I did PhD from IIT Kanpur in 1983; From 83 to 85, I was at University of
Manitoba Winnipeg Canada, where I worked in the area of antennas and from 85 to 91, I was
assistant professor at University of North Dakota USA, Canada and in 91, we decided to
come back to India, and since then I am here. I have been working in the area of antennas
since 1979, so it is been long time, my PhD was on broadband microstrip antenna.
And in the last 30 plus years, I have published more than 200 papers in the area of antennas, I
have also written a book on broadband microstrip antenna. So, let us see what this exciting
world of antenna is in store for us, and what I am going to cover in this course.
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(Refer Slide Time: 02:15)
So, the course outline, I will start with the introduction to antennas, so what are the basic
fundamentals of antennas. Then, we will look at very simple configurations like dipole,
monopole, loop and slot antennas. Many of you might have studied these things in your under
graduate course, but in this particular course we are going to emphasize on design, design and
design. Our Prime Minister is saying currently make in India. Now, make in India will only
happen if we do design in India.
Now, today we are importing more than 1 lakh Crore worth of antennas in our country and
there are very few manufacturers who are manufacturing these antennas. So, what is the
reason? The reason is very simple we do not have enough design available in our country
which can be manufactured. In fact, after antenna design is done, manufacturing is relatively
simple. So, let us see, we will start with the simple dipole, monopole, loop and slot antennas.
We will see what these antennas are, after that we will go to linear and planar arrays so that
means, arrays in form in the just in one linear fashion that is known as linear and arrays
which are in the planar area which can be rectangular, circular, triangular, hexagonal circular,
those are planar array.
After that we are going to talk about microstrip antennas. In fact, a microstrip antennas are
actually very very popular these days. It is replacing many other antennas. Whether it is your
mobile phone, whether it is the antennas in the aeroplane or satellite or missile. Majority of
the places, microstrip antennas are being used and I am going to spend a lot of time in the
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design of microstrip antennas. Then, we will talk about helical antennas. So, helical antenna
is something very similar to what an inductor looks like. So, you take a wire wrap it around
that makes helical antenna.
Horn antennas are again different types of horn antennas are there. Pyramidal horn antenna,
sectoral horn antenna, conical horn antenna, so we look into all these things one by one.
Then, we will look into reflector antennas - reflector antennas are nothing but a passive
device which reflects a given antenna. So, the reflector antenna, there are different types. It
can have a planar reflector, corner reflector or parabolic reflector and so on. After that, we
will go to talk about Yagi-Uda antenna, Yagi-Uda name came from the scientists from Japan
who invented this antenna and the log periodic antennas where all the dimensions vary in the
logarithmic manner.
So, we are going to use many books for covering this particular course as there is a no single
book which covers all the exciting things about antenna.
So, these are the texts or reference books. So, Balanis and Kraus book these are the very
standard textbooks used all over the world. So, I recommend you can use any one of them.
Kraus book is relatively more simple to read. Balanis is much more elaborate. So, you take a
call, which one you want to procure. The next book is actually written by me and my student
K. P. Ray.
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So, broadband microstrip antennas where we have put about 20 years of our experience in
that particular book and then we are also going to use handbook of microstrip antenna by
James and Hall. Stutzman and Thiele book, is also gives lot of things. So, we will use some
part of this particular book and then antenna engineering hand book by Johnson. We are
going to use some material from this book, but; however, many other books are there and I
am also going to use lot of journal papers and also lots of antennas which we have been
designed and developed at IIT Bombay.
Just to tell you in the last 30 + years, we have designed probably 10000 different antennas
and manufactured more than 1000 antennas. So, we will give you what are the practical
aspects of designing the antenna and many a times, we will also tell you that whatever may
be the best possible antenna it may not be the cheapest possible antenna also. So, for defense
in space application we do need performance, performance and performance, but when it
comes to commercial antenna their cost, cost and cost, so that is what is more important. So,
when we look at the design and everything depends upon that design how you design an
antenna that is what will determine what will be its cost.
So let us just look at where antennas are used. So, the antennas are used in both transmitter as
well as receiver. A transmitter consists of a modulating signal, it is also known as information
signal, could be your voice data, could be a analog data, could be digital data, now that is
known as modulating signal and that signal is superimposed on carrier signal. Carrier signal
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is the signal on which it is being carried. So, just to give you an example - for example, let us
look at a simple radio signal.
So, now in radio signal, we are going to transmit the voice signal for medium wave and AM
radio. The modulating signal frequency is up to 5 KHz. The carrier frequency for AM
medium wave radio can vary from 530 KHz to 1620 KHz whereas, for FM radio things are
slightly different. Modulating signal has a bandwidth up to 15 KHz that is why FM radios
sound a much better and the carrier frequency could be from 88 to 108 MHz and then we take
these two signals and do the modulation. So, modulation can be analog or digital modulation,
in analog modulation - we can have a amplitude modulation, phase modulation, frequency
modulation and in digital modulation - there are so, many techniques are there, for example
QPSK, BPSK and so on and so forth.
After that, we amplify the signal. So, we connect that with an amplifier and now, generally
you will see in majority of the textbook this particulars is not shown which is impedance
matching network; however, it is extremely important thing to be connected between antenna
and amplifier. Now, what is the importance of this? Now antenna may be having certain input
impedance generally we design antenna for 50  input impedance.
Now, amplifier may require a different impedance matching. So, it may require let us say 1
kilo ohm; also it may require even 10  depending upon what kind of amplifier it is. So, that
antenna impedance has to be matched using a matching network and that has to be a lossless
matching network. So, lossless matching network generally consists of inductors, capacitors
may be transmission lines or coaxial lines, but in general not resistance. However, sometimes,
they do use slightly lossy matching network only for broadband impedance matching
network. So, once the signal is transmitted through the antenna; it is received by the receiver.
So, the receiver antenna receives signal, is very very weak so that must be amplified by RF
amplifier. However, there is a one another important thing required either in between or
antenna or RF amplifiers should do that job and that is known as band pass filter.
So, sometimes if antenna is a narrow band, it can act as a band pass filter or sometimes band
pass filter is built into RF amplifier otherwise a band pass filter should be added over here.
Band pass filter is required only to pass the desired band which is required for given
application. So, then this amplified signal through local oscillator which is LO; it is down
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converted using mixer that is, this is the one of the super heterodyne concept - different
concepts are there, but this concept is used in majority of the receiver system.
So, what is done, is that RF amplifier signal which is a relatively higher frequency converted
down to the lower frequency. So, just to give you a couple of example for FM radio, this
frequency can be 88 to 108 MHz, but IF frequency is around 10.7 MHz. For AM radio- this
frequency can be 530 to 1620 KHz and this is about 455 KHz. So, that is why the name is IF
that is Intermediate Frequency. So, we filter it out and amplify the signal and then we use
demodulator which is reverse of this here. So, if it is amplitude modulator; it will be
amplitude demodulator or if it is digital modulation; this will be digital demodulation and
then this is connected to the display, device or speaker. So, depending upon whatever is the
application. For example, for your mobile phone it may display or it will be connected to
speaker. If it is just a radio signal: it will be only speaker and so on.
So, let us just look antennas for different application. So, let us look at a simple medium
wave radio also known as amplitude modulated wave form that is- radio frequencies from
530 to 1620 KHz and generally the transmitters use /4 monopole antenna. Now, let us just
take one of the frequency in between. So, in between frequency if we take one of the number
let us say 1000 KHz which is equal to 1 MHz, now corresponding to 1 MHz, we can
calculate the wavelength - wavelength is given by lambda that is equal to c by f where c is
velocity of light.
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So, at 1 megahertz the wavelength comes out to be 300 meter. So, if we use lambda by 4
monopole antenna that would require a height of about 75 meter. So, if you just look at one
apartment, may have a one rooftop, will be typically about 10 feet height that will be about 3
meter and when we talk about 75 meter height this is almost equivalent to 25 meter tall
building. So, it requires a large antenna for transmission.
However, at a reception, we most of the time use loop antenna which has to be very very
small. So, when we discuss about monopole antenna and loop antenna, we will look into how
these things are designed. Another very commonly used thing is a cell phone. So, let us just
look at cell phone it has so many different bands- it has a CDMA band commonly known as
800 MHz band, GSM900 which is 900 band. In fact, the band varies from 890 to 960 MHz
then GSM1800 band- actually this consists from 1710 to 1880 MHz. Then, we have 3G, now
3G is again split into two parts transmit part and receive part. So, this band is from 1920 to
1980 and then the other part is 2110 to 2170 MHz. Now 4G in fact, in India we use 4G in
2300 to 2400 MHz, but there are different countries use different bands also.
Now, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth both have the exactly the same frequency as that of a microwave oven
which is centered around 2.45 GHz. Typically for these applications, different types of
antenna used are monopole antenna, normal mode helical antenna, microstrip antenna etc. So,
just again to give an example, when cell phones were initially launched let us say for
GSM900, at 900 MHz -wave length is approximately 33 cm. So, if we try to use a monopole
antenna, let us say the length is approximately 9 cm.
So, earlier the mobile phones would actually have a something like a monopole hanging up
there and this would be the height of roughly about a 9 cm. Now, this was very inconvenient
and it would break many a time. So, then people came out with their normal mode helical
antenna. Normal mode helical antenna is nothing but you take a wire wrap it around and in
fact, that height of the antenna was reduced to just about two centimeters so that used normal
mode helical antenna.
Now later on people were not satisfied with that also. So, then a microstrip antenna and
printed monopole antennas came into picture and now those antennas are hidden inside the
mobile phone itself. In fact, two decades back, there used to be a one add whereas scissor
would come and it will come here and it would cut this particular thing and it will actually
show no antenna.
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But in a reality antenna was inside the mobile phone itself and now because of so many
bands, inside the mobile phone there is not just one antenna, there is a dual band antenna, tri
band antenna, quad band antenna. Now, even they have penta band antennas also. Then for
cell phones to communicate, we need cell towers and in India, we have roughly about 5 lakh
cell towers and it may use monopole antenna, dipole antenna, microstrip antenna, arrays etc.
So, depending upon the application to application, typically a monopole antenna is used when
omni-directional coverage is required, but majority of the time coverage is sectoral. So, it
may cover about 90 sector or 120 sector so then sectoral antennas are required.
So, on one rooftop many a times you will see that there is a one antenna facing this side then
there is a another antenna and then there is another antenna. Each of these antennas will cover
about 120 and the total coverage will be 360 and then of course, antennas are required for
satellite and defense communication, so they use all kind of antennas - microstrip antenna,
horn antennas, spiral antenna, helical, reflector, Yagi-Uda, log periodic antennas and so on
and so forth.
So, let us just see, some of the basic things about the antenna. Predominately when we talk
about, we need to know what is the antenna radiation pattern? Now, antennas radiation
pattern - divided into three main categories - isotropic antenna is an antenna which radiates
equally in all the directions so in fact, it is actually radiating in the entire sphere; however,
just to tell you there is a no isotropic antenna exists as such. Of course, there is a lot of
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research going on and they call these antennas as quasi isotropic antenna. Then, Omni-
directional antenna - some of the examples of Omni-directional antenna are for example,
dipole antenna, monopole antenna, slot antenna, normal mode helical antenna. They come
under the category of Omni-directional. Why the name is Omni-directional? Omni-direction
means equally and in the other plane, they radiate in one direction that is how the name
Omni-directional came into picture. Then, there are directional antennas, so I have just shown
one sample radiation pattern over here. So, this is the direction so you can see that the
maximum radiation is in this direction and a little bit of a side radiation is there in the other
direction. So, the radiation where there is a maximum radiation is known as a major lobe and
all other things are designated as minor lobe, so minor lobes are again subdivided as side lobe
- the lobes which are adjacent to the main lobe and back lobe which is in the back side of it.
Then, we define a few additional quantities here and that is what is the half power beamwidth
of the antenna? So, when the antenna field is reduced by 50%, so this one here is a E-field
pattern so if this is one this is approximately 0.707 which is 1/2 so power will be half. So,
this is the half power beam width, given by the angle subtended which means these two
values so that is a half power beam width. Then, another quantity which is defined which is
FNBW that stands for first null beam width. So, you can see that this maximum goes to the
null and then there is a minor lobe, maximum goes to the null then there is a minor lobe. So,
beam width between the first null that is known as FNBW.
Then, we also define all the side lobes, so what is the level of these side lobes here. Then
there are different types of polarization - polarization can be linear, elliptical, circular. In a
linear, there is a designation as horizontal or vertical. So, most of the time polarization is
defined in terms of electric field. See an antenna has both electric field as well as magnetic
field.
So, we could define antenna by its electric field or magnetic field. The convention is to define
the polarization by the way how electric field is radiating. So, when we say horizontal
polarization; that means, electric field is horizontally polarized. If we say vertical
polarization; that means electric field is vertically polarized and then elliptical and circular -
even in circular there are two types of polarization, one is known as the left hand circular
polarization; another one is right hand circular polarization. So, we will see all these things
one by one in time to come.
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So, the other part - once we know the radiation pattern the next thing which is important, is
what is the gain and directivity of the antenna? In fact, the directivity of the antenna can be
calculated from the half power beam width in E-plane and H-plane. So, if you know what is
the half power beam width in the E-plane and what is the half power beam width in the H-
plane then we can use this particular expression. Now, here in this expression both theta E
and theta H are in degrees; however, a simplified version is also there which is
Here, E and H are in radian. Directivity is also defined in terms of its aperture area.
So, Ae is the aperture area divided by wavelength square. So, what it really implies is that for
a given frequency, lambda will be fixed, if we keep on increasing the area of the antenna; that
means, directivity will keep on increasing and if the directivity increases we can see that the
half power beam width will reduce. Now gain is related with the directivity in a very simple
manner that is
So, if efficiency is 100%, gain will be equal to directivity and lot of effort has to be put to
design an antenna with as high efficiency as possible. The next thing which is important for
antennas is what is the reflection coefficient and VSWR. Let us just first look at the reflection
coefficient. How do we define a reflection coefficient? So, reflection coefficient is defined by
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ZA is input impedance of the antenna and Zo is characteristic impedance of the line with which
we are feeding the antenna. So, many a times, we feed the antenna with let us say 50  line.
What reflection coefficient 0 imply? Well power reflector is given by gamma square. So, if
gamma is equal to 0; that means, power reflector will be 0; that means, maximum power will
be transmitted. In fact, you might be familiar with the maximum power transfer theorem. A
maximum power transfer theorem says that the power delivered to the load will be maximum
when the load impedance is equal to the source impedance. So, it is actually same as that. So,
reflection coefficient is defined by this, but in general antenna impedance will be a complex
quantity. So, it is not always going to be 50 or 60 or 70 or whatever the other number could
be, I will just give you some example for example, a lambda by 2 dipole antenna Z A is given
by 73+ j 42.5. So, one has to calculate what is the reflection coefficient?
Once a reflection coefficient is known we can actually calculate what is VSWR? What is
VSWR? The full form is Voltage Standing Wave Ratio, it is defined as in terms of maximum
voltage divided by minimum voltage
One can obtain this thing from the reflection coefficient given by the above expression. Now
the reflection coefficient magnitude can vary from 0 to 1; that means, VSWR can vary from 1
to infinity and then we define; what is the bandwidth of the antenna. In fact, bandwidth of the
antenna is defined in many different ways, it is also related with the gain also many a times if
we say the bandwidth of the antenna is that the bandwidth over a certain band over which the
gain changes by maximum 1 dB or 2 dB it can be defined even for polarization also, a
circular polarization bandwidth over which actual ratio is less than 3 dB or so.
Here, we are defining bandwidth of the antenna in terms of its reflection coefficient and
VSWR. So, we define bandwidth as frequency range over which VSWR < 2. Now many
applications also specify VSWR < 1.5 or some application even VSWR < 1.2 but why VSWR
< 2? This actually corresponds to
So, what will be power reflected that will be
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In fact, actually the alternate way is also there. Many a times that define a reflection
coefficient | | < -10 dB , all these things will be clear when we talk in more detail about
antenna fundamental. So, right now, we are going to introduce different types of antenna and
then we will talk in much more detail about these antennas fundamental. So, do not think that
I am covering everything today itself.
But just to summarize in this particular course we are going to talk about different types of
antennas which are required for different-different applications. Emphasis will be on the
design and also on the performance and we will also try to see how these designs without
sacrificing the performance can be fabricated or designed in a low cost manner. So, we did
look quickly at the antenna radiation pattern, half power beam width and side lobe levels and
also how we define directivity gain and reflection coefficient, VSWR. In the next lecture, we
will look into a quickly about different types of antennas and then we will get into more
detail about each and every aspect.
Thank you very much.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Module - 01
Lecture - 02
Antenna Introduction-II
Welcome, in the last lecture, we discussed about basics of antennas. So, we looked into a
different types of antennas, however, we will see more detail today. We also looked at the
fundamentals of antennas for example, radiation pattern, half power beam width, first
null beam width, side lobe levels and so on and then we also looked at simple
expressions for directivity, gain as well as how to calculate reflection coefficient from the
input impedance of the antenna and then how to calculate VSWR.
Today, we will look at a very important parameter what is a link budget, how do we
really decide, what should be the gain of the antenna or what should be the power
transmitted, what should be the receiver sensitivity and so on and then we will start
looking all these antennas one by one.
So, let us start with the link budget. A link requires a transmitting antenna, let us say we
have a transmitter that transmitter is connected to the transmitting antenna, and then
there is a receiver with the receiving antenna, and in between the transmitter and receiver
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the distance is r and what we need to do it is? We need to find out if there is a certain
power transmitted and what is the gain of the antenna; then what will be the received
power. So, received power is given by this particular expression.
When we start looking into more detail of antenna fundamental, we will see how this
expression is derived. But, just to tell you the received power depends upon what is the
transmitted power. So higher the transmitted power higher will be the received power,
and if the gain of the transmit antenna or gain of the receive antenna if they are large then
power received will be large.
Now, one can see that it is proportional to 2; where,  = c / f, so that means it is
inversely proportional to f2. Also, it is inversely proportional to r2; that means if the
distance is let us say increase by ten times then the power received will be reduced by
hundred times or if the distance is doubled then the power received will reduce by four
times. So, this is a very very important equation to design any given system, in fact all
the satellite communication, they start looking at that how much power should be
transmitted, what will be the attenuation through the path and also many a times, when
we design for a link budget, we always plan for minimum 10 dB gain margin.
So, just think about when you are listening to the radio station and these days we have
these dish antennas, and if you are watching the TV if it is raining, suddenly you see that
the signal actually gets lost and a cable signal comes there- ‘there may be a some
problem in the connection and so on’. Basically, what happens, because of the heavy
rain, the satellite signal which is coming down to the earth is getting absorbed by these
water particles or getting diffracted by water molecules, so that is why the power
received by the our receiver is reduced and hence, signal is not good. So, minimum
general criteria are 10 dB gain margin.
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So, now let just look at these basic antennas one by one. So, the simplest most antenna
which we look at, is a dipole antenna; a dipole antenna is right over here. Now, typically
you know people start with the theory. Also it starts with the very small dipole antenna,
then we talk about a /2 antenna, and of course one can increase the length of the dipole
antenna also. But, this one here, the radiation pattern if you see it is actually radiating
uniformly in all the direction, but if you start looking here, the maximum radiation is in
this direction and then as we go up, we actually see the very little of that.
In fact, the dipole radiation pattern can be very simply realized by just thinking of this
pen in my hand is like a dipole antenna, but please do not apply this to all different types
of antenna. For example if we look at a pen, if I look from the pen this side, I see the full
length, if you see from your side, the pen is looking full size, somebody is looking from
this direction it will also see the full length. But now, if someone moves from here, starts
moving from here, goes to the top what you really see now is just the tip of the antenna
or the tip of the pen over here.
So, when we go from here maximum visibility or maximum radiation, as we move up we

only see the projection; that means we will see lesser radiation or lesser intensity and as
we go up we will see 0 here. So, now maximum then it is going to 0, and then same thing
happens here. So, it actually makes a figure of 8. Now this figure of 8 is getting rotated
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all around, so it almost looks like a donut, but donut with a hole not a continuous donut.
So, a donut with the hole is; what is the radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.
Now, what are the different applications of dipole antenna? In fact, it is used in so many
different things but currently there is a one application where it is used very extensively
and these are RFID; that is radio frequency identification. And that RFID there is a this
chip is sitting there and then what it has? It has roughly about /4 distance on this side
and roughly about /4 distance on this side; so why we do the bending because the size is
small. You might have seen that many of these RFIDs are fitted in the visiting card. So,
in the visiting card you can see that the size is a big limitation, so if we try to use a
straight /2 dipole, it will be very long; so what we do instead of having this long dipole
antenna, we bend it so that we can fit in the given credit card size.
Now, the dipole antenna actually requires a differential feed over here. So, it requires a
one ‘+’ here and then ‘-‘ here which should feed these two element. Now there is another
application which we have used. This is actually a very important application in a sense
that we have used multiple things over here. So, this triangular shape has been used to
obtain broad bandwidth and these numbers of folds are used to increase the input
impedance of the dipole antenna and that is connected to a RF harvesting chip. So, it can
actually harvest the signal. So, if you put a mobile phone next to it, it can generate a
voltage; or if you take it next to the cell tower or Wi-Fi, it will actually generate the
voltage.
Now, instead of using a ‘+’ ‘-‘ feed which is known as a balanced feed. Here is an
example where a coaxial feed is used. So, coaxial feed is known as unbalanced feed.
Why? It has only a center pin and the outer periphery is grounded, whereas in the case of
the dipole antenna it requires ‘+’ and ‘-’, so this ‘+’ is connected to this branch and the ‘-’
is connected to the other branch. So, this is known as a balanced feed.
Whereas, simple feed which we had shown over here; here it is a coaxial feed. In fact
majority of the generators will just give us a single feed and then we need to design a
concept which is known as a Balun- b a l u n that is known as balanced to unbalanced.
So, here, we have tried to achieve balanced to unbalanced using a micro strip version and
that is what is a microstrip line fed dipole antenna. So, as we go along in the course, we
will see how to design all these antennas.
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Then let us just look at monopole antenna; monopole antenna is nothing but half of the
dipole antenna. So, one can see here this is the complete dipole antenna, but if we just
draw the line in between here if we make that plane grounded and then this one is acting
as an image, so most of the derivation in the beginning, we will see for infinite ground
plane that is for derivation point of view and for infinite ground plane, we can see the
image current which is directly there.
So if the monopole is a quarter wave; that means the current will be 0 here and current
will go to maximum, and this is the image here which you will not be seeing it as such it
is just imaginary thing. But, if it is a short monopole then the current variation will be
from 0 to triangular variation. The reason for that is what a wavelength actually satisfies
the complete boundary condition. This is an open circuit set; open circuit current will be
0 we are feeding it over here. So, this is the half wavelength and it says sinusoidal
waveform.
Now, in practice, there will never ever be an infinite ground plane. So majority of the
time we use finite ground plane. So, here is a monopole antenna and this is a circular
ground plane which is used over here and this is the coaxial feed which is feeding the
monopole antenna. Now, many a times, this is also not possible, then what we do, we use
an approximation of that, so we actually use practically wires over here. In fact for
medium wave transmission which I mentioned in the last lecture medium wave
17
transmitter at 1 megahertz would require an antenna of the height of 75 meter and there
we need to provide a ground plane. Now, earth may not be always a perfect ground
plane, so, lot of these radial lines are put on the ground and these are long radial lines
which have to be put. So, they will actually simulate the real ground plane.
We have actually shown here one practical example also. Here, we have designed a
broadband monopole antenna and this one here is a RF harvesting circuit. So, what you
can see here that when this mobile phone makes a call, you can see that the antenna is
placed at a certain distance, and the DC voltage which is generated over here is
connected to the multi meter. You will be shocked to see that it actually generates about
6.7 volt. So, imagine what a mobile phone can do: it can actually generate such a high
voltage. In fact, this voltage can be used even to charge a battery. So, it is a perfect
example for RF harvesting application.
Then, we will look at loop antenna. So, loop antennas can have a very small loop
diameter to a very large loop diameter. However, practically majority of the time loop
antennas are used which have a small diameter. Now, this is shown here as a small
circular loop. So, if we assume that the current is uniform over here then this can be
thought in a slightly different way. See, when we were looking at a dipole antenna; so we
had a vertical dipole antenna, and where was the magnetic field? Magnetic field is
around the dipole. So, if this is the dipole antenna, magnetic field will be like this here,
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so that is what is known as omni directional and then the E-field is like this which was
making a figure of 8. So, that is a directional antenna.
Now, for the loop antenna we can actually think reverse of that. So, loop antenna current
is moving in a circular fashion. So, this can be thought about now that this is equivalent
to instead of electric dipole; if it is a magnetic dipole then this will be the field around
that. So, approximation actually is valid that instead of using an electric dipole all we
need to do it is we think of this as a magnetic dipole, so, this one instead of becoming a
magnetic field, now it is electric field.
In fact, we can actually use this particular simple assumption and that way we can find
out the radiation pattern of dipole antennas and by using it interchangeability, so
whatever is valid for dipole antenna, so E-field for loop antenna it will become H-field,
and whatever is H-field for dipole antenna will become E-field. So, E- and H- fields are
reversed.
Now, one of the another interesting thing with the loop antenna is that instead of using a
circular, one can use even a triangular or square. If it is small, radiation pattern is still
given by the simple magnetic dipole equivalent to the electric dipole. Now many a times
multiple turn loop antennas are used also because since it is a small loop antenna it may
have a very poor radiation characteristic as well as poor impedance which we will see
when we talk about more in detail about loop antenna. So, multiple turn antennas are
used for better impedance matching. And lot of these figures, I have taken from the
Balanis book.
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A slot antenna: slot antenna is nothing but a complement of a dipole antenna. We had
seen that the dipole antenna is nothing but a metallic thing here; here I have shown a flat
version; a dipole is normally we look at a dipole as a circular rod or a circular wire.
However, in printed dipole antenna we just take a printed configuration. So, slot antenna
is nothing but a complement of a dipole antenna. So in principle; what we actually do in
principle is that a slot is cut in the infinite ground plane. So, what dipole sees- a metal
and then there is an air all around, here what we have here is all the metal and you cut a
slot in between.
But, now of course, we also know, you cannot have infinite ground plane, so majority of
the time, we have a finite ground plane and we cut a slot over here. Now, this slot can be
fed through this microstrip line over here. So, what is a microstrip line actually
speaking? It is a line which is printed on a let us say a PCB, printed circuit board. So, on
one side we have a ground plane with this particular slot and on the other side, we put
this feed and here we are feeding the antenna. So, this current flows through over here, it
actually sees an open circuit here. So, current will be maximum here if this length is
approximately /2. So, the current is maximum here; that means the magnetic field will
be around that and that magnetic field gets coupled to the slot antenna.
Now, for slot antenna the voltage currents are slightly different or opposite of the dipole
antenna. See, in case of a dipole antenna, current is 0 here, current is 0 over here, current
20
is maximum. Whereas, for the slot antenna, voltage is 0 here, because it is short circuit
voltage is maximum and then voltage goes to 0 here. So, current will be maximum here,
current will be 0. Now, you can see that if current is 0, impedance is given by voltage
divided by current. So, voltage has a finite value, current is tending towards 0, this
impedance becomes very large.
So that is why, instead of using a centre-fed slot antenna, many a times, offset-fed slot
antenna is used. So, that a proper impedance matching with let us say 50 ohm coaxial
feed can be obtained.
Then, we will talk about linear and planar arrays, and why we need arrays. So, just to tell
you, we have discussed about dipole antenna, monopole antenna, slot antenna and loop
antenna. Majority of the time, the gain of these antennas is just about 2 dB or if you take
a very large dipole antenna it can be up to 3 to 4 to 5 dB. But, what if we want a very
large gain and large gain is also associated with let us say, I want to send a signal from
point a to point b. So, what we need is we need a directional antenna, so we should
radiate in this direction and I need a directional antenna to receive the signal.
Or this signal can be radiating in all the direction for example, let us say for FM radio
which is transmitting in all the direction. But however, if I use a directional FM radio I
can get a much better signal. However, majority of the time we do not use directional FM
radio there also. We still use a Omni directional thing. But however, if we use a
21
directional antenna, one can get a much better quality, because you know that where is
FM transmitter.
However, if we need a very high gain then we can use arrays of these antennas. So, for
example, it shows here 1, 2, 3, 4…. n element array now this is known as a linear
antenna array because all the elements are placed in the linear fashion. Here is an
example of a planar antenna array. I have shown an example of a rectangular planar array
where m elements are placed in this axis and then n elements are placed in this axis and
that is getting replicated in this particular plane which is x-y plane. So, the total number
of elements will be m multiplied by n. So, these are the number of element.
Now, I have shown here just the planar or rectangular array, but it can be square, it can
be triangular, hexagonal, and circular and so on and so forth. So, the array performance
depends upon so many factors and what kind of an element we have used. So, in the
beginning when we start the array theory we will use an isotropic element and then we
will take specific elements, then it depends upon amplitude and phase of each element.
So, at what amplitude these elements are being fed? And what is the phase difference
between all these elements? Just to tell you when all these elements are fed with the
same phase it will radiate in the broadside direction i.e. in this particular direction, and if
the phase of each element changes then the beam maxima which is in this direction that
can be scanned in the different direction. So, phase array concept comes from here if we
change the phases between different elements.
It also depends upon the spacing between the elements; so smaller the spacing for the
same number of elements total aperture will be small so gain will be small, but larger
spacing would mean that aperture area increases the gain will increase. However, there is
a limit we cannot keep on increasing the spacing beyond certain limit. So, for now I can
just say spacing has to be always less than .
Then it also depends upon the feed network. How these elements are being fed? Because
there may be a one common source so that source may be dividing the power into
different things. So, how we design the feed network; so all these things govern
performance of the antenna array.
22
One more thing I want to mention here that this linear antenna array can be generalized
for continuous line source also. So, just think about if the spacing between the element is
reduced; let’s say this shows here d if the spacing is reduced to say by 10 times and
number of elements are increased by 10 times. So, the total aperture size may still remain
same, but now the elements are very close to each other. So, here we can generalize if d
 0 we can say that there is a continuous source. In fact, linear and planar antenna array
concept will be used to explain all the different types of antennas.
For example, microstrip antennas, they can be modeled as two slot antenna array, or we
can think about a helical antenna which is an axial mode helical antenna. We will see that
it is a typical example of increased directivity end fire array. So, another example- let us
say horn antenna. See if I look at a simple pyramidal horn antenna of this shape, so what
actually happens E-field is uniform in this direction and it varies sinusoidally in this
particular direction. So, we have a uniform field in this direction and we have a cosine
field distribution in this particular direction. So, array factor theory can be modified to
find out the overall radiation pattern of horn antenna.
Same thing can be applied even for a parabolic dish antenna. So, where the shape is
parabolic but the outer here is circular, so over here again we can apply the array theory
concept in this E- plane as well as in H- plane and then we can find out what is the
aperture distribution. So, array theory is very very important to actually define most of
the other aperture antennas.
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So now, let us just look at a microstrip antenna. It is one of the most promising antenna
these days. Or why it is very promising, because the structure itself is so simple one
actually looks at it. So, there is a ground plane and a patch is printed on the other side.
So, just like you are familiar with a printed circuit board PCBs, I mean it is there inside
your mobile phone or inside any of your electronic gadget you will see a PCB, if you
have designed microcontrollers; so you know that there are multiple lines are going
parallel to each other or perpendicular to each other. Whereas, a microstrip antenna is
much much simpler.
So, all you do it is you take a PCB, we commonly call it a substrate a dielectric material
is there, so on one side for a PCB it will be a copper and on the other side there is a
copper. So, you do not etch out the copper underneath the thing, only we etch out the
copper on the topside here. So, if this particular shape is a rectangular it is known as
rectangular microstrip antenna, if it is circular it will be circular microstrip antenna,
triangular microstrip antenna, or it can be hexagonal shape microstrip antenna, pentagon
shape, sectoral, annular ring and so on and so forth.
Now this antenna, actually you can see that this is the length and I have shown this as a
width so this length should be approximately equal to /2. And if this length is
approximately equal to a /2, now you can see here this is an open circuit this is an open
circuit so current will be 0 here current will be 0 there. So, the field will vary from here 0
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current to the maximum current and goes to 0, because that is what is making half
waveform.
What about the voltage? Voltage will be maximum here and then voltage will go to 0 and
then voltage will go to the - maximum. So, it will start from ‘+’, it will go slowly to 0,
and then it will go to ‘-‘ here. So, if the voltage is maximum, current is 0 so impedance
will be V divided by I, so impedance will be very high. Over here along the centre line,
voltage is 0 current is maximum. So, impedance will be 0 here. So, along this central one
the impedance will be 0 here, impedance will be maximum here. So, then we can find a
place where the impedance will be 50 ohm and then we can feed with a coaxial field.
It is just one of the types of the feed when we talk about microstrip antenna, we will talk
about different types of feed there and by choosing a proper feed point then we will be
able to match the impedance. So in fact, this particular configuration does not require
any external impedance matching network, it does not require any Balun which is
balanced to unbalance and it is such a simple configuration, all you have is as just very
thin printed circuit and this printed circuit will have a very less weight, less volume it can
be bent around. In fact, there are printed lines are there, in fact there are flexible PCBs
are available which can be wrapped around a missile, it can be put underneath the aero
plane, it can be put inside a pager or a mobile phone.
So, microstrip antennas are gaining lot of advantages and in fact in this particular course,
we will talk about so many different types of microstrip antenna. We will start with the
rectangle but we will look at different shapes of the antenna. Then, we will look at
several configurations how to increase the bandwidth of the antenna, we will also see
how to make this antenna compact antenna, then multiband can be realized. We will also
see how dual polarization can be achieved that is horizontal or vertical. We will also see
how circular polarization can be obtained and then we will look at linear and planar
array. We will look at different types of feed also; series feed, parallel feed and even we
will see how to use combination of these feeds.
Today in general, we talked about simple principle of the link budget which is very very
important to design an antenna system along with transmitter and receiver. It actually
helps and determines what should be the transmitter power, what should be the receiver
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sensitivity, what will be the coverage, what are the gain requirements for transmit and
receive antenna.
And then we talked about a very basic antenna which is, we started with the dipole
antenna, then we went to the monopole antenna, then we talked about a circular loop
antenna which is nothing but a small circular loop antenna looks like a magnetic dipole
antenna, then we looked into slot antenna which is nothing but the compliment of the
dipole antenna. So, you cut a slot in the infinite ground plane which is theoretically OK.
Practically, we cut it in a finite ground plane.
We also just quickly looked into how to feed for proper impedance matching and then we
looked into microstrip antenna and why they are so popular because of the reason they
are very easy to fabricate and their weight is very small, volume is small and the cost is
also relatively small, they can be mass produced without any problem and we will see
what are the different things, we can do for microstrip antenna, how to realize
broadband, circularly polarized, arrays and so on and so forth.
26
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 01
Lecture - 03
Antenna Introduction-III
Hello, welcome to today’s lecture. In the last few lectures, we talked about basics of
antennas, we talked about a simple dipole, monopole, slot and loop antennas and also we just
looked at the basic introduction of microstrip antenna. So, today, we will continue from
microstrip antenna.
So, as we had seen, a microstrip antenna is a very simple configuration, we have a ground
plane on one side and we have a metallic patch on the other side and here is a feed point.
27
So, we have just given you one example over here where we had designed the antenna at
about 1.8 GHz. So, this is how the VSWR varies and we define bandwidth for VSWR < 2.
So, over here, if you see 1.76 is roughly this frequency and it is about 1.855 it goes there, so
that total bandwidth is about 95 MHz. And we defined percentage bandwidth as a bandwidth
divided by the centre frequency which is coming out to be 5 %.
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So, here in this example it shows the radiation pattern of a microstrip antenna. So, for the
designed antenna, we have shown the radiation pattern at 1.8 GHz which was the centre
frequency. So, you can actually see here, there is a one yellow curve and then there is a one
red curve here. So, it actually shows E-plane and H-plane radiation pattern and you can also
see that there is a back radiation here. So, we define front to back ratio F/B. So, from maxima
to this value here each scale here is a 5 dB, 5 dB, 5 dB, so, that is about 15 dB. So, front to
back ratio is about 15 dB.
Now, this is an example of a microstrip antenna array. So, one can actually see that this is a
16 x 16 so there are total 256 elements are there with a feed network. You can see that all
these elements are being fed by a microstrip line and this whole antenna was designed at 35
GHz and you can see that all these number of elements are fitted in a very small size of just
10 cm x 10 cm which is like 4 inch x 4 inch. So, as we move along the course, we will talk in
detail about how to design all these antennas and arrays.
29
Now, that feed network creates lot of problems because of large feed losses. So, here we have
actually designed an antenna where this is the fed microstrip antenna and that microstrip
antenna is radiating and that radiation from this microstrip antenna excites the patches on the
top. So, this is also known as space fed microstrip antenna array. So, you can see that this is
the top view of this here so that is a 4 x 4 array and we are actually feeding just a single
element which is exciting this one. So, here there are no feed losses.
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And let just look at helical antenna - helical antennas are nothing but you take a wire and just
bend it around and how you bend, it is important, you can bend it on a simple dielectric rod
which can be hollow or a solid or you can provide some support structure also. There are
three different modes in which a helical antenna can operate - a normal mode, axial mode and
conical mode. In fact, the same helical antenna can work in either of the mode depending
upon the frequency of operation. So, for normal mode, circumference which is equal to D,
D is the diameter, If C = D <<  then antenna will actually radiate in the normal to this
particular axis. So, this is the helical axis it will radiate in the normal direction that is why it
is normal mode.
In fact, this is very similar to you can say dipole antenna or a monopole antenna which is like
this here. So, the radiation is maximum in this. So, instead of having a large monopole
antenna now that large monopole antenna is made compact, the height is reduced. In fact, I
did mentioned to you, let us say, your mobile phone at 900 MHz, we would have a
wavelength of 33 cm. So, we need maybe about roughly 9 cm height, but here the height can
be as low as just 2 cm.
The other mode is known as the axial mode in fact, what it really implies is axial mode the
maximum radiation is along this particular axis. Here, you can see normal mode, the radiation
is maximum in this direction which is perpendicular to the helix axis, so here the condition is
that C = D = . Then, there is a conical mode also where circumference C = n, where n =
2, 3, or more; however, I just want to tell you this mode is very rarely used. So, in our
coverage of helical antenna, we will focus on these two modes.
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Then the next one which we will cover, is a horn antenna, now there are two main types of
horn antennas. One is a pyramidal horn antenna in fact, there are variations are there also. So,
for example, if this is a rectangular waveguide, so if you just flare in one plane only then it
can be E-sectoral horn antenna or H-sectoral horn antenna, but if it is flared in both the
directions; that means, you can say that this width is expanded and this length is also
expanded. So, this is a pyramidal horn antenna because it just looks like a pyramid.
So, over here E-field is uniform in this direction vertical and since this is a metal plate here, E
= 0 here which is corresponding to voltage V = 0. So, E variation along this axis is that goes
from 0, goes to maximum value and then it goes to 0 here. So, the variation is half of sin or
cosine depending upon how you define the angle and in vertical direction it is E-field.
Now, for this particular case here in fact, we have gone through several books and journals.
Now what we realize that they do give lot of information about what will be the E-field, what
will be the H-field, what will be the radiation pattern and so on, but however, we found that
majority of the books do not give details of the coaxial feed. How to feed this directly? Many
a times they will show that horn antenna is fed by a waveguide and then at the waveguide
they use waveguide to coaxial adapter here, but that makes the whole length very long. So,
we will also mention how to design this pyramidal horn antenna? What is the role of the
coaxial feed? In fact while I was investigating about this over here, came out with an idea that
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why use a coaxial feed here, we can use coaxial feed to excite a microstrip antenna which is
shown over here and we actually used a conical horn antenna.
So, if you see here, this is a conical horn antenna and over here, we have a microstrip
antenna. So, one can feed a microstrip antenna. So, it is very simple to design a microstrip
antenna even for different polarizations also or it can be used for multiband operation also or
we can design antenna for whatever thing we want- a horizontal polarization, vertical
polarization, circular polarization, dual band, multiband and this horn antenna, we utilize to
amplify the gain of this particular antenna. So, we used advantages of both microstrip antenna
and horn antenna and we gave the name microstrip antenna integrated with conical horn
antenna. So, we will look into the details of this in time to come.
Then we will talk about reflector antenna. Now, there are three main categories of reflector
antennas are there - one is known as a planar reflector. Planar reflector is nothing but you put-
you have a let us say a dipole antenna and you put another let us say a metallic plate here. So,
that will be a planar reflector antenna. So, what actually does is, the dipole will let us say
radiate uniformly in all the direction by putting this reflector so the way which is incident on
this particular plane will reflect and it will go in this direction. So, basically Omni-directional
will now become directional. So, it will radiate only in this side and it will not radiate in the
back side. So, that is a planar reflector. Instead of this, we can also use conical reflectors, in
33
conical reflector what we do? We put let us say this antenna on a corner reflector. So, we have
a one corner and the dipole antenna or any other element is put in between.
So, by changing the angle, it can be at 30 corner reflector or 60 or 90 or 120. Plane will
be 180. So, plane reflector will be a generalized case of corner reflector antenna and by
changing the corner angle, one can actually change the gain of the antenna which is kind of
obvious. So, if it is like this here 180, it will now radiate in 180. If I make it narrower. So,
what will happen because of the reflector now it will actually radiate only in this particular
cone here. So, that is how the conical antenna will give us a little higher gain.
So, typically a planar reflector may give us additional gain of about 3 dB, but a corner
reflector can give a gain of additional 3 dB to even 7, 8, 9 dB gain also depending upon the
corner. However, the parabolic dish antenna, they are actually used to design very high gain
antenna. First of all let us just look a very simple thing. So, you might have studied about a
parabola equation even in your high school or initial engineering courses. So, what is the
definition of a parabola? That rays which are coming parallel from the far away, after the
reflection they will concentrate at the focal point. So, it is a same principle which is used in
the case of parabolic dish antenna also.
So, let us say if it is in the received mode. So, all the signals which are coming from far away
point will reflect from here and they will focus on this. So, at the feed point we put an
antenna. It can be done in other way around also, so feed is there. So, we feed the antenna it
will radiate in this direction and then it will reflect and it will go far away point so in fact, a
majority of the very high gain antennas. So, when we talk about a very high gain antennas let
us say 30 dB, 40 dB, 50 dB, 60 dB and beyond, reflector antennas are the only solution right
now in fact, there are antennas which are made even a half a kilometer diameter also to
actually have a very narrow beam which implies also very high gain antenna.
So, reflector antennas are used. So, parabolic reflector is just one type of the antenna, but
variations are also there in parabolic like this is known as a prime focus feed reflector
antenna. There are Cassegrain reflector antennas are there and even the shapes are different
also. There are spherical reflector antenna; there are cylindrical parabolic reflector antennas
and so on. So, the biggest advantage of these reflector antennas is that it has a very high gain
which cannot be achieved by any other antenna as such. The only disadvantages- it occupies
very large space actually speaking people were using parabolic dish antenna for 25 dB or
34
even 30 dB we have actually redesigned these reflector antenna and realized a microstrip
antenna which is flat light weight occupies less volume and so on. So, when we discuss
reflector antenna, we will also tell you what we did and also for the feed lot of different types
of feeds can be used here.
So, earlier ones had used a horn antenna as a feed or in fact, they had used an axial mode
helical antenna which generate circular polarization over here. So, that is what it is used. We
have even uses a microstrip antenna here also to reduce the size of this particular feed. So we
will see; what are the different things here. So, basically when we want to do the derivation,
so what we do? From here, we take the path and this part over here. So, the beauty of this
particular thing is that actually speaking, all these waves after reflection, they are in the same
phase.
Then after that we will discuss about Yagi-Uda antenna. As I mentioned earlier, these are the
two Japanese inventors who invented this antenna, what is the concept here? So, what we
have here? We have a fed dipole here and you can see here there is a small gap because there
will be a balance feed over here. So, this will be plus and this will be minus current here and
we have here a reflector antenna, now you can see that it is not using a very large reflector
antenna. It is slightly larger than this here. So, typically a fed dipole should be approximately
equal to a /2, but when we talk about dipole antenna we will say that this length should be
slightly less than /2 and a reflector antenna is taken slightly larger than the fed dipole.
35
So, what is the purpose of reflector antenna? Let us say this dipole antenna will radiate like
this so that is the magnetic field. So, that will reflect from here since it has a larger dimension
it will reflect in this direction. Now, these are known as directors, so these directors will
actually speaking the reflected wave goes in this direction and they direct the beam in this
particular direction. So, there is a maximum radiation is along this direction. So, if you think
about the array theory. So, in arrays if all the elements are fed in the equal amplitude, they
will radiate in the broadside direction, but this is radiating mode in this particular direction.
This is also known as end fire array.
The advantages of using multiple directors are that if there are more number of directors gain
increases. Just think about on the lighter note, think about let say in IIT, if we have more
directors you really think that the gain will increase - not really, that is why we do use, in IIT
we have a one director and we have two deputy director in any organization also. So, we have
generally one director, but you can see these wires perform much better. So, more number of
wires or directors will improve the gain in a more significant manner.
Now, here what we have done, we have used the printed version of this Yagi-Uda antenna.
So, instead of using a fed dipole and using two different feed here we have actually used a
printed dipole antenna. So, this on one side of the substrate, we have this half of the dipole
and on the other side of the substrate we print the other half of the dipole. So, the total length
is about approximately /2. So, this will be /4, this is /4 and this is a coaxial microstrip
transitions. So, from coaxial line, we are transmitting and that is actually generating so, the
top line is there. So, one line is connected to this one and the bottom line is connected over
here and this reflector is printed and these are number of the directors.
So, when we talk about Yagi-Uda antenna, we will see what happens if we add more number
of directors, how much gain increases and what are the different parameters.
36
Then the next topic which we will cover is a log periodic antenna. A log periodic antenna the
difference between log periodic antenna and Yagi-Uda antenna let me first tell. In case of log
periodic antenna we have multiple number of dipole antennas. Each of these dipole antennas
are fed. How they are fed let us see - this is the feed point, I can see that it is connected over
here. Now the feeds these are connected in the opposite phase then this one here comes here
and this here goes there. So, think about if this is plus this is minus so now minus goes there,
plus comes here then this plus goes up here, this is minus goes here. So, each of these
elements are experiencing 180 phase shift, so, here all the dipole antennas are fed.
Whereas in case of Yagi-Uda antenna, only one dipole is fed, all these are not fed at all in
fact, these are also known as parasitic element. What does really parasitic mean? Parasitic
means something which depends on other and also you can see there is no gap over here you
can simply put a length here and just to tell you, this is approximately or slightly less than
/2. It is greater than that and these directors are all have a slightly lesser dimensions then fed
dipole.
Where as in case of log periodic antenna, the concept is slightly different here all the
elements are being fed with the 180 phase difference, also the length of these dipole
antennas, they vary in the logarithmic manner. Even the spacing between the different
37
elements also vary in the logarithmic manner ideally even the diameter of these dipole
antennas should vary in the logarithmic manner.
So, there is the ratio here so L 2 / L1 is defined as 1/τ and that is known as the log periodic
ratio. So, if you see here if this is the length L 2 here then this is L1. So we take the ratio
similarly for all the other length so Ln+1 / Ln. So, if let us say n = 1 which is 2 and 1 if n = 4,
this one will be L5 / L4. The same thing is also valid plus 1/τ holds good even for R 2 / R1
which is the distance from the apex and this is the angle which all these dipoles are making.
So, this is also known as angular variation of this dipole length and then even the diameters
spacing all these things should vary in the logarithmic manner, but you might say that where
is log here right. So, actually the log comes into picture if it takes the log of both the side so
log 1 = 0 - log τ = log l2 - log l1. So, we can actually say that all the dimensions are varying by
a factor of log  and so every next dimension will be scaled. So, from here to here to here to
here, the dimensions will keep on increasing by logarithmic of the function.
Same thing should happen for the diameter; however, practically all the diameters are not
always changed. So, suppose if there are let us say 10 elements or 20 elements. So, finding
the wires of 20 different diameters will be difficult. So, generally they are grouped into 3 or 4
different diameters. Now the purpose of Yagi-Uda and log periodic, they are actually different
also. So, Yagi-Uda antenna in general are designed for higher gain; however, there is a
limitation on higher gain also, typically a Yagi-Uda antenna can achieve about 7 dB for about
3 to 4 elements to about 10 to 12 dB. Very rarely people use for 15 dB or more. But, here the
limitation is the bandwidth of the Yagi-Uda antenna is relatively less of course, lot of research
is going on currently where they are trying to increase the bandwidth of Yagi-Uda antenna.
However, log periodic antennas the major emphasis over here is the bandwidth. In fact, log
periodic antennas are available which may have a bandwidth of 1:10. For example, 1 GHz to
10 GHz or let us say 300 MHz to 3 GHz. So, 1:10 is very easily achievable using log periodic
antenna only thing is the number of elements are large. Also log periodic antennas can give us
a directional beam with the gain which may vary from 7 -10 dB or so, but generally people or
38
in general practically we do not design log periodic antenna for very high gain. So, that is
about 8 - 10 dB is generally the limit for log periodic antenna.
So, we will also see that how the bandwidth of these things change. So, we will talk about
that what is the effect of the diameter of the dipole antenna over all bandwidth and what is the
spacing factor, how to feed these antenna, how to practically realize this log periodic. In fact,
there are lot of printed variations are available today for log periodic antenna. This is also
printed variation. In fact, I just also want to mention Yagi-Uda antenna was very popular at
one time for receiving the TV signal. So, let us say in Mumbai, we have a TV transmitter at
Worli and that is transmitting in all the direction.
So, let us tell somebody sitting at IIT Powai. So, has direct antenna towards Worli so they had
use Yagi-Uda antenna in fact, what was the popular thing was instead of using a normal
dipole, they had actually used a folded dipole. The advantage of a folded dipole is that the
input impedance is increased by 4 times and this was being fed by the twin cable which had a
characteristic impedance of roughly 300 , which provided a good impedance matching. So,
log periodic antenna as I said it is being used for various techniques for example, EMI, EMC
antenna, spread spectrum technique antenna or even a broadband antennas required for
ground penetrating radar applications and so on.
39
So, these are the different antennas, we will cover. So, just to conclude, antenna technology is
rapidly changing. In fact, the demand is increasing significantly. So, there is the requirement
for innovative thinking to meet the challenges. In fact, there is a requirement coming
everyday increasing that people want broadband, why we want broadband? Because of the
requirement if we have a broad bandwidth available, I can send multiple channels together, I
can have a data transfer which is very very fast then there are challenges about multiband
antenna for example, a mobile phone requires several bands. So, we have CDMA or
GSM900, 1800, 3G, 4G, GPS antenna or Wi-Fi antenna and the space required is very very
small. So, we really have to put all those multiband antenna which should be compact as well
as it should have high efficiency because if antenna is not efficient then it will not radiate or
receive the signal with the efficient manner. So, lot of losses will happen if efficiency is not
good.
Then people are demanding multi polarization in fact, there are requirements that the same
antennas should work as horizontally polarized antenna, vertically polarized antenna,
circularly polarized antenna. So, switches are required to switch from one polarization to
another polarization. There is also requirement for MIMO antenna that stands for multiple
input multiple output in fact, this is actually the new buzz words. So, lot of research is going
on in this particular area. This is basically to increase the channel capacity. As you know that
the spectrum is becoming very expensive, we are going to have a spectrum auction in
September 2016 in India and government is planning to raise more than 5 lakh crore rupees.
So, cellular operators have to sell a lot of money to buy the spectrum.
So, in order to increase the capacity enhancement, multiple input multiple outputs are
required. Also there is a demand for smart antennas, now again smart antennas can have
multiple things which are smarter than a normal passive antenna. So, many times a simple
passive, all the antennas are in general passive antenna, but we can make them smart by
integrating maybe oscillator within the antenna or amplifier within the antenna or build signal
processing technique along with that. So, that we can have an adaptive antenna array and so
on and so forth.
Now, in all of these things, design is the most important thing. Now, this design really
depends upon what is the application. For example, if you are designing the antenna for let us
say satellite and defense application, their cost is relatively less important, but the
performance is extremely important; however, if we are using it for commercial application
40
then that cost becomes very very important. So, one has to design the antenna in such a way
that it can be mass produced at a very low cost.
Now, antennas require precision manufacturing because when we are talking about
microwaves or even millimeter waves, the dimensions are becoming very very small. So, any
little bit tolerance in manufacturing creates problem. So, we do require precision
manufacturing and that many a times, leads to additional challenges also. So, generally what
we do, suppose if the bandwidth required is let us say for GSM900, the bandwidth required is
a 70 MHz i.e. 890 to 960 MHz. So, what I generally do instead of designing for 70 MHz
design for 100 MHz. So, that way even if there are some manufacturing errors are there, it
will still meet the requirement and ultimately what we really want everybody wants that
antenna should be of low cost without sacrifice in performance. So, during this course of the
lecture I will emphasize wherever possible how the cost can be reduced without sacrificing
the performance.
Thank you very much; we will see you next time. Bye.
41
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Indian Institute Technology, Bombay
Module - 01
Lecture - 04
Antenna Fundamentals-I
Hello everyone, and welcome to today's lecture on Antenna Fundamentals. So, today we will
talk about the basic characteristics of the antennas.
So, antennas are defined by its radiation pattern. So, in general antenna radiation pattern is
actually taken as a 3-D radiation pattern though to make a life simple. We do plot 2-D pattern
also, but let us say isotropic antenna. Isotropic antenna is an antenna which radiates equally
in all the directions whether it is this direction or in this here, in the entire sphere it radiates
equally in all the direction. So, we define directivity D = 1 and 10 log 1 = 0 dB. I also want to
tell, there are no isotropic antennas as such, but of course, lot of research is going on to
design an antenna which is known as quasi isotropic antenna.
Then there is a next thing which is Omni-directional radiation pattern and what we have
shown here is for a /2 dipole antenna. So, the dipole antenna is kept over here as one can see
the red shows maximum radiation and then it is going towards lesser, lesser, lesser and least
42
radiation. So, you can see that if the dipole is like this here maximum radiation is all along
the dipole antenna and if the dipole if you see from here maximum radiation as we move up,
up, up and if we see from the tip, we only see the tip of the dipole or it is a very little
radiation here and in 2-D pattern you can actually think of this whole thing as a 8 like this
here and that 8 is getting rotated.
Then here is an example of a direction antenna. I have actually shown the radiation pattern of
a microstrip antenna array which we have designed at IIT, Bombay. So, you can see that there
are number of elements are in this side and number of elements are there and we are feeding
these things. In fact, we have used a series feed element over here and to feed elements in this
direction we have actually used slotted wave guide antenna here. So, for this particular
antenna, we got a directivity D= 500 and 10 log 500 = 27 dB. What you can see here is the
maximum radiation is in this direction and these are all the side lobes associated with this
particular antenna array.
So, let say 2-D radiation pattern. This pattern, we have already seen in the last lecture. But
here we just want to define few additional things now. So, just quickly recap, this is the main
beam that is known as a major lobe, all these are known as minor lobes. Half power beam
width is defined as the angle over which maximum radiation reduces to the half power point.
For E-field, it will be 1 then this will be 1/2. After the main beam, there is a side lobe
coming up, but in between there is null. So, we have a null here and null here. So, the angular
43
distance between the two is defined by first null beam width. So, there is a simple relation
between the half power beam width and first null beam width.
In fact, FNBW=2.25*HPBW. Many books actually write this even further approximation
which is 2*HPBW, but I have seen and checked with many antennas and we have found that
this relation is actually better than using a relation of 2 times this one here. Then these side
lobe levels, now side lobe level, we will see in time to come that if we feed arrays with
uniform amplitude, side lobe level is just about 13 dB or so. However, for satellite and high
power application, we want side lobe to be less than 20 dB. So, just imagine a high power
transmitter which is transmitting let us say 1 KW power in this direction. So, if it is 1 KW
and if the side lobe was just 10 dB, 10 dB will be one-tenth of the power. So, 1 KW is in this
direction; that means our 100 watt power will be transmitted in these directions, so which is
not desirable. So, 20 dB would mean 1/100. So, if it is 1 KW, this is still 10 watt that also
may or may not be desirable.
So, many a times high power application may even demand 30 dB or 40 dB. So, 30 dB would
imply if this is 1 KW, 30 dB would mean all of these are less than 1 watt power. So, lot of
these restrictions are coming day by day where people are going for high power and they
would like a lower side lobe which poses lot of challenges for the antenna designers. So, front
to back ratio, generally preferred is 20 dB, but 15 dB may be acceptable in some cases, but
many a times the requirement could be 30 dB, 40 dB front to back ratio.
44
Then let us define directivity. So, we just looked into the directivity three examples. So, D =
1, D = 1.6, D = 500. So, what is really directivity? How do we define? So, the basic definition
of directivity is that the directivity of the antenna is the ratio of radiation density in the
direction of maximum radiation. Please note, it is direction of maximum radiation.
So, for example, what is the radiation density in this, divided by if it had radiated in the
sphere, so that is how we define directivity and that is given by maximum radiation divided
by average radiation intensity which is for let us say isotropic antenna
4r2 is the area of the sphere. So, we are taking r = 1. So, that is what it simplifies here this
4 goes up here and this is the simple term which is used to find the directivity, what is this
term here? This is known as a beam solid angle
This beam solid angle can be obtained from the radiation pattern and one can see that one
requires to do a double integration why double integration - because we have a  and . So,
all these parameters let us say d will change from 0 to 2, d will change from 0 to  and
that is how we need to integrate and what is F? F is nothing but it can have both E  and E
which may vary in  or  direction.
So, you can naturally think that oh my god it is so complicated. Well in this course we will try
to make things simpler for you people. We will try to use some of the approximate formula to
calculate the directivity with some reasonable accuracy. Now this solid angle is approximated
by this expression here if we think of this as a main beam. So, this is the solid angle there. So,
what is done is you approximate in the two orthogonal plane, so half power beam width here
and half power beam width perpendicular to that. So, this solid angle is approximated as E x
H. Now this expression do not use blindly for all the cases. We will just tell you when to use
this expression and when to use modified version of this expression.
For example, I have just taken an example of infinitesimal dipole. So, for infinitesimal dipole,
HPBW= /2 and from where this /2 comes? Because for infinitesimal dipole, we will just
show here, so what we have here - the maximum variation it is coming down to 0 here. So,
45
from 1 let us say it is coming to 0 if we assume approximately this as a sin function then we
know that at sin 45 = 1 /2. So, HPBW = 45 - (-45) = 90 = /2 and it is an Omni-
directional pattern, so in the H- plane the beam width is 360 = 2.
So, if I substitute these values in this expression over here, we get a number which is 1.3
whereas, we know that for infinitesimal dipole antenna directivity D = 1.5. So, this number
predicts relatively smaller, but yet it is reasonably close to this value here and you do not
have to do any of these integrations also. We will tell you some simpler way to also use this
expression for larger antennas also.
So, for small antenna we can use the same expression where, E ad H are in
radian. But now they are converted in degree.
So, what you really do it is well you want to convert from radian to this, all you do it is from
radian conversion to degree is you multiply by 180/. So, over here then we have E ad H in
degrees and that 4  after that 180/ accounted into becomes this particular number here.
46
Now this is for small antenna, but for larger antenna this is not a very good number in fact,
generally we use about same expression here
We use about 32400 instead of 41253. So, why we use this smaller number? The smaller
number is used the reason for that is when we are talking about the solid angle. We are
assuming that there is a only one main lobe; however, in a given pattern there will be lot of
side lobes are there. So, some power is getting radiated in these directions. So, effectively
lesser power will be radiated in main beam.
So, to account for this here, this is an approximate formula and if you use this formula
invariably you will see that, you will get the directivity expression within 1 dB. Now
directivity is also related to the aperture area. As we saw in the last lecture if aperture is
increased directivity will increase and again for a frequency, suppose let us say we take one
frequency for that we have a certain aperture. So, for example, let us say if I take a diameter
of 1 m for let us say circular dish antenna. In fact, I have given an example here also we will
come to that part also. So, from directivity gain is defined as efficiency multiplied by
directivity. So, let us say we want to find the gain in dB of a parabolic reflector antenna at 15
GHz having diameter of 1 m. So, if the diameter is 1 m, what will be the aperture area of this
thing? Well aperture area is given by r2; r is radius so in this case diameter d = 1 m. So, r
will be 50 cm.
Now, that is A is now known. What is ? Well  has to be calculated from the frequency. So,
here f =15 GHz,  = c/f ; where c is velocity of light. So, if you put that this particular
number comes out to be  = 2 cm. So, that is what you need to put over here. So,  = 2 cm
from there you can find the directivity; however, efficiency of this parabolic reflector is only
0.6, so gain will reduce correspondingly. I just want to mention here for a reflector antenna
typically a maximum efficiency which can be obtained is about 0.8, a poorly designed
reflector antenna or purely manufacture reflector antenna may give an efficiency of roughly
0.6.
Now, I have just given an additional part here the dish antenna diameter remains same what
will be the gain at 36 GHz. So, 36 GHz the only thing which will changes  here. So, you can
47
use that to find out what is the directivity and gain of a reflector antenna. Instead of reflector
antenna, I can give any other different problem also it can be an array let us say a square
array or let us say rectangular array. So, of course, if the rectangular array has a dimension of
instead of diameter let us say the rectangular array has a dimension of 0.5 m x 1 m then all
you need to do it is effective aperture will become l multiplied by w and you can do the
calculation in the same fashion.
So, polarization of the antenna we saw in the very introductory lecture. There are different
types of polarization. So, here are more details of the polarization. So, we have three main
types linearly polarized, circularly polarized, elliptically polarized. In fact, elliptical
polarization is the most general form. So, just think about if the major axis is equal to minor
axis then actually this will become circular polarization and if the minor axis goes towards 0
then this will reduce to the straight line. So, that becomes linearly polarized. So, let us say
that for the polarization to be defined let us say any E component has theta component and
phi component. So, E cos this and then there is a phase difference between them.
Now, I will first talk about circular polarization. So, if E  = E and if the phase difference
between the two over here  = 90. So, then we can say that the magnitude of this or the
vector rotation will be nothing but it will be in the circular fashion and hence it is circularly
polarized. So, here also it all depends upon whether it is rotating in this fashion or whether it
is rotating in the other fashion. So, it is known as left hand circular polarization or right hand
48
circular polarization. So, if this case is not met then it can be linear or elliptical. So, in linear
you can say that if  = 0 or . it will be linearly polarized in for all other cases it will be
elliptically polarized. Now as I mentioned elliptical polarization is a general case.
So, let us see how we define axial ratio of antenna. So, generally speaking, we want circular
polarization for example, then for circular polarization axial ratio should be 1, what is axial
ratio? It is nothing but ratio of major axis divided by minor axis. So, for circle major axis is
equal to minor so axial ratio = 1. For linear polarization minor axis will have a 0, so 1 divided
by 0 will be ; anything in between will lead us to elliptical polarization, but yet we define
circular polarization approximate circular polarization you can say that if the axial ratio. This
is the plot of axial ratio versus frequency.
So, you can see that this is axial ratio 1, 2, 3. So, if you draw a line over here. So, we can say
that from this frequency up to this frequency axial ratio AR < 3 dB. So, generally speaking,
we define axial ratio bandwidth for circularly polarized antenna as frequency range over
which AR < 3 dB. Of course, in some application they may accept less than 6 dB also and in
some application, they even want axial ratio to be less than 1 dB or 2 dB also. So, it all
depends upon application to application.
49
Now, let us just look at the general input impedance and VSWR of the antenna. So, input
impedance of an antenna can be a complex quantity which has a real component and
imaginary component. The real component may actually consist of the radiation resistance
plus the losses associated with the antenna. Now this radiation resistance is also kind of
interesting thing in a sense it does not exist. It is only a mathematical model. So, what is
actually done? That power radiated from the antenna is considered as power loss from circuit
point of view. So, power radiated from the antenna can be approximately written as
So, whatever is the power radiated Pr divided by the current or voltage that will give us the
value of radiation resistance Rr, this is not really a real resistance which you think.
So, when we talk about a 50  impedance of an antenna, it is not that the resistor is 50 ; it
is just a representation of radiated power in terms of either voltage or current. So, we define
efficiency as the radiation resistance divided by the total resistance. So, what are the losses?
So, losses in the antenna can be dielectric losses or conductor losses. So, that is what gives
rise to the radiation efficiency then there is a next thing which is a reflection coefficient and
VSWR. So, reflection coefficient as we saw is defined by this particular term here. So, if let
us say Z0 is 50 . I just want to tell you that majority of the countries in the world they have
made a standard for microwave radiation and they actually use impedance as 50 . We will
50
try to keep this 50  in this particular course here, but remember it can be different value, but
if it is not specified assume 50 . So, now if antenna impedance is 50 ,
If = 0, power reflected will be 0 and we define VSWR in terms of the reflection
coefficient. So, this is just a practice problem for you people. So, calculate reflection
coefficient , I have given an example of let us say only real impedance whereas, Z A can be
complex. In the next slide, we will see what happens if these are complex, but just to quickly
tell you over here. Let us say we want to do some quick calculation. So, if you put 100 
over here for this particular case.
Substitute this value of reflection coefficient that gives rise to VSWR = 2. So, please
calculate for other cases.
51
Now, let us see what happens if the antenna impedance is a complex number. So, here we
have just taken an example , now there are two ways to
solve this problem where we want to find out the reflection coefficient and VSWR. One way
is
3.55
So, that is VSWR corresponding to the complex impedance. Now, this is the one way to do it.
The other way is to plot this input impedance on Smith Chart. So, this is a Smith Chart here.
Just to quickly tell you, what is this Smith Chart - the Smith Chart is a plot of input
impedance or can be used for input admittance, but we will keep it now for input impedance.
So, what this plot is, you can see here there is a this central line here. This is actually a real
access line. So, impedance here is 0 and it goes to infinity  and generally Smith Chart is
used for normalized impedance. So, whatever is the characteristic impedance let us say in this
case it is 50 . So, we normalize the value with respect to 50 . So, you can see that Z
normalized is given by this here. So, what we need to do it is we need to locate this
normalized value on the Smith Chart. So, what we have here this is a real axis. So, on the real
52
axis if you see the Smith Chart. It shows here 0 then 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 at the center. It will show
exactly 1 and then it will show 2, 5, 10, 20 and so on. So, on the real axis, you locate the real
value 0.4 which is this particular point over here.
Now, then you will see there are so many other circles are there. So, there are circles like this.
So, these are known as constant resistance circle, what this really means is that suppose I
have chosen this 0.4 along this entire this path here, it will be 0.4 and if you just see here on
this entire path the real impedance will remain fixed then we have all these curves over here
like this. These are truncated circles and over here also these are truncated circle. Now this
upper part is positive and the lower part is negative imaginary part. So, for impedance if you
are plotting impedance all the positive values will correspond to the inductive impedance. All
the negative values will correspond to capacitive impedance.
So, over here now what we have that these are known as the constant reactance circle. So, for
this entire this point curve here the reactance value will remain fixed, but as you move from
here to here to here only the resistive value will change. So, our next part is to locate this
impedance. So, 0.4 we located over here and then you move along this. Since it is plus, we
need to move up. So, we move up, up, up, you stop at a point these are written here 0.1, 0.2
and, so you stop at this point. So, this is the point which is the normalized impedance plot,
now all you do after that take this the central point draw this circle and wherever this circle
cuts this point. Now that is actually known as a VSWR. So, at this point here just read
whatever is the value, that value will give us 3.55.
Now, there is a another thing now you can also calculate the reflection coefficient also there
are two ways to do the calculation one is that actually below the Smith Chart normally there
is another horizontal line shown over here and you can actually see if you just go down here
this will show reflection coefficient = 0 and corresponding to this it will show reflection
coefficient = 1 and this is scaled from 0 to 1. So, if you just draw this line here which is
actually reflection coefficient 0 you draw just this line down here and you can read directly
the value and that will be 0.56. So, this is the one way. Other way is, you measure this
dimension and you measure this dimension using a scale take the ratio and that will be 0.56
53
and you can measure the angle using a d which is there in the normally in the compass box,
you measure that angle that will give. So, this is Smith Chart is nothing but graphical way of
the representation of the Smith Chart and you can calculate using this calculation.
But I strongly encourage you people to practice Smith Chart and just take some any other
random number and do some practice for example, let us say instead of 20 + j30 you can take
as let us say 10 - j100. So, 10 normalized will be 0.2 that will be somewhere here and this is
if minus j100 will be normalized will be minus 2. So, 0.2 you go over here somewhere j2. So,
that will be the point and then you can draw a circle and note down what is the VSWR
correspondingly you can do the calculation to verify your results.
So, here is just an example, I did mention to you about microstrip antenna, just to show you.
So, we had designed a microstrip antenna at 5.8 GHz and we chose the feed point carefully so
that we can get the impedance match. So, here is the Smith Chart for this particular antenna if
you see that this Smith Chart is passing through the central point where impedance is exactly
equal to 50 . So, there is an impedance match. This is the reflection coefficient plot, which
is a gamma plot here. So, just as an example I can say that impedance plot which is
normalized with respect to 50  and you can see there is a good matching and over here
return loss plot is there. Now generally, what we do we define bandwidth generally either for
gamma less than 10 dB or VSWR < 2 just to tell you VSWR < 2 corresponds to gamma equal
to 9.5 dB.
54
So, this bandwidth here is about 85 MHz, you can see from here to here and this is at 5.8. So,
you can take the ratio and that will give us a bandwidth. You can see this bandwidth is
relatively small. So, we will see the techniques later on how to increase the bandwidth of the
antenna.
So, just to summarize, we looked into certain characteristics of the antennas. So, we looked
into 3-D pattern, then we looked into 2-D pattern, we looked into half power beam width,
first null beam width, side lobe levels and so on. We also looked at how to calculate the
directivity of the antenna, what is solid angle, what are theta E, theta H which are two
orthogonal component and how directivity has to be modified for larger array and then we
saw how to calculate the reflection coefficient and VSWR. We quickly looked into what is
Smith Chart, how to plot impedance on the Smith Chart and how to calculate reflection
coefficient and VSWR and I strongly encourage that please practice using Smith Chart and
take some different examples to do that and then we just showed you one example of
microstrip antenna. How impedance matching can be done. Of course, detailed of microstrip
antenna will be covered much later in this particular course, but we just saw that how
impedance can be achieved and how we can find out the bandwidth of the antenna from
reflection coefficient plot or it can be obtained from VSWR plot.
So, thank you very much and in the next lecture, we will see some more antenna
characteristic, we will see how to find out that Friis transmission equation, the derivation and
we will take some more practical examples.
Thank you, bye.
55
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 01
Lecture - 05
Antenna Fundamentals-II
Hello and welcome to today's lecture on Antenna Fundamentals which is continuation of the
previous lecture.
In the previous lecture, we have started with the antenna fundamentals and then we quickly
talked about 3-D radiation pattern of Isotropic antenna then Omni-directional antenna after
that Directional antenna.
56
Then we looked at the 2-D radiation pattern. We defined major lobe, half power beam width,
first null beam width and various side lobe levels.
Then we defined the directivity definition. So, what is the directivity and we have looked into
the very simple expression for directivity. From half power beam width how we can calculate
the directivity.
And then we have given 2 different expression, this is in terms of degrees which is direct
conversion of 4/(E x H) into degree and this is the expression to be used for larger antenna.
You can see that this value is slightly smaller than this value here because this value here
does not account for all the side lobes which are inherently present with the large antenna.
57
Then we talked about the different types of polarization - linear polarization, circular
polarization, elliptical polarization and then do we define axial ratio for circularly polarize
antenna.
Ideally axial ratio can be 0 dB or axial ratio can be 1, but practically we take up to about 3 dB
bandwidth. So, axial ratio bandwidth is generally defined frequency range over which axial
ratio AR < 3 dB.
58
Then we looked at quickly input impedance, a input impedance can be a complex quantity
which can be a real part as well as the imaginary part, and from there we looked into how we
can calculate a reflection coefficient which actually tells us what is the reflected power and
then from reflection coefficient we can also define what is VSWR.
And since impedance is a complex number, we should actually use Smith Chart which makes
life much easier this is a graphical representation of the complex impedance and we had
looked into how a complex impedance can be plotted on the Smith Chart and very easily we
can find out the VSWR, reflection coefficient and its angle.
59
Then we looked into the microstrip antenna design at 5.8 GHz. So, I did mention about a
microstrip antenna. This is a rectangular microstrip antenna which is defined by its length and
width and we can choose a feed point properly such a way that it is actually matched to 50 
line. So, this is the 50  point which is the central point of the Smith Chart. I also call it bull
sight and this is the frequency response. So, this is the lower frequency. As we increase the
frequency the plot is shifting around and a perfect match is obtained over here and this is the
corresponding return loss plot and we define bandwidth for reflection coefficient | | < -10
dB and in this case it is just about 85 MHz which is just 1.5 %. Now, this bandwidth is not
sufficient, but later on when we talk about various microstrip antenna techniques, we will talk
about how to get broad bandwidth.
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Now, one should remember that antennas are not defined only by its impedance plot or
reflection coefficient plot. They are also defined by its radiation pattern, a gain plot and
efficiency. So let just see; what are the different radiation pattern. So, these are the 2 fields
which are E-plane and H-plane radiation pattern. This shows actually a cross polar
component and this is the back radiation. So, one can see over here back radiation is fairly
less. That is possible mainly because a larger ground plane has been taken in this particular
case. If this ground plane is reduced to let us say this value then the back radiation will
increase and if the ground plane is exactly equal to the size of the patch then the back
radiation will be almost equal to the front radiation. So, nevertheless this is a good design and
we can see that the front to back ratio is fairly good we can also see that half power beam
width in H-plane is about 88; half power beam width in E-plane is about 80. Now this is the
gain plot. So, one can actually see that the maximum gain is slightly less than 7 dB, but one
can see that also as frequency changes gain varies. So, generally a 1 dB gain variation is
acceptable. So, we can say that the bandwidth for 1 dB gain variation is approximately 126
MHz.
Now these are the 2 plots for antenna efficiency or this plot corresponds to the radiation
efficiency and one can see that these antennas are fairly good radiator, but however, the total
antenna efficiency is what we are interested and this one is varying with frequency much
more than this one over here. Actually this also accounts for the reflection coefficient
variation.
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So, if you just look at the reflection coefficient variation one can see that this is the reflection
coefficient and at this point reflected power is close to zero and corresponding to -10 dB a
reflected power is approximately about 0.5 dB and that is why gain reduces. So, it is actually
important that when we look at the antenna, we should look at all the characteristic, just
broad band VSWR does not really mean that it is a good antenna. We have to also see the
radiation pattern. How much radiation pattern varies over the bandwidth defined by let us say
VSWR < 2 or < 1.5 and what is the efficiency of the antenna? You can see that the efficiency
of the antenna is fairly less at these frequencies.
So, now let just look at another example. This is an example of a 8 by 8 electromagnetically
coupled microstrip antenna array at millimeter wave. A millimeter wave is generally defined
from 30 GHz to 300 GHz and the reason why we have used these numbers of elements
because we just saw that typically gain obtained is about 6 to 7 dB by using a single element.
Now if you want a larger gain then what we can do? We can use multiple numbers of
elements.
So, let just very quickly look at what is going on here. So, here is an example of a 8 x 8
electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna array at millimeter wave. So, millimeter
wave frequency range starts from 30 GHz to 300 GHz. So, let just see what we have done
here. So, it is a 2 x 2 element first, let just look at it. These 2 x 2 elements are actually fed
with the microstrip line over here and these are being fed. Now these 2 x 2 you can see that
this is another combination. Now, these 2 are connected together and this is the 2 x 2 array, 2
x 2 array which are connected over here. So, now, this becomes a 4 x 4 array and then these 4
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x 4 array are connected together to form 8 x 8 array. So, this is the modular way of designing
an antenna array.
What is electromagnetically coupled? Electromagnetically coupled is that there is a one patch

or which is you can corresponding to the feed point it is there and there is another patch
which is on top of the bottom patch. So, it is actually a 2 layer microstrip antenna array, 2
layers have been used mainly to obtain broad bandwidth.
So, here is a gain plot. One can actually see that right from 34 GHz to about close to 39 GHz
one can actually see that the gain is more than 24 dB and that is equivalent to about 250. Now
in the previous case for a single antenna the gain was between 6 to 7 dB now we can see that
gain is about 24 dB. So, by using a large number of arrays one can actually get a larger gain.
So, instead of 8 x 8 if we had used suppose 16 x 16; that means, the array size is increased by
4 times, maximum gain which can increase is about 6 dB, but because of some feed losses it
may be about 5 to 5.5 dB. So, we can get about 29 dB or so, a 30 dB will be equivalent to
gain of 1000.
Now let us see also the radiation pattern plot of this. Now, I have shown here both the plots
here this is the polar plot, this is a Cartesian plot. Polar plot is in terms of the angle. So, one
can see that this E and H-planes are almost same, their beam width is also same the reason for
that is because it is an 8 x 8 is a symmetrical array and that is why E and H-planes are
relatively symmetrical and one can actually notice over here that half power beam width is
about 8.8 in both the plane. Then we have a first null beam width. So, first null beam width
is approximately equal to 20. So, if you take the ratio which is about 2.27.
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Now, let just see this is a Cartesian plot. Cartesian plot is mainly are the radiation intensity
versus or this one here is again 0 o to 180o and this is 0o to -180o. So, it is a spread out, this is
shown in the angular fashion, this is more shown in the flatter portion. So, one can actually
see here the same thing, main beam here, these are the side lobe levels and these are the cross
polar levels. So, generally we prefer if it is a good linearly polarized antenna. We prefer that
these cross polar levels should be definitely less than 20 dB. So, you can see that this is a 20
dB line. So, the cross polar levels are definitely less here.
Of course, cross polar level increase in the other portion, but that is not very important we are
more concerned about the cross polar in the main beam. Now from here we can actually use
the earlier formula which I had mentioned, for larger array one can use 32400 so if you use
that formula the number comes out to be about 26.1 dB, where as the directivity which is
simulated is about 25.8 dB. So, you can see that this number is relatively close to this
number. So, one can use a very simple formula like this to find out what is the directivity of
the antenna.
Now, one of the most important things when we are designing an antenna system or power
transmission power receives is actually known as a link budget. In fact, this is a very very
important thing. So, you should please pay more attention to this. So, generally how do we
define link budget? Let us say we have a transmitter which is transmitting through a
transmitting antenna then at a far away distance there is a receiving antenna with their
receiver. So, now, what we need to define, so when we do a link budget. So we know that we
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would need to cover let us say a 1 kilometer distance or 10 kilometer or in case of satellite
communication this r could be 36000 kilometer. So, one needs to take into that range.
So, according to the range define, then we also see transmitting antenna that all depends upon
what is the area we want to cover. Suppose we want to have only point to point
communication then this should be a large gain antenna with the very small half power beam
width, but if we need to cover wider area then this should have a relatively smaller gain and
wider beam width. So, the transmitter power again depends upon what is the range we want
to cover and also what is the receiver sensitivity. So, just to give you an example. For
example, we all use let us say mobile phone - now the receiver sensitivity of mobile phone is
actually as good as -100 dBm and in fact, for some mobile phone it works even at -108 to
-110 dBm also. In fact, majority of the mobile phones show full strength at -70 dBm.
So, what we need to do? We need to do the link budget design. So, what we start with a very
simple thing. We need to find out what is the power density. It is relatively simple, so let just
see here. This is the transmitted power which is Pt. Now if this transmitted power is radiating
equally in the sphere. Let us say for an isotropic antenna then this should be
; however, since we are not using an isotropic antenna we are using an antenna with
the gain of Gt. So, then we multiply with that gain and this will be the power density along
the maximum gain.
Now, here is a receiver. So, receiver will receive the power. So, power received by the
receiver will be power density multiplied by the effective aperture area of the receiver. So,
that will be the total power received.
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We define in terms of watt, this could be transmitted in let us say it could be 1 watt or 10 watt
or 100 watt, 1000 watt depending upon application and now we had seen that the relation that
we had saw earlier G gain is related with the directivity D by G=D. So, efficiency
directivity is combined here this is known as effective aperture. So, if we know effective
aperture which is for receiver we substitute this value here. So, the effective aperture will be
This equation is also known as Friis Transmission Equation. So, this is a very important
equation for any link which we need to design. So, let us see what it depends upon.
So, the receiver received power or receiver sensitivity you can say depends upon the
transmitted power, the gain of the transmitting antenna, gain of the receiving antenna. It is
proportional to  or inversely proportional to frequency square because  = c/f and it is also
inversely proportional to r2; that means, if the distance is doubled power received will be
reduced by 4 times and if you want the same thing then we may have to increase the power,
suppose the receiver sensitivity is fixed and if you are doubling the distance then the
transmitted power has to be increased by 4 times.
So, these are the things which we require to design any link system. I also want to mention a
few additional things whenever we do something like this here, there is always a margin. So,
generally an acceptable margin is about 10 dB gain margin is kept. So, that the system works
properly over any adverse condition. So, for example, you might have noticed that when
you are watching a TV using let us say dish antenna. So, the signal is coming from the
satellite, dish antenna is pointed towards the satellite, but during the rainy season you might
have noticed that signal is not there specially during very heavy rain because what happens -
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water absorbs the radiation and also water diffracts the radiation. So, the power received by
the dish antenna is relatively reduced and that is why you do not get the signal. So, gain
margin is always very very important to do.
So, now let just take an example how do we calculate the power density. So, I have taken a
real life example which is happening in India. So, let just take an example of a GSM1800 cell
tower is transmitting about 20 watt of power in the frequency range of let us say 1840 to
1845. Now just to tell you, the GSM1800 range is from 1810 to 1880 MHz, but a typically an
operator might have a bandwidth of 5 MHz.
Now, the gain of the antenna is 17 dB which is again very commonly used in India and we
want to find out what is the power density at a distance of 50 m and at a distance of 300 m in
the direction of maximum radiation. So, let us see now how we can calculate power density.
So, we just saw that the power density is given by this particular expression here; that means,
it is proportional to transmitted power, gain of the antenna and the distance.
So, now the gain of the antenna is given in terms of dB which is 17 dB. We need to convert
that dB into numeric value which is 50.
So, at r = 50m
When the distance is increased from 50 m to 300 m, the radiation density decreases
correspondingly.
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One can actually see that here. So, 50 to 300 m distance is increased by 6 times. So, this
radiation density should reduce by 36 times.
Now, let us see here what is going on about the radiation norm in the country and around the
world. Now in India, we have allowed the radiation density can be 450 mW/m2 for GSM 900.
For GSM1800, we have allowed the radiation density to be 900 mW/m 2. So, one can say that
this value is less than 900 mW/m2; however, in India, we had adopted ICNIRP guidelines and
the ICNIRP guideline. ICNIRP stands for very nice name International Commission for Non
Ionizing Radiation Protection.
So, people would think that it is some international body; however, it is nothing but an NGO
in Germany which was formed by a person who had a link with the industry and in fact, in
the ICNIRP guideline itself it is written that it is only for short term exposure and not for long
term exposure, and what is short term defined by them? Short term defined by them is
averaged over 6 minutes. So, India had adopted ICNIRP guideline till 2012 and in fact, we
have been to various government bodies. We made a lot of presentations to TC, DOT, TRAI
and we finally, convinced them and in fact, we wanted a much lower radiation norm, but they
reduce it only to one-tenth. So, which is now one-tenth of ICNIRP guideline now if ICNIRP
guidelines are only valid for 6 minutes then one-tenth will be valid only for 60 minutes which
is for one hour. So, what is good for one hour, we have adopted it for 24 hours. So, that is
why people who are living close to cell tower radiation are exposed to very high radiation.
Now to create awareness to the people about high cell tower radiation and also people use
cell phone for hours and hours every day. So, there are lot of health hazards associated with
cell phone. In fact, WHO has classified cell phone radiation as possible carcinogen class 2B
and that was done in May 2011. So, it is already 5 years and when I talk to people majority of
the people are not even aware that it is possible carcinogen. So, I think it is the government’s
responsibility of all over the world that they should tell the people that it is possible
carcinogen. So, to create awareness we had conducted a one workshop at IIT, Bombay in
November 2011. We had made a one video at cdeep at IIT, Bombay. So, I am going to show
you that video for next 5 minutes, please see that and enjoy.
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News from the media: (Refer Time: 22:50) cell phone radiation in actual health hazardous.
Yes, mobile phone is more hazardous to health. You are carrying you enemy in your pant
pocket. If this behavior goes on then definitely mobile phone will kill us. In fact, government
has also accepted that mobile phone and towers are very dangerous to human beings. A
studied done by MITs Electromagnetically Academy says cell phones also interfere with one
sleep patterns. Next time you want a buy mobile phone I suggest you carefully go through
user manual especially the chapters of safety. A team 31 scientists in 14 countries share
radiation emitted by cell phones is quite possibly carcinogenic. The city of Saint Francisco
tomorrow takes up whether to warn its citizens about using cell phone. In fact in big cities,
the radiation emitted from these cell tower is the main cause for disappearance of butterflies,
bees and birds. So be careful, the mobile phone which you don’t want to keep away from
you. That mobile phone is making you away from your life.
Now an international panel of scientists is raising questions about whether there is a link
between cell phones and cancer if you are talking for more than 20 minutes on your cell
phone, the EMR raises the ear lobe and brain temperature die up to 2 o. It is also penetrating
the brain skull and it is heating the brain tissues inside there and when it is cooking the brain
then what it leads to sleep disorder then memory loss, lack of concentration, irritation and
ultimately to brain tumor. Even if you don’t use mobile phone then also it sends one pulse to
the base station every minute. 180 watt of microwave power is being transmitted towards
your body which could be your heart which would be your hand, which could be the pant
pocket. So, you have to decide which part of the body you do not like. The cell phone emits
electromagnetic radiation which is transfer to the cell phone towers so they must pose a
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bigger risk then the mobile phone itself. Specifically for people who are living close to the
cell tower, it is the whole body which is absorbing microwave radiation, unlike a cell phone
where only the brain is getting affected or the upper body. We have noticed that specially
ladies who are in houses for long duration, they are facing problems more frequently. Same is
with small children and old age people so they are absorbing the radiation continuously.
One common doctor when on that marks cell phone use likely caused his golf ball size
malignant brain tumor called an Oligodendroglioma. I was actually holding that thing in my
head 10,000 hours. Actually the solution is that we should have more number of cell towers
but each tower should transmit very less power. Mobile phone was invented for emergency
purposes. If you want, you may use landline number or you can use wired phone or you can
also use Bluetooth. But just keep your mobile phone at least one foot away from your body.
We don’t know how long it will take for state government or telecom companies to get rid of
this cell tower radiation. Now, it depends on you whether you want to rely on government or
you take care yourself.
So you just saw this video, and in the next lecture I am going to tell you about what are the
radiation health hazards from cell phone, as well as from cell tower. We will divide the next 2
lectures - first part will be on cell phone and then the second part will be on cell tower. So,
where we will tell you; what are the possible health hazards and what are the precautions
taken so that you can enjoy this wonderful technology in the best possible way.
Thank you.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 02
Lecture - 06
Antenna Radiation Hazards-I
Hello and welcome. Now, in the last lecture we had looked into how to calculate the
radiation density at a faraway distance from cell tower then we also looked at a 5 minute
video which we had recorded at IIT Bombay. So, today I am going to discuss about cell
phone and cell tower radiation hazards and what are the solution.
So, let us start with the title cell phone tower radiation hazards and solution, but in our
first lecture I will focus mainly on cell phone. You can note down my email ids - one this
is at IIT, Bombay and this is the Gmail id which is very simple prof.gkumar@gmail.com
Outline of the presentation will be cell phone and tower statistics in India. So, I am
actually going to mention about the statistics in India, but I will also tell what is
happening around the world also then we will very quickly look into what is a
microwave heating principle because people are aware how a food can be cooked in a
microwave oven. Then we will talk about radiation pattern of the antenna safety norms
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around the world radiation measurements which we have done at least more than at
thousand places and what we found, will review biological effects and then solutions.
So, let us say in the India the population is 130 plus crore which is equal to 1.3 billion
people and out of this population of 130 plus crore more than 100 plus crore cell phone
users are there which is equal and to 1 billion.
Now, in the world we have a population of around 7 billion and there are about more
than 6 billion cell phone subscribers. So, one can see that cell phones are very good
fantastic with that you can connect to anybody at any place, you can do banking, you can
do chatting, you can see the video, you can now a days with 4G technology you can do
video conferencing, you can book a cab, you can see so many things which you can do.
So, it is a wonderful technology, but the problem is over use of the technology.
Now, let us just say that suppose you like an ice cream, now if you eat ice cream let us
say once a week it may be a good, maybe you want to eat once a day it might still be
acceptable not. So, good, but if you eat ice cream let us say every hour 7 am, 8 am, 10
pm and then you do the same thing for next 15 days. So, what will happen? You may
probably get sick and tired of eating ice cream and also you may have so many health
problems. So something which you like it same thing you can say for chocolate, you
know once in a while you can chocolate is good, but all the time eating chocolate is not
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good. So, same thing cell phone limited use of cell phone is good, unlimited use a cell
phone is not good.
So, we will see today what is the limit where we should draw the line and what are the
guidelines for that and what is happening across the globe. Now for a cell phone to work
what cell phone does is cell phone transmit some power to the cell tower and in India
again a cell phone typically may transmit about 1 watt of power, cell towers typically
transmit about 20 watt of power and then this cell tower through the switching network
will go to the another cell tower that another cell tower will make a call to the cell phone
whom you have called.
Now, in this process let us say this cell phone transmits 1 watt cell tower 20 watt, this
cell tower 20 watt and the cell phone here 1 watt. So, total 42 watt of power is getting
transmitted where as the actual used by the cell phone and cell tower is only about
0.00001 watt; that means, 41.9999 watt is getting dissipated in the atmosphere and
roughly about one-third of that power is getting absorbed.
Let us say if you are talking cell phone like this. So, roughly one-third of that is getting
absorbed by your own head and then part of that is getting absorbed by the person who is
sitting next to you and rest of the power is getting absorbed in the atmosphere and in the
atmosphere there can be birds, bees, animals, trees, plants everything. So, all that
radiation is getting absorbed in the atmosphere. So, nothing about in India if 1 billion
people are using and 41.9999 watt power is getting dissipated. So, you can imagine now
how much microwave power is getting dissipated in the atmosphere and all over the
world there are 6 billion people using the cell phone.
So, you can actually see that so much RF radiation pollution is getting created in the
atmosphere. In fact, we have proposed to the government that radiation pollution should
not be considered as the fourth pollution the other three positions are water pollution, air
pollution, and noise pollution. So, this radiation pollution is very very significant people
are using cell phone left and right all the time, cell towers are transmitting power 24
hours a day. So, many places there is a Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi is radiating exactly at the same
frequency at which microwave oven works.
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So, let us see what is the principle of microwave heating? Now, when we put food inside
a microwave oven that is the water in the fluid which is observing the radiation. So, what
happens when microwave radiation impinges on the water molecule then the water
molecule starts vibrating at a speed of 2.45 billion times per second and when that
vibration is there at such an high intensity it leads to the friction and that friction leads to
heating and that is how a microwave oven food gets cooked.
But when this microwave radiation impinges on the human body for cellular band it can
be 900 mega hertz or 1800 mega hertz or for 3G it can be 1900 or 2100 or for Wi-Fi it is
same as microwave. So, when that radiation impinges on the human body, now human
body consists of seventy percent liquid when this microwave radiation impinges now
microwave radiation can penetrate the skin and it will go inside the body and all those
water molecule fluid blood they start vibrating.
So, let us say at 900 mega hertz they are vibrating at a speed 900 million times per
second. So, because of this vibration friction is there and because of the friction DNA
damage occurs and also friction leads to heat and the body temperature also goes up.
Now this body is acting as a insulator from sun when there is a sun radiation skin access
an insulator, but in case of microwave radiation microwave radiation penetrates and it is
inside the body those water molecule, blood molecule are vibrating that say DNA
damage is happening, friction is there, the temperature is increasing, but now that is
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getting trapped by the skin. So, that heat is confined within it. So, within the body let us
say at 900 mega hertz wavelength is 33 centimeter that is in air.
Within the dielectric material wavelength will be much lesser than the free space
wavelength. So, there are multiple hot and warms spots which are formed in the entire
body. So, the entire body is feeling that heat effect. So, there are two effects which are
known - one is a non thermal-effect, non-thermal effect is because of the DNA damage
which is caused because of the friction and thermal is because of the heating. And non
thermal effects are several times more harmful than thermal effect and unfortunately
many of the international guidelines are governed by these thermal effect and they have
ignored these non thermal effect which are much more harmful.
So, let me ask a very very simple question that have you noticed that if you use your cell
phone for about 20-30 minutes have you noticed that your ear gets warm. In fact, when I
asked the audience 80 to 90 percent people raise their arm. So, what is really happening?
So, when you keep the cell phone let us say next to your ear when we are making a call,
there is a radiation from the mobile phone. Now since the ear is the closest, so blood in
the ear lobe starts getting heated up and it has been reported that if you use the cell phone
for approximately 20 minute the blood low temperature goes up by 1 degree centigrade.
Now, body temperature is 98.4 Fahrenheit now if you add one degree centigrade which is
1.8 Fahrenheit. So, we have 100.2 degree fever. So, every time when you use the phone
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for 20 to 30 minutes the blood lobe temperature goes up by 1 degree centigrade and we
have a fever and then the brain realizes there is some problem. So, there is a process
known as thermoregulatory mechanism. So, that process gets kicked in and there is a
blood circulation happening so the temperature becomes relatively normal.
But again we used for 20 to 30 minutes, again the body temperature or specially in this
case the ear temperature goes up and then the again the thing up. So, what is happening?
This hot blood is getting circulated again and again. So, if we use for much longer time.
So, it starts with the warm sensation and then it leads to pain and also to irreversible
hearing loss which can be partial to full hearing loss as well as ear tumor.
In fact, actually speaking I have started my own news letter on cell phone tower radiation
and there in the newsletter specially the third newsletter we have actually given the
interviews of 5 different ENT doctors, and they have very strongly said that they are
getting a very large number of cases where people are developing irreversible or partial
hearing loss to ear tumor and their largest customers are or you can say patients are
teenagers because teenagers use cell phone for very long time they keep chatting. Of
course or the next number of the patients which they said is the sales people and even the
media people because they use cell phone for long time for hours and hours and after few
years of use they start getting the pain in the ear and tumor.
In fact let me also ask you one question that if you use cell phone for more than 20 to 30
minutes do you feel headache, if you do feel headache after 20 to 30 minutes let me tell
you and fore warn you that you are getting into stage two, because that headache leads to
so many other diseases it can lead to the headache, it lead to irritation, it can lead to
memory loss, it can leads to concentration problem and ultimately to brain tumor.
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So, let me define now how we define the SAR value. So, the cell phone is defined by it is
SAR value. So, what is SAR? It is a specific absorption rate that is the rate at which
radiation is absorbed by human body and it is measured in watt per kg and this limit has
been set as a 1.6 watt per kg. Now this limit was set in 1998 and those days cell phone
uses per minute was very expensive and this limit was set for 6 minute. So, today when
we say that the cell phone is safe it is really safe for about 6 minutes.
However, all the safety guidelines have some safety margin; it has a safety margin of
three to four. So, in a reality people should not be using 18 to 24 minutes per day and if
you use for longer time you can develop some of the health problems. But let us see;
what are the warning signs given on some of the mobile phone.
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So, I have just listed here the blackberry, but similar things are given by Iphone and other
phone also. So, let us say here what it says the blackberry says that keep the device at
least 0.98 inches or 25 mm from your body; that means, now when you want to make a
call you should actually measure the distance about 25 mm 1 inch and you keep the
phone like this and then you should make a call do you really make a call like this I do
not think. So, you make a call like this or maybe you make a call like this. So, maybe
you do some multi task also right. So, while you do driving we will also like that way.
So, (Refer Time: 13:55) where is the radiation there the radiation is going to your entire
body.
Let us just look at what is the next thing which I have underlined. It actually says do not
keep the cell phone next to the abdomen of pregnant women and here in India they are
used to be an advertisement on TV about 4 years back where a pregnant lady calls her
husband and ask him do you want to listen to the kick off the baby and she puts the
phone right next to her stomach and probably baby kids trying to say take the damn thing
away.
Let us see the last line here what it says reduce the amount of time spent on call. Now
start thinking about it why a cell phone manufacturer tells you reduce the amount of time
spent on calls because they know that there is a problem and if you use for longer time.
But unfortunately in India we see these advertisements were people are using cell phone
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for hours and hours there was a one advertisement where one person starts using cell
phone in the evening then he does all the calling, calls to various people and all that and
then in the morning he waves hand to the or says goodbye to sunshine and goes to sleep.
That means, they are actually saying that right from 8-9 pm till about 5-6 am you can use
cell phone well that is really really bad. You should not be using cell phone for more than
as I said 18 to 24 minutes in the maximum possible scenario and if you use cell phone
for longer time let us see what all can happen to you.
Now, this is the result of revaluation of interphone study I just to tell you interphone
study actually started in 2000 the year 2000 and they followed all the protocol of WHO
World Health Organization. So, this study actually took ten years the report came in May
2010 and this study actually took cases from 13 countries it was the largest study taken at
that time and they actually studied 5000 brain tumor cases so; that means, these many
cases of brain tumor did happen that is how they could take the cases and do the study.
Now, just that is why I said if you use cell phone for longer time if you are feeling a
headache well that could be the earlier stage and this could be the last stage here. And of
course, 25 million dollars was spent and roughly one-third of this many came from
cellular operator. So, now, what was the conclusion? So, conclusion actually says no
overall increase in the risk and so you can actually think about and said to yourself all is
well there is no overall increase in the risk; however, it also says there is a suggestion of
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increase in the glioma for heavy user and for on the site which site they are using the cell
phone for longer time.
So, what is the definition of heavy user? The definition of heavy user was half hour per
day over 8 to 10 years, so what happens if you do that? Well you have a doubled to
quadrupled brain tumor risk. So, now, can you co relate which I mentioned earlier 18 to
24 minute and half hour is something like 30 minutes per days in about 10 years of time
there is a doubled to quadrupled brain tumor risk. However, I also want to mention here
since then mobile phone technology has improved slightly. So, there is now concept of
that if the signal is weak it will transmit more power if the signal strength in that area is
strong then it will transmit less power. So, there is an auto ranging concept is there.
So, now there is a little less effect you can use for slightly longer time and in the next
lecture I will show you the study which had actually linked number of hours used versus
odd ratio, but for that you have to wait for next lecture.
But now I just also want to mention that this inter phone study which actually had
excluded children and young adults. In fact, they took healthy adults in the age group of
30-59 years and children and young adults are definitely more susceptible. In fact, there
is a new study going on which is known as Mobi-kids and we are waiting for that study
to come and we will see what is really happening. But however, there are many countries
in the world which they have strongly recommended that children under 12 years should
not use cell phone and whereas in India you can actually see that the parents are giving
mobile phone to their even one or two years old children who are using the cell phone for
long time.
So, please avoid that and listen to what the world is telling us. So, now, let us see this
report which came in May 2010. So, what happened after that?
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Well WHO finally, declared a one year later and I want to bring certain things over here,
so that was May 2010 when inter phone study came which followed all the protocols of
WHO yet it took one full year and let us see what actually happened. So, one year later
international agency for research on cancer they classified IARC classifies radio
frequency electromagnetic field as possible carcinogen to human being which is known
as Class 2B.
However WHO made it little bit simple that said WHO designate cell phone as possible
human carcinogen Class 2B and they found evidence of increase in glioma and acoustic
neuroma brain cancer for mobile phone. Now see it is very interesting now, what it says
here is radio frequency electromagnetic field so in fact, this includes cell tower also it
includes high radiation from fm radio, TV signals and radar systems and so on where as
they actually modified it to cell phone.
So, now, why WHO did that? So, now, let us just think about how WHO works and also I
want to ask think about so why government of India is not telling people that it is a Class
2B. Now whereas this is almost have 5 year old study. So, let us say if you are let us say
go for a movie or you watch TV, if somebody is smoking. So, few years’ back it used to
say smoking is injurious to health, nowadays it says smoking kills. In fact, the same
thing which we have been also telling government of India and I would like to tell to the
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government of the world that should also start saying that over use a cell phone is
injurious to health.
But; however, why governments are not telling the people why government is not
creating awareness. So, we have to first understand that cell phone auction, cell tower
auction is going on all across the globe. So, in India also government is making lot of
money by spectrum auction. So, just to give you some numbers within India. So, let us
say in the last 4 years there have been 3 rounds of spectrum auction. So, there is 61000
crores then there is 67000 crore rupees and then in the last March 2015 they raised 1.1
lakh crores and now the next round of spectrum auction is going to take place in October
2016 and government is planning to raise about 5.6 lakh crores.
So, from where government is raising money by spectrum auction from cellular operator
and this is happening all over the globe all the governments of the world are raising lots
of money. So, today cellular business is a trillion dollar business. So, lot of money is
riding on it and in fact just to tell you the next technologies which are going to come 5G
and IOT, IOT is internet of thing and I recently attended one meeting and they are
projecting that these technologies could be worth 6 to 7 trillion dollars. So, they are
going after the money and ignoring completely the health hazards associated with this
high radiation which is going to be 24 hours radiation.
So, now, why WHO also took? So, again think about it from where WHO gets funding?
WHO gets funding from all the governments of the world, they contribute to the world
health organization now governments are making so much money by spectrum auction
and WHO is also making lot of them by getting money from the governments. So, they
are also getting pressure. In fact, I want to mention here that for the last two years
scientists around the world they are actually telling WHO to convert this Class 2B to
Class 2A which is known as probable carcinogen and there are some scientists who are
even saying it should be made Class 1.
Now in fact, the scientists have very categorically mentioned that whatever are the
criteria of WHO regarding Class 2A all those criteria have been met, but however, WHO
has not listen to that thing yet. So, in 2014 when scientist approach them they simply
said we will come out with the report in 2015, but nothing happen. Then 200 scientist of
the world they signed the petition and they submitted that to president United Nations
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and that was in may 2015 and we are still waiting for that response to come and now
again scientist are talking to WHO and WHO has actually said that they will come out
with their report in December 2016.
So, I want that all the people across the globe should unite and try to convince WHO and
their government that they should be serious about high power cell tower radiation and
overuse of cell phone and Wi-Fi radiation and so on.
So, now we know that this is a fantastic technology we still would like to use the
technology. So, this article was written by me for a popular science magazine or this
article I wrote in about September 2011. So, almost 5 years back now we know that cell
phone is a wonderful technology we can do so many things with the cell phone yet I
strongly recommend that limit your use.
So, please do not use your cell phone for long time. I can just tell you from my example
my maximum talk time per day is about 5 minutes per day. In fact, any call which I take
is generally I do not talk for more than one minute because cell phones were invented for
in emergency use. So, there is an emergency you talk and you do that so in fact, when
people call me I always tell them that I will call you back from my land line number or
you call me to my land line number.
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Also please talk for short duration do not talk for very long time. As I said if you use cell
phone for longer time you can feel the ear warming, you can have a hearing problem,
you can even have headache and so on and so forth. Now if possible use SMS or these
days people use whatsapp now see when you are using SMS. So, while you are typing
your message or for whatsapp while you are typing a message the radiation is very little
only when you let say press the send button there is a radiation from that, but; however,
what I am notice people do not use SMS 1 or 5 or 10 they use probably 100 of SMS or
maybe they do 100 times whatsapp so that means, they are exposed to a much longer
radiation now if possible use cell phone with lowest SAR value. It is very easy you can
actually go to the internet just say SAR mobile phone and you can choose a cell phone
which has the lower SAR value.
If possible use speaker phone. So, you can put the phone in the speaker mode and then
you can talk or you can actually use ear plug. So, what you can do you can plug the wire
over here and put it over here, but then what I noticed many people what they do let us
say they plug over here and they are holding the phone in their hand then your hand will
receive more radiation, some people put here in the shirt pocket then your heart will
receive more radiation, some people put in their pant pocket so then that area of the body
will receive more radiation. So, you decide which part of the body you do not like.
Now, of course, some people also use Bluetooth. Now yes there is a good thing about
Bluetooth that Bluetooth transmits maximum 10 milliwatt of power where is a cell phone
can transmit 1 watt of power which is about 1000 milliwatt. So, it definitely transmits 1
by 100 of that, but again what I noticed that people put a Bluetooth thing on their ear and
then let us say they put the phone in let us say in the shirt pocket then the Bluetooth will
transmit 10 milliwatt then the Bluetooth of the mobile phone will transmit 10 milliwatt
communicate to this one here and this is any way transmitting 1000 milliwatts. So,
actually increase your radiation exposure. So, the best way to use Bluetooth is that you
put a Bluetooth over here keep the cell phone away from you and then you can do the
talking.
Now, if possible please use landline. I know that many places people are removing their
land line I strongly urge people that start using landline because there is no radiation
there. Also I recommend that do not keep cell phone in your hand pocket for long the
reason is that even if you are not using the cell phone, it is still transmitting 1 pulse per
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minute to the base station. So, let us say if you are keeping cell phone for let us say 6
hour so 6 into 60 - 360 minutes you are putting cell phone in your pocket and then if it is
transmitting 1 pulse per minute so roughly 360 pulses are going towards the base station
and it is slowly slowly slowly causing problem to you. And also I notice that lot of
people keep the cell phone next to their pillow in fact, that is not good.
You may try to sleep, but your cell phone is not sleeping. So, it is constantly every
minute making some transmission and it is radiating towards your head. So, I strongly
recommend that you keep the cell phone at least at one arm length or if possible keep it
in the different room. Also I would like to recommend that in the night please switch off
the data because. So, you are not going to check while you are sleeping any messages or
any email because you can actually make a quick check that if you charge your mobile
phone in the night and put the phone, let us say, in the airplane mode you will see that by
the morning the battery is still almost full the next day you can try just keep the you can
say cell phone on, but all the other data should be off then we see how much it is. And
then the next time what should you do you keep the data on and everything you will see
that the battery drainage is much more so; that means, that data is actually speaking
consuming lot of power also because the mobile phone keeps communicating and trying
to see if there is a some activities or not.
So, I strongly recommend that you please do these simple precautions. So, that you can
protect and spread the message to all your friends, also to your known people you can
use blog, you can use email, you can use twitter, you can use WhatsApp to create
awareness. So, please do that and use this beautiful fantastic wonderful technology
carefully in fact, I always tell people live safely and have safe radiation.
So, in the next lecture I will talk about the radiation health hazard from cell tower what
are the radiation norms in India and in the rest of the other countries and what are the
health effects which can happen to the people who are living next to the cell tower.
Thank you very much, see you soon.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 02
Lecture - 07
Antenna Radiation Hazards-II
Hello and welcome. In the last lecture we talked about cell phone radiation and what are
the guidelines given by WHO and we notice that WHO has already classified cell phone
as possible carcinogen and designated as class 2B. We also looked at what are the
precautions which we can take for using safely cell phone and my strong
recommendation is please try to limit your cell phone use per day to maximum about 20
minutes or so.
Today let us look into what are the cell tower radiation characteristics, how it is
radiating, in which direction it is radiating and what are the associated health hazards and
precautions which we need to take.
So, let us see now in India we have various technologies which are prevalent in the rest
of the world also. So, we have a CDMA technology works in this frequency range
GSM900 technology which is 900 range, GSM1800, then we have 3G or 4G has just
started in India and the big launches have been taking place and also we have a Wi-Fi,
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Bluetooth which radiates exactly in the same frequency range as of a microwave oven
and these days in India there is a big push by our prime minister.
So, he is talking about digital India and he is talking about smart cities, but unfortunately
in the smart cities the agenda is invariably Wi-Fi and I felt that the smart cities would be
a city where we can get a absolute neat and clean drinking water, we do not have to buy
Bisleri or other branded water, we need clean air to breath we do not want air pollution
over there we want good roads and the city we want housing for all the people, we want
good education for each and every sector then only a city will become smart city.
Unfortunately there is a over emphasis on Wi-Fi enabled and that we think or it is being
said that you will become smart well that is not really true and too much Wi-Fi creates
lot of health problem also and I strongly recommend all of you people to see this website
which is wifiinschools.com and this website is dedicated to help the public realize that
wireless internet or Wi-Fi or cell phone or cell tower all those things emit radiation that
cause serious health effect which is damage to DNA, cancer and infertility.
So, let us just see the way these antennas have been installed all over the country in a
very haphazard manner. So, you can see that you know there are number of antennas on
a given rooftop and in India we allow them to transmit about 20 W of power and you can
see there at least 10 of these antennas are there. So, 200 W power is getting transmitted
from one roof top.
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Now, just to compare this power in a microwave oven typical microwave power inside a
microwave oven which is getting generated, is of the order of 500 W and in that 500 W
power food gets cooked in one or two minutes or five minutes depending upon the size
of the food. You might have noticed that if you just put one cup of water that one cup of
water starts boiling in just about one to two minutes. So, now you think about the human
body which consists of 70 percent liquid what is happening to that this radiation is
penetrating and unfortunately these cell towers are transmitting 24 hours a day and I
want to actually mention here how this radiate.
So, let us just say that this is the tower in fact, I call them vertical tube light or there is a
reason tube light takes time to turn on similarly our human brain is taking time to
understand this microwave radiation. The reason is we cannot see the radiation, we
cannot smell the radiation, we cannot you know visualize the radiation and also the effect
happens over a long time.
So, for these radiations we define where is the maximum radiation. So, the maximum
radiation is generally in the front side direction. So, this is normally radiation pattern is a
three dimensional pattern, but here I shown in two plane horizontal plane and vertical
plane. So, in the horizontal plane, suppose if there is an antenna here. So, in the
horizontal direction one can see that the beam is wide, there is a relatively less radiation
in the back side and this is generally used to cover about 120 degree. So, what they do?
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They put a one antenna like this orienting like this then another one at 120 degree which
will cover this region and another 120 degree angle which will cover this. So, that is how
they cover 360 degree in the horizon.
Now, in the vertical plane the radiation is maximum in the front direction. So, you can
see that this beam is relatively narrow, but there are lots of these side lobes which are
present over here. Now this is what we have been discussing about antennas. So, we
know that this is the main lobe and these are the side lobe over here this is the back
radiation. So, now, people living in this direction will receive maximum radiation, people
living over here will receive relatively lesser radiation. So, this is the radiation pattern of
the antenna.
Now, we also know that the radiation pattern also varies as the power varies as 1/R 2
square where R is the distance from tower. Now this thing I have taken from German
website and what it shows here 50 to 300 meter distance is there and what it says people
living within 50 to 300 meter radius are in the high radiation zone and are more prone to
ill effects of electromagnetic radiation.
Now, you please recall the example which I gave in my previous to previous lecture. So,
we had calculated radiation density at 50 meter as well as 300 meter. So, at 50 meter
radiation density was approximately 31 mW per meter square and at 300 meter it was
approximately 0.9 mW per meter square.
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Now, see according to them even those values are causing ill effects. So, how can we
adopt in India 900 mW per meter square for GSM800 and also I want to mention that
this actually shows here 50 to 300 meter, but there are people who may be living at less
than 50 meter distance and these are then people in the extremely high radiation zone and
I also want to mention that these are the things for just one antenna on a rooftop.
Now, if there are multiple antennas and pointing in this particular direction then the
health hazard will be even more and a more drastic.
So in fact, about three four years back one case was reported in the Mumbai area, were
what it was reported that 4 cancer cases were reported here in this building on 6th floor,
7th floor, 8th floor and the reason later on was found out that on the opposite building on
the 7th floor these multiple antennas were installed. So, from the 7th floor if you now not
recall the previous radiation pattern the radiation is in the front direction. So, the
maximum radiation will be moving towards this direction so 6th floor, 7th floor, 8th floor
people will be receiving more radiation. So, that is why they were four cancer cases and
while this discussion was going on number of cancer cases increased from four to six
because this is the leading edge and the trailing edge.
So, people living on the other floors also started developing health problem. So, then
what happened? 2 years later 6 cancer cases were reported and you can see that these
were on 5th floor, 6th floor, 7th, 8th and 10th and after very long discussion back and
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forth finally, these towers were removed, but about two people meanwhile died because
of the cancer.
So, how do we define the radiation now? So, as I mentioned earlier India had adopted
ICNIRP guideline and that is for GSM900 it was 4500 and for GSM1800 it is 900, for
3G and 4G it is 10,000 and then after great effort in fact, I have made roughly 30 to 40
trips to Delhi in the last 5-6 years, we made presentation to TC, TRAI, DOT we made
presentation to inter ministry committee and so on and finally, government reduce the
norm to one-tenth of ICNIRP guideline on September 1, 2012. But we still feel it is very
high as I mentioned earlier ICNIRP guidelines are good for 6 minutes per day and one-
tenth of that will be good for 60 minutes per day which is one hour where a cell tower
radiation is 24 hours a day. So, this norm is very very high.
So, now let see here Austria New South Wales had proposed 0.01, Austria Salzburg
actually adopted at 1 mW per meter square also. If you see all these countries are avail
less value except if you look at the USA here which is 3000 and many a times people say
oh! USA has a very high norm why should we concerned about, but if you actually look
at the USA FCC guideline OET 56, page 21 and what is written there, that they allow
high power transmission along highways or rural area, but in the urban area power
transmitted is about 0.5 to 1 W and where as in India we allow them to transmit 20 W of
power and which is 20 times more and that is why people are developing health problem
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in 2 to 5 years. So, if it was reduced by 20 times the health problem will be shifted by
decades.
Now, just see this here Austrian medical association. So, these Austrian medical
guidelines came in March 2012 and they have been very clear about that. They have
written very specifically, that irrespective of ICNIRP recommendation - regular exposure
of more than four hours per day, just see what they have mentioned - greater than one
mW per meter square itself is very far above normal and what we have? We have 450 or
even 1000 for 3G and 4G and that is also for 24 hour exposure, which is extremely high
and dangerous to the health of the people.
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In fact, I would like to bring here a bio-initiative report - the two reports came, one report
came in 2007, another report came in 2012. Now 2000 report give 2000 scientific papers
references and 2012 give report of 1800 research paper. So, there are more than 3800
papers which say that there are strong evidences of health effect and by the way these
roughly 3800 and many more have come in the last 4 years. So, let say more than 4000
paper they have been published in best possible journals of the world, they have been
written by the scientist of the world these papers have been reviewed by the various
scientist. So, all of them cannot be wrong.
Of course, I want to tell you also that there are roughly 25000 paper which say there are
no health hazard or there is a no conclusive evidence and in fact, scientist around the
world actually went through that and find out that that 75 percent of those papers are
funded by industry. So, one has to be careful and anyway you cannot ignore 4000
scientific papers which say there are health hazards.
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Now, we have done the measurement at thousands of places and I just want to mention
here at this place we measured the radiation density to be 17.7 mW per meter square and
the lady in that house developed cancer within 1 year. In fact, we had sent our team to do
the radiation measurement in that Usha Kiran building where we had a 4 to 6 cancer
cases and we found out that the radiation intensity was 5 to 10 mW per meter square.
Now, these are the health concerns with the current guideline so in fact actually speaking
it is not just that the health problem only is the last thing which is a cancer. In fact, lot of
health problems start occurring even at 0.1 mW per meter square also. So, these are it
starts with the headache it starts with the sleep disorder dizziness and so on and so forth.
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So, what are the most common complaints if you use cell phone for longer time or if you
live close to the cell phone tower or work close to the cell phone tower you may actually
have a problem like sleep disruption or disorder, headache, concentration problem,
forgetful memory, depression fatigue and irritation and so on and so forth.
And, if you ignore that then the problem can be little more serious now dizziness
problem, heart problem, especially if you are keeping cell phone next to your heart,
visual disorder problem, cardiovascular problem, buzzing in the head and so on and if
you ignore that then things become even more serious.
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So, especially as I mentioned earlier if you feel start feeling headache then it can lead to
Alzheimer and Parkinson’s disease also, immune system degradation I already
mentioned about ear, irreversible infertility has now become a major major concern. It
has been reported that if you are exposed to the cell tower radiation infertility is one of
the possibility and in fact, cell phone many people keep the cell phone in their pant
pocket and for men it is affecting the sperm count and for ladies or girls it is affecting
the, ovaries are there near that. So, the x in the ovaries are getting affected it is also
affecting the skin it is causing a DNA damage and then DNA damage leads to increase in
the cancer risk.
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So in fact, this study has been carried out by Professor Henry Lai. So, here is a bundle of
a DNA one can see that at nice spherical bundle here now this bundle is exposed to x-ray.
So, one can see that x-ray has lot of energy. So, it can break the DNA you can see that
the break in the DNA is very very obvious, but now coming to the cell phone or
microwave or Wi-Fi radiation.
So, now that does not have enough energy to break the bond like this, but you can see
that there is a DNA damage and I also mention that earlier also when these molecules
(Refer Time: 16:48) cause a DNA damage and when damage to DNA is greater than rate
of DNA repair there is a possibility of retaining mutation and initiating cancer. So, this
means that not only we will get affected, but our coming generation will also get
affected.
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Now, let us see the studies which have been done around the world. So, you can see
some nice pictures of the things which we have put for you around the world.
So let us see; what is happening let start with the center of attraction Naila Germany.
Tower was built in 1993 and they have studied the people living within 400 meter
distance. So, in the first 0 to 5 years this is their order ratio of getting cancer that
approximately about 1.1 one being normal. So, 1 or 1.1 there is not much of a difference,
so one can ignore that. After 5 years there may not be much affect, but 6 to 10 years later
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see what is happening that is about 3.2 times. So, people living within 400 meter actually
are prone to the cancer risk ratio to 3.2 times.
Now, let us just see why Austria adopted such a stuff norm. So, what they observed that
the people who are exposed to this is a 1000 μW per meter square which is equivalent to
1 mW per meter square. So, people who are exposed to that radiation the increase in odd
ratio is 8 times. So, now, you can imagine what is going to happen after about 6 to 10
years of the installation of the cell tower we may have a real cancer in the entire country.
So, this is the study reported from Brazil. So, they direct link to the 4,924 cancer deaths
which happened and these were the people who were living 80 percent of these victims
were living within 500 meter from the cell phone because of the radiation.
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Now, these are some of the coverage in India. So, one can actually see that this is a
coverage in Mumbai. So, cancerous cell phone towers panic Parsi colony. So, 6 cancer
cases were reported in 3 years and in fact, in my first newsletter I have reported many of
these cases and you can actually download my newsletter just says cell phone or cell
tower radiation newsletter or you can send an email to me I will mail you my newsletter.
This is the study reported in Jaipur. So, basically we can see here 7 cancer cases in one
area, 6 cancer cases in another area. In fact, several other reports are there. So, there are
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cancer clusters near the cell tower. So, later on what happened? The seller operators
came, they started doing the measurement and they said all the towers are within the
norm and the norm was very high.
In fact, then we sent our team to these places and we found out that the measured levels
were between 5 to 15 W per meter square; and what is the norm? 450 to 900 mW per
meter square. So, definitely those norms are very very high.
Now, we talked about the effect on the human being, but let us also talked about the
effect on birds and animals because birds and animals are most of the time outdoor
specially the birds they are flying around. So, let me ask you a simple question have you
seen any bird near cell towers and chances are you have not because the birds get
affected very significantly because of the cell tower radiation and you might have
noticed that the sparrow population all over the world is going down.
In fact, some of the countries have now actually started saying sparrows are endangered
species. In fact, it is actually affecting the honeybee’s population also. It is also affecting
the animals in fact, it has been reported that the dairy cause which are living close to the
cell tower the milk yield has gone down drastically.
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So, now this is also affecting the plants also. In fact, this picture is taken by me this is
actually the four cell towers are there located in Gurgaon-Delhi Toll Naka area and I
have taken picture from this farm house here and the owner of the farmhouse actually
told me that after the cell towers have been installed there lemon yield has gone down
from 100 to less than 5 that is a 95 percent reduction. In fact, after that I myself did
measurements at so many places where people had complaint about let us say the mango
yield going down, guava yield going down. In fact, orange was a very strange case. So,
oranges which were earlier this big size after the installation of the cell tower few years
later their size became smaller.
Why? Because the tower antenna is fixed here a tree is fixed here so there is a constant
radiation coming from there. So, the water molecules in this fruit starts vibrating and that
creates problem so in fact, the size reducer and also these oranges became bitter. So, later
on the owner actually cut the tree. So, similar things which we have noticed in fact,
especially in the some of the places like in west Bengal and in Kerala, Tripura and other
places they have actually reported that the coconut yield has gone down again coconut
trees are tall like this cell of towers are there they are constantly radiating towards there.
In fact, the even a reporter that some places even the water inside the coconut is getting
dried up and also the browning effect also the notice on the side where the antenna was
there.
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So in fact, alarm on these things. Environment ministry had also conducted a study in
fact they actually had an expert team of 10 people that report came in November 2011.
So, what they actually reported? They went through 919 paper and they mentioned 593
papers said there is an impact, 130 said no impact and 196 were inconclusive. And they
are actually reported even that it was supposed to be birds and bees, but they notice that
effect on the human being you can see that all these other things they show that there is a
strong adverse effects.
So, environment ministry has already reported and we would also like that you know that
government should wake up and do something serious about it.
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Now, as I mentioned earlier we are sitting on a cancer epidemic. So, this is the news
which came in June 2014 and it was reported in Hyderabad that 25000 brain tumors were
reported in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana only.
Now, that is just two states. In fact, actually speaking I talk to the ICMR Indian Council
of Medical Research. So, they did mention that the cancer cases are increasing. So, just
to tell you in 2014 it was reported that 10 lakh new cancer cases were added; in 2015 11
lakh new cancer cases were added. Now the known cancer from smoking, tobacco,
liquor that they found out to be about 3 lakh for rest of the 8 lakh cases all they said is it
is because of the change in the lifestyle and in the last 10 year the major change in the
lifestyle is our cell phone, cell towers which are radiating 24 hours people who are living
within the close vicinity of the tower developing problem, people who are using cell
phone for hours and hours they are developing health problems.
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Now, this is the study again reported in October 2015 and what they had reported is
number of hours along this side and that is the odd ratio of getting malignant brain tumor.
I have drawn the vertical lines of this is my contribution vertical line and horizontal line
here and I will tell you the reason also why I put at 4000 hour. So, if somebody who uses
cell phone every day for one hour, one hour multiplied by 365 days will be 365
multiplied by 11 will be close to 4000 hour so; that means, if you are using one hour
phone every day in about 11 years this is the median of the case here chances of getting
brain tumor will be about 1.6 and these are the two extreme cases which depends upon
the type of cell phone the health of the people and so on and so forth, but you can see
that this is linearly increasing.
So, all of you can actually think about when did you buy your cell phone how many
hours you have use cell phone. Now this is just for cell phone by the way if you are
living next to cell tower, well then you are going to have a much faster effect on you and
the reason another thing which I want to say recall I mention that interphone study said
half hour used in about 10 years, but here increase or better technology. So, one hour
here in 11 years this is the chances of getting brain tumor. So, please take care of your
health and your near and dear ones health.
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I mentioned earlier. So, scientist have been asking government and the WHO that are RF
field now should be classified as “Class 2A” or even “Class 1” and in fact, you can also
see here it is also written their health risk from Wi-Fi devices is also arising. So, there are
people who are recommended class 2A, there are people who are recommending class 1
and class 1 over here. So, please unite, all people of the world please unite convince your
governments to adopt better norm and convince the WHO to adopt better norm.
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So, what are the solutions? So, for cell phone I have already given the solution and the
solution is cut down your cell phone usage, but what about cell tower? Suppose there is a
cell tower next to your home or next to your office what do we do? So, we all have to
unite we have to convince in India the body is DOT Department of Telecommunication,
now they were the one who reduce the norm earlier from 4500 to 450 we have to
convince them to immediately reduced it to less than 10 mW per meter square. So, even
though please remember safe is 1 mW per meter square. So, this will be your one step in
between and this step can be very easily obtained all they need to do it is compel the
operators and tell the seller operator that instead of transmitting 20 W per carrier they
can maximum transmit 1 to 2Win densely populated area.
Now, there are lots of benefits by doing this also and how this can be implemented? Very
simple remove the power amplifier or reduce gain of the amplifier this can be achieved.
So, why they are not doing it? The reason why they are not doing it is that if they
reduced the transmitted power range will reduce and if the range reduces then the
coverage at a far away point will be not there. So, they have to install more low power
transmitter or low power repeater and this would actually cost more money and let just
look at what money we are talking about. So, in fact, we did some preliminary study.
So, right now in India we have 5 lakh towers which is about 0.5 million the need to
install another 5 lakh tower now each tower cost about 15 to 20 lakhs of rupees which
really means they have to invest about 75000 crore to 100000 crore and that is lot of
money. But we also did ROI calculation for them that is a return on investment and that
is so simple that if they increase the price usage per minute of cell phone just buy 5
paisa.
Now, you see the power of 5 paisa. So, 5 paisa multiplied by 20 minutes which is the
average today. So, that will be 1 rupee per day. So, 1 rupee multiplied by 365 multiplied
by 100 crore user; that means, they can make 36500 crore in 1 years. So, in 3 years’ time
they will recover their entire investment with interest. So, see we are actually suggesting
a simple solution. So, that they are also not taxed and people is also taxed very little and
also they will get a very big additional benefit also if their turnover goes up by 30-40000
crore per year more their share prices will also go up.
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So, we are not trying to say that you know we are not against the seller operators. So, we
are not against the cellular tower. In fact, what we are against is the high power radiation.
In fact, I have actually even a given a slogan also because lot of people came. So, we
want to remove the tower because of the health hazard I said look if you remove the
tower then phones will not work. So, instead of that you know we gave them the thing
reduce the power or remove the tower.
So, try to convince the operator to reduce the power if they agree very good; otherwise
then health is more important and in fact, my conclusion is extremely simple. It is people
who have to decide health versus wealth how much wealth we are talking about just 5
paisa increase per minute of the cell phone use whose health we are talking about we are
talking about the health of the entire human being, we are talking about the health of the
birds, bees, animals, trees, plants, fruits, everything.
But however, there is a twist health is on this side wealth is on this side. So, there is a
cross and that really means that people have to work hard, they have to create awareness
among the people and try to convince the people about the health hazard and when
people unite they can convince the government and when large number of people go to
the government and tell them that look we are not against the technology all we want is a
safe radiation. So, technology can live happily with the safe radiation, people can enjoy
this nice fantastic technology without affecting their health.
So, thank you very much please create awareness to all your friends to all your neighbors
and try to convince government to adopt better radiation norm. So, that we have safe
country we have safe world.
Thank you very much. Bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 02
Lecture – 08
Dipole Antennas-I
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture. Now in the last lecture we had discussed about
antenna fundamentals, we saw how directivity can be calculated from half power beam
width, we also saw the link budget; how we actually have a transmit antenna, receive
antenna, and then what is the distance between them and depending upon the transmitted
power we can calculate what is the received power. And then we also looked at what are the
radiation norms in India and Abroad, and we found out that there are lot of radiation hazards
because of the over use of cell phone as well as to the people who are living next to the cell
tower, and it is also affecting birds, bees, animals, plants, trees, and environment also.
Now today we will talk about the fundamental antenna which is a Dipole Antenna. So, let us
start with the dipole antenna.
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In general we start with the infinitesimal dipole; the definition of infinitesimal dipole is that
λ
the length of the dipole should be less than 50 . So, if length is less than that then we
consider that as an infinitesimal dipole. And here what we are assuming, we are assuming an
infinitesimal current element which is actually means very small current element of length dl
and it has a uniform current which is I0; that is the amplitude but otherwise it is a sinusoidal
current depending upon whatever is the frequency. So, then we can actually define the
instantaneous current as I0 e jωt.
Basically, this current element is along the z direction. So, what we have access here the
dipole is placed at the origin, so this is an x axis this is a y axis and this is a z axis. And just to
mention again angle Φ is measured from this axis. So, anything component along this will be
resolved on this direction here and the angle θ is measured from z direction. So now, since the
current element is placed in the z direction we write this as a current in the z direction. And e
jωt
can be written as (cos ωt + jsin ωt ).
So, for this particular current, but I want to mention here that I disagree with a lot of books
which they claim this to be an infinitesimal dipole and they actually say that for infinitesimal
dipole we can assume that the current is uniform, but in a reality that is not a correct
assumption because current at the open end will always be equal to 0. Suppose if you feed
here than the current will be 0 here and then it will have a maximum value. But nevertheless
for the derivation purpose we will assume that this element is carrying a constant current.
So, please remember it is only for the derivation, but not the real thing. So, corresponding to
this current element we can actually find out what is the vector magnetic potential.
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So, this is how we can find the vector magnetic potential and since the current is in the z
direction we have only component which is Az and that is given by this one over here. And
since the length l which we have assumed is dl, very small and then that is integrated it will
become l, because current is uniform so I0 will come as it is. Now this is a z direction from
here we can find out the spherical coordinate Ar Aθ AΦ. So, from z we can actually say A z
will be cos θ, so we can actually look into this here. So, let us say any element which is in the
z direction, so then and this is the direction which is E r it is shown here e field, but think
about this as Ar then Ar can be found out simply by z component multiplied by cos θ. So, that
is the component which we can find out.
Then regarding the Eθ component; so Eθ component or in this case Aθ component can be

resolved now that will be sine θ and since it is going down a minus sign will come here. Now
here it is electric field, but for AΦ it will be perpendicular and AΦ will be in this direction
which is actually nothing but θ equal to 90 degree and cos 90 is equal to 0. So, hence the A Φ
component will be equal to 0.
So, once we know the A component vector magnetic potential then we can use the Maxwell’s
equation.
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And along with the waves equation we can find out what is the H field what is the E field;
and if we know E field as well as H field then we can find out what is power. So, power is
nothing but you can say double integration E cross H conjugate and that is the surface
integral.
1
P= ∬
2 s
( E × H ¿ )∙ ds
So, from here we can by using that equation or we can find out Er E θ and these are the
components which are 0 and these are here and HΦ.
Now I am just giving you this expression, you can see the details derivation of these
expressions in several books. I can just mention let us say the book of Balanis or Kraus and
other thing. So, I will get into the more of the concept part and you can see these derivations
in these books.
So now, I just want to bring to the next point here. If we see here this has a component in the
denominator which is r2 and here it is r. For Eθ the component in the denominator is r here
and then there is another are here, so r will multiplied by r will become r 2 and there is a r2 this
component will become r3. Now when we are designing antenna most of the time we are
concerned about far field radiation pattern. So, at far field we can assume that r is very large
and if r is very large then r2 will be extremely large, so this entire thing can be equated to 0 for
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far field. And for this particular case here this term and this term they can be ignored again at
power of a distance where r is very large.
Similarly for HΦ, so this has a 1/ r component this will be 1/r 2 component, so we can ignore
this particular term here. So, if we do that we can actually see far field pattern will be much
simpler, but from here we can also define various areas and these various areas are defined in
terms of the distance.
2π
So, if r is much smaller than λ/2 π . And this is coming basically because of the
λ
which is nothing but kr. So, actually speaking you should think about if kr is much less than 1
and k is nothing but 2 π /λ so it goes over here. So, if this is the condition applied and
over here also this region is defined into two different parts here; one is r less than λ/6 as 2π
is approximately 6. So, that is the near reactive field region, and from λ/6 to upto this distance
here that is known as near radiative region. And any distance which is more than this which is
2 d2
r greater than λ will be a far field region. And what is d? d is the maximum dimension
of the antenna. Now, one should also remember that far field region also implies r should be
much much greater than λ/2 π
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So, let just take some example here; suppose if we take an example of just let us say a λ/10
λ2
antenna which are dipole antenna. So, if I put here λ/10 so that will be the
100
quantity will be reduced to λ/50 . Now we cannot say that r greater than λ/50 will
satisfy far field region criteria, because we also have another criteria which is λ/2 π .
So, do not always go with this equation this equation along with this equation define far field
region. But however, especially for antenna which are very large suppose d is equal to 10 λ, if
d is 10 λ then this will be 200 λ. So, you can see that that will be very far away distance. So,
dimension plays very very important role. So that is why a many a times for larger antenna it
is very difficult to do the radiation pattern measurement within let us say an anechoic
chamber which is inside a room. So, for larger antenna invariably people do the measurement
in the either in the far field or at the open area.
Or many a times if we want to calculate far field region and if the distance is very large then
near field measurements are done and from the near field measurement far field can be
obtained/using the concept of Fourier transform; and that way we can get the far field
radiation pattern.
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So now let us just see; what are the different things here. So, I have used the term uniform
current, I am not mentioning here infinitesimal dipole because I do not agree that current will
go to 0 at the edges. But for a uniform current let us say; what are the far field region. So,
please see here this is k r much much greater than 1. So, we can now say there will be only
two components; one will be Eθ component another one is HΦ component. And if you really
look into over here what are the different terms; so η is nothing but free space impedance
which is equal to 120 π or equal to 377 ohm k is equal to 2π/λ. So, you can actually see that λ
is coming into picture so that 2π can be there and λ will be down below. So, it will be l/λ.
So, please remember for all the antennas in general it is always the normalized length which
is more important. And now you can see something interesting if you take the ratio of E θ/HΦ
you can see that most of the terms are similar except for η here. So, E θ/HΦ is equal to η which
is 120 π and this is impedance of free space; so that means a wave which is propagating in the
free space Eθ and HΦ will be perpendicular to each other; that means E plane and H plane will
be perpendicular to each other, and the impedance ratio will be equal to 120 π; let us first just
look at the radiation pattern for a dipole antenna. This is for infinitesimal dipole, so this is the
3-D plot and these are the plots in the H plane pattern and E plane pattern or we also call it
azimuthal. So now, just imagine that dipole antenna is over here. So, at this particular point
here we can actually think about a dipole antenna as a pen in my hand.
So, you can imagine that this dipole antenna is like a pen in my hand I will change the color.
Now, if you look at this pen from let say this direction what you see full length of the pen. If I
see from my said I see the full length, from your side if you see you see the full length of the
pen. So, if you actually look all around you will actually see the full length of the pen. Now
please apply this concept only to dipole antenna, do not try to apply for all and every other
antenna.
Now for this dipole antenna let say we are standing here we see the full length now as we
move along and if we see from the top all we really see is the tip of the pen; that means we
will see very little and as we move along we will start increasing little more. In fact, dipole
radiation pattern is very very similar to the way we look at this particular pen. So, the dipole
pattern will be uniform along this here which will be maximum and then it will go from
maxima will go to 0 then again it will go to 0 go to maxima.
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So, one can actually see now the pattern. So, here is the dipole antenna, so you can see that or
you can imagine a pen over here. So, we see the maximum intensity or over here maximum
radiation in this, and then as we move along we hardly see anything. So, this is the 0 radiation
in this side and then this is basically is repeating in this side. So, this is also known as a figure
of eight. However, this is just a one plane, in the one plane we are showing. And for H plane
pattern you can also think about again. If there is a current carrying conductor which is
placed in the z direction. So, where will be the magnetic field? Magnetic field will be given
by these fingers here. So, this is the, you can say electric dipole antenna current and the
magnetic field will be like this. So, that is why H field is uniform along this particular plane
here.
So now, let us just look at the 3-D pattern. So, here a red color implies maximum radiation
and then as you can move along this one here it almost becomes slightly blue which is the
least radiation zone. So, from red it is turning to orange, yellow, green, and blue. So, basically
intensity is reducing. So, this is the real 3-D plot of a infinitesimal dipole antenna, this is the
H plane pattern this is the E plane pattern also known as this one is known as azimuthal
pattern, this is known as elevation pattern.
I also want to mention infinitesimal antenna is not at all an efficient antenna. So, please do
not try to use infinitely small dipole antenna ever.
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Now let us just see a case of a small dipole antenna. Generally a small dipole antenna is
defined between λ/50 to λ/10. So, that is the length of the dipole antenna. Here again as
before x axis y axis dipole is placed along the z axis here and the current is again not assumed
uniform. Now, the current will be 0 over here and it will be maximum. So, if the dipole
antenna length is small this will be the triangular distribution. As the length increases
reaching to this, we can still think that it is a triangular distribution.
I just want to tell you if the length is increased further; for example, if the length becomes
λ/2. Now for λ/2 the variation will not be triangular, but it will be actually a perfect sinusoidal
waveform like this here. Why? If the length this is λ/2; that means, the current will satisfy the
boundary condition of 0, sinusoidal value here which is maximum and then it is going to 0
and that will be if we know that a sinusoidal waveform let say goes from 0 will go to a
maxima then go to 0 and then it will repeat the cycle. So, this distance from here to here will
be then λ/2 and from here to here will be if it is sinusoidal it will be λ/4.
So, when we discuss about a λ/2 dipole antenna will not be assuming a triangular distribution,
but we will be assuming a sinusoidal distribution, but any sinusoidal distribution for a shorter
distance can be approximated as a triangular distribution. So now, once it is a triangular
distribution, now we can write the current.
So, we can write the current now in the triangular distribution form. So, I 0 is not constant
anymore it is varying along the z direction. So, this is for 0 to l/2 and this is for minus l/2 to
117
0; that means, this is above origin and this is below origin or the central point there. And so
from here again we can find out the value of vector magnetic potential by integrating over the
length. However, just to make life very simple if we actually look at we are taking the
average over the length. So, we can actually assume very similar to what we had done for the
I0 I 0 /2
previous case except that now will become which is the average value of a
triangular distribution.
So, that is why Eθ, EΦ all the components remain the same, so the difference is only that now
I 0 is nothing but I 0/2, so earlier it was 4 π r now it is 8 π r. So, otherwise E θ Er remain
exactly the same as before. And then we can actually see also similarly HΦ component can be
there in between other components are 0, and from here if we take the ratio of the two we will
still get the equal value of η which is 120 π.
Now from here we can actually find out what is the radiation resistance, but before that we
can find out the power radiated. I will just go back to slides and the power radiated just to
tell. So, what is power radiated is nothing but I 02r/ 2; I will define what is r also, first just let
us look at what is power radiated. So, power radiated can be found out by using this
particular expression here, and since there is only one component now so (E × H ¿ ) will
2
actually be replaced by magnitude of E /η, because H is nothing but E/ƞ which is 125.
So, by using this we can find out what is power because we know what is E and H field; and
then power is now given by half I02 times Rr.
Now, what is this Rr? I just want to mention here that Rr is actually nothing but a radiation
resistance it is not a physical quantity at all, it is something like from circuit point of view.
When we say power radiated, power radiated from antenna point of view is a fantastic thing it
is radiating in the free space; that means antenna is radiating. But from circuit point of view
what we think the radiated power is actually a power lost. So, just a circuit representation is
2
that power loss can be represented as I r /2 .
So, that is the Rr is nothing but it is known as a radiation resistance, but this quantity is not a
physical quantity it is just a representation of radiated power which is considered as a loss
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power from circuit point of view. So, just by integrating that this term comes out to be 20 π2 l/
lambda2.
Now I just still want to go back a little bit over from here to the back side. Please remember
I0 2
this expression has a . Now here is the radiation resistance which is equal to
80 π 2 l/ λ , this is for uniform current. And now you might wonder why I did not talk about
this here, because in reality in no situation for a dipole antenna for very small dipole antenna
current will be 0 at the end and current will be maximum or triangular distribution. So, in
general you should not be using this formula at all, but you can actually say that this value is
about 4 times more than the expression which I showed you for a triangular distribution,
because I is here increased by 2 times because there it is triangular here it is uniform; so 2
times current increase means 4 times radiation resistance will increase.
But please do not use this particular expression even for infinitesimal dipole, I always
recommend people to use this particular expression over here. So, this is the expression to
calculate; what is the radiation resistance. So, I have taken a few example here: let us say if
the length is equal to λ/10 . So, if length is λ/10 we can substitute over here λ/10 ,
so this term will become actually approximately 1/100 . π2 is approximately 10, so 20 into
10 is 200 and by 100 will give rise to 2 ohm resistance.
Now that is a very small resistance, and if we try to feed this antenna with let us say a 50 ohm
line well you know that power radiated will be very less, most of the power will get reflected
back. So, just for the example I have taken l equal to λ/ 4 . Please remember λ/ 4 does
not fall under the category of small dipole, I have just taken this as an example to show you
what will happen if we use this expression here. So, if you use this expression for λ/4
simplify that comes out to be about 12.3 ohm. And just for as a discussion again if you think
length is equal to λ/2 ; that means if the length is increase by 2 times this should increase
by roughly 4 times, so that will become approximately 50 ohm.
But now this is the calculation for radiation resistance, but dipoles also have reactive
impedance. In fact, all the antennas have real part as well as reactive part. So, how do we
119
calculate the reactive part? So, for that what we will do will actually think about again a
dipole antenna and just to look at this here. Now there are two arms are there; there is a one
arm going up one arm is going down here, and this is actually has to be fed with the current
from here. So, what we really need is a, a current going in here which will be let say in this
direction and then the current will be going like this. And it has a reverse current here which
is going in this, so current will be flowing in this direction.
So, you can actually see that current flows over here and goes like this, and over here current
flows from here and goes up here. So, this one here really needs a balanced current here. So,
we need a source which has to have a balancing. Now for analysis point of view we can
actually think that if it is a symmetrical thing, so this is a plus here there is a minus. So, we
will try to analyze this portion over here. So, this portion will be nothing but equal to the
length will be now equal to l/2, and there is an open circuit here so we can think about a
transmission line which is an open circuit over here. So, by using this concept we can find out
what is the reactive part.
So, for that we will actually take this as a transmission line. The transmission line has a
characteristic impedance of Z0, length is l and it is terminated in a load Z L. For this
transmission line we know how to calculate input impedance. So, input impedance is given
by this particular expression here; I am sure most of you might have studied in
electromagnetic waves course or electromagnetic field for a transmission line one can find
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the input impedance. So, I will just take a few cases here: Z L equal to 0, what ZL equal to 0
implies here? This will be short circuit. So, if it is a short circuit we put Z L equal to 0 here, ZL
j Z 0 tan βl
equal to 0 here. So, this expression gets modified to .
Now this is the case which we are interested at this moment which is Z L equal to infinity.
Infinity means this is open circuit. So, right now in our case for a dipole antenna this tip is
Z 0 / j tan βl
open circuit. For that we can calculate Zinput is given by . You can actually put
ZL equal to infinity here ZL equal to infinity here. So, in terms of infinity this will be
negligible and again in terms of infinity this term will be negligible. So, these two will be
negligible, what we will left with is infinity divided by j infinity tan βl and that is the
term coming over here. Now if ZL is equal to 0 that is what we would like from antenna point
of view the load impedance should be equal to characteristic impedance in that particular case
we can say that if you put Z L equal to Z0 here this numerator and denominator will be same
Zinput will be equal to Z0, which is not dependent on the length of the antenna.
So, what is β here? It is equal to 2 π /λ . I just want to highlight here that many books use β
or some books use k also so k is equal to β is equal to 2 π /λ . So, let us just take a case
when length is less than λ/4, because we know that we are talking about its small dipoles. So,
length will be definitely less than that. So, for this λ/4 if you put here β is 2 π /λ this will
be λ/4; that means, tan βl will be always positive. And if it is always positive; that means
for short circuit if this term is positive this can be written as z input equal to jωl ; that
means it will be an inductor. That means, any small transmission line which is shorted at the
end will represent inductor.
And for open circuit Z L is infinity. So, that we can see from here if it is infinity and this is
positive, this will be capacitive. That means, a open circuit line here which is small will have
a capacitive thing. So, a small dipole antenna will actually in a reality will have or the small
radiation resistance along with a capacitance which is associated with this transmission line.
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So, we will continue from here in the next lecture, where we will see that how λ/2 dipole
antenna is designed, how we can actually even use higher order modes of dipole antenna,
how to calculate the half power beam width of the dipole antenna, and then folded dipole
antenna.
Thank you very much; we will see you next time.
122
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
India Institute of Technology, Bombay
Module – 2
Lecture – 09
Dipole Antennas–II
Hello, and welcome to today's lecture on Dipole Antenna. In the last lecture we had started
talking about dipole antenna, we took an example of infinitesimal dipole antenna, which I had
actually said that instead of considering that as infinitesimal dipole let us assume that to be a
uniform current because no matter how small the dipole is current will never ever be uniform
it will be always 0 at the end. So, we did the derivation assuming just an imaginary current
carrying conductor which has a uniform current along the length.
Then from that we had actually calculated various far field expression and we also looked at
the criteria for far field distance. So, one of the criteria is r should be greater than 2 d 2/λ
where d is the maximum dimension, but please do not use that only, there is another condition
that r must be much larger than λ/2π. So, I generally say the criteria should be r greater than
2 d 2 /λ or r should be greater than λ whichever has a higher value. So, that should be far
field criteria.
And then we saw that the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna is nothing but very similar to
the way we look at a pen. So, maximum radiation or maximum intensity we see a
perpendicular to this here. So, just like a pen we see a maximum and then if we go on the top
we see 0. So, the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna is nothing but 0 here maximum. So, it
makes a figure of 8 like this here and it has a uniform pattern which is known as the azimuth
pattern, this is known as elevation pattern.
Then from infinitesimal dipole antenna we looked at the finite dipole antenna or a still small
dipole antenna whose length should be less than λ/10 we found out how to calculate the
radiation resistance, and then we also looked at how we can use a transmission line concept
to find out the reactive part.
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So, let us continue from here we look into the concept where we left in the last lecture. So,
here is a transmission line which is terminated in load impedance for this we can calculate
what is the input impedance. We look at the 3 different cases, but now let us focus on this
particular case here which is ZL equal to infinity for this is the case where we will have an
open circuit here. So, that is what it would be dipole element which is open circuited at the
end.
So, for this case input impedance is given by this expression and we saw that for open circuit
then Zin is capacitive provided length is less than λ/4, but let us see what happens if length
becomes more than λ/4 and please recall this is the half wavelength we are talking about half
of the dipole, full length will be double of that. So, less than λ/4 means l will be or the total
length of the dipole will be λ/2.
If suppose if it is more than that then what really happens - in that particular case we
substitute the value and this is the half-length is between λ/4 to λ/2 then in that case tan β l
will be substitute the tan β l is nothing but 2 π /λ into l which is here than tan β
will be negative. So, in this particular situation for open circuit it will become a inductive
impedance. So, please remember now for a small dipole antenna Z input will be capacitive
along with the radiation resistance for larger dipole antenna this term become negative it may
become inductive.
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So, from this now, let us talk about half wavelength dipole. So, for a half wave dipole again
we can do the same process find the vector magnetic potential; integrate over the length from
that find out the far field pattern. So, I have just given here the expression for far field pattern
Eθ and HΦ; will see how the pattern varies for different lengths. But now the directivity of the
dipole antenna, for half wavelength the numeric value is about 1.643 which is equal to 2.1 dB
and for a very small dipole antenna this value is nothing but d 0 equal to 1.5. So, for small
dipole it is 1.5 as the dipole length increases to λ/2 then it becomes 1.6 or which is 2.1 dB.
Now as far as the input impedance is concerned, the dipole radiation resistance is nothing but
73 ohm. Now if you have read several books they actually say that input impedance for λ/2
dipole antenna is 73 + j42.5 and they still call it a resonant length λ/2, well that is not really
correct. If the dipole is a resonant configuration then the impedance should be real that is
how we define a resonance condition. Resonance condition is where reactive part becomes
equal to 0 so, but for λ/2 dipole antenna this impedance is 73+j45.5.
So, where is the problem? where are the issues? The issue is that when the length is equal to
λ/2 dipole antenna. So, what will be the half length? Half length will be λ/4. So, let just go
back and see that dipole antenna configuration first.
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So, what is really happening? So, we can see that over here when there is a dipole there are
fringing fields associated with this, now because of the fringing field effective length of the
dipole antenna is slightly more than the physical length of the dipole antennas and that is the
reason when the physical length is slightly less than the effective length. So, what happens
then? Half the length is λ/4. So, effectively because of the fringing field that length becomes
greater than λ/4, effective length, and if the effective length is greater than λ/4 which I was
talking about here then the transmission line represents basically the capacitive will become
inductive because it is now negative. So, that is why input impedance of a λ/2 dipole antenna
is inductive.
So, what has actually happened in the process? As we were increasing the length of the dipole
antenna, so it was initially capacitive then it became real and then it became inductive. So,
from capacitance to the real value to the inductive values, so really speaking what is
happening that this effective length is slightly more than the λ/2 and; that means, effective
half length is more than λ/4 which is giving rise to this imaginary term. So, if you want the
imaginary part to be 0; that means, antenna length should be reduced in such a way that
effective length becomes λ/2; that means, physical length should be slightly less than λ/2, so
that the total length including the fringing field will become λ/2 and if that is the case then
input impedance becomes real.
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So, let us see now how we can design a dipole antenna. So, please remember now what was
this here l equal to λ/2 which is equal to 0.5 λ. Now in all these derivation we had ignored the
diameter of the dipole antenna, all the dipole antenna will have a finite diameter. So, here is a
very very simple thing to design. So, l+d which is the length of the dipole plus d which is the
diameter of the dipole should be equal to 0.48 λ, you can see that this term is slightly less
than 0.5 λ and this is because we have fringing field. So, account for the fringing field. So, if
you take this particular expression then that will give us length equal to approximately the
effective length will be approximately equal to λ/2 and that particular point then for this value
the real input impedance will be there and approximately that value will be about 68 ohm
which is slightly less than 73. So, we will now see the different configurations now.
So, let see current distribution for different dipole length. So, here is a dipole length which is
equal to λ/4 and λ/4 total dipole length means half length will be λ/8. So, that is still
approximated as a triangular distribution. When the length is λ/2 then half will be λ/4, so will
have a sine wave going from here 0 to maximum and coming back to 0.
When the length is equal to λ, for λ the plot will is given by, so this is the λ here will be
means this will be λ/2 this will be λ/2. So, there is a half wavelength variation here and
another half wavelength variation here and if the length increases so will be the more number
of current variations along this. But just to tell you practically we do not use dipole antennas
which are much larger than the wavelength here.
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So, this is how the radiation pattern varies of a dipole antenna for different lengths. Here I
have shown the radiation pattern and by the way these curves have been taken from the
Balanis book. So, I just want to mention here that this length is, let say the total length is λ/50
that is shown as dotted line. So, that is the current variation for that will be along this here
this is the radiation field in E plat pattern and that is how it looks like and for this case half
power beam width is about 90 °.
So, let us look why that is the case - see we saw that the radiation pattern variation for E field
was given by the term sinθ was there. So, if you look at sinθ, θ is measured from here. So,
sign 0 will be equal to 0 so that is the 0 radiation, θ term then θ equal to 90 sin90 will be
1
equal to 1, so that is the maximum radiation here.Now sin45 ° will be equal to √ 2 so
1
that is the sin45 °. So, that is where on a 45 ° means also implying √ 2 implies half power.
So, half power means half power beam width is not defined between this and on the other
side the same thing. So, 45 and 45 will become 90 °. So, that is why 3 dB beam width is 90 °
for small dipole antennas.
Now as the dipole length increases one can see that now the pattern is slightly narrower. So,
narrower pattern would mean beam width is now slightly reduced 87 °. So, for λ/2 half power
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beam width is 78 ° and as we keep on increasing this is for λ half power beam width is about
47.8 you can actually see that this is a much narrower beam here.
So, one can actually see that from here to here to here to here if we are increasing the length
beam width is becoming smaller that would mean gain is increasing and we know that gain is
directly proportional to the aperture. So, if the length is increasing gain should increase
correspondingly half power beam width should reduce. Now in all these cases we actually
notice that the there is only one beam over here.
Whereas for the next case we will show you that is when the dipole length is equal to 1.25 λ
in this case there is another minor lobe which has come in between. So, just recall up to l
equal to λ this pattern was from here maxima it was going to 0, but now for this here there is
a side lobe is also coming and since everything is symmetrical with respect to this here, if you
just look at this pattern here, you can actually repeat that on this side and repeat on this side
and this side.
And this is the 2-D pattern this is the three dimensional pattern. So, you can see that the beam
is maxima then it is going to 0 then in between a side lobe comes and then comes back over
here. So, this is the pattern.
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Now why did I show this pattern? There is a reason for that because for this particular pattern
we actually get maximum directivity. So, what is this curve here? Well you can see multiple
curves here I will go one by one. So, what we have here along the x axis that is a dipole
length in terms of wavelength. So, that is a normalized dipole length so; that means, 0.5 here
means length will be λ/2, here length will be λ, here length will be 1.5 λ and so on. Now why
did I show the case of the case which is a 1.25 λ? So, when length is equal to 1.25 λ you can
see that directivity is maximum. So, this is the curve for the directivity.
Now the values of directivity are shown over here this is the dimensionless. So, 1.5 or 2 here
log 10 (1.5) log 10

you have to actually take in terms of dB we have to take 10 or 10 (2).
So, corresponding to this here you can see that this value is approximately equal to 1.5 so;
that means, for very small dipole antenna directivity is equal to 1.5 as this one is increasing.
Now, corresponding to λ/2 length you can see that this is slightly more than 1.5 which is
somewhere coming here and we saw that the directivity of a dipole antenna is approximately
equal to 1.64 of course, in terms of dB it will be 10 log 10 (1.64) which is equal to 2.1 dB.
Now corresponding to this here you can see that the directivity is increasing. So, maximum
directivity is obtain which is equal to 3.25 you can say that that is more than double than a
small dipole antenna, but after that the directivity keeps on decreasing and then increasing it
varies because mainly what is happening that many other side lobes are coming in between.
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So, in reality even though we are increasing the length of the dipole antenna considerably
directivity is not at all increasing. So, that is why higher order modes of dipole antennas are
almost never used.
Now what are the other curves here? So, another curve let us just look at is a radiation
resistance curve. So, here is a radiation resistance curve and you can see that it is very very
small, just recall for a small dipole antenna I had given the expression which is 20 π 2
multiplied by l/λ whole2 , 20 π 2 can be approximated as 200. So, 200 times l/λ2. So, you can
see that when l/λ is approximately equal to 1 you can see that this value is getting closer to
200 ohm. So, you can see here of course, it is not perfect because that l/λ2 assumed that it is a
triangular distribution, but in reality there will be a sinusoidal variation. So, do not use that
formula all the time. So, this is the variation for R r you can see that these values are also
changing and as I mentioned very rarely we use these modes. So, we really need to look into
this here.
Now then what is this third curve here? That is R input (Rin). So, Rinput curve you can see that
Rinput curve is almost similar to Rr as long as the dipole length is small, but then Rinput changes
here and when the dipole length is approximately 1.5 λ, R in is equal to Rr. So, what is the
reason for that? Actually for that you have to see the current distribution, so let me just show
you the current distribution first. So, one can actually see again I will go back. So, this is the
λ/4, so you can see that the current is maximum, how do we find radiation resistance?
In general we can say resistance is nothing but voltage divided by current. So, that is the
current here. So, here also current is maximum, but at this point what is the current here
current is going close to 0. So, voltage divided by 0 current here will give rise to very high
impedance, and this current distribution is for λ length and this will be λ/2 this will be. So, for
l equal to λ, current is approximately equal to 0 and that is why input impedance is going to
be very large.
Now, again for let us say the length when it is equal to 1.5 λ then the current is maxima hear.
So, since the current is maxima Rin is similar to Rr. So, one can see that when we are feeding
a dipole antenna let us say if it is a λ/2 dipole antenna we can see R in will be very similar to
Rr, but the imaginary part that, but at close to this one here length equal to 1 you can see that
the input impedance becomes very very high here and then it changes here, now this is about
the real part, what about the imaginary part.
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So, for imaginary part you have to think about that transmission line concept which I had
mentioned to you. So, up to here to here, the whole impedance will be capacitive then it will
become inductive then again becomes capacitive and so on and so forth. I will give you the
plot which we have simulated for different dipole antenna will explain you this part again.
So, here is the case here, we have taken just a simulation of plot dipole antenna. So, instead
of taking a wire which will have a diameter here we have taken a plot dipole antenna and that
is in air. So, we have a one strip here, one strip here, this simulation has been done using
IE3D software which is available from mentor graphics. So, here for simulation there are 2
segments are there - one segment here, one segment here. It is being fed with +1 and -1 which
basically is giving me a balanced current here. So, from this side if I feed things like this is
plus and this will be minus. So, we have taken length as 50 mm, 50 mm total length will be
about 100 mm; width of this trip has been taken as 4 mm and gap is taken as 2 mm.
Now, for this one here one can see that there is a, this is the resonance curve here. So, we can
actually see that there is a resonance over here and that is what is showing as the reflection
coefficient plot here and generally we define bandwidth for S 11 less than -10 dB. Now this is
approximately equal to corresponds to VSWR equal to 2 to a -10 dB reflected power
basically implied reflected power will be equal to 10%. So, one can see that the bandwidth
for this antenna is from 1.39 to 1.54 GHz. So, what you need to do it is you just look at the
S11 less than -10 dB draw the horizontal line and then read the lines from here and that will
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give us the bandwidth. So, this is the bandwidth is about 150 MHz which is about
10%bandwidth.
But now let us just see how the curve is varying with frequency. So, this is the lowest
frequency and frequency is increasing. So, now, if you are familiar with the smith chart I will
just repeat one more time. So, this is the 0 impedance then impedance increases along this
line it is a real impedance was 0 ohm, 10 ohm, 20, at the center it becomes 50 and then it
becomes infinity here; the upper portion represents inductive part, the lower portion
represents capacitive part.
So, now, one can see that as frequency increases at very low frequency this dimension will
become much lesser than λ. So, this is equivalent to something like λ/50 or more at a lower
frequency. So, that is how the variation is. So, you can see that the impedance here
corresponding to this point is very low if you look at this point also here impedance is
relatively low. So, as the frequency increases impedance is increasing, but it is still
capacitive.
So, this is the point where it is crossing the real axis and then the impedance becomes
inductive. At this point here which is actually the second order mode theoretically it should
have been infinity, but it is actually very large and that point corresponds to over here. Now
this is where the third order mode is coming into picture, so you can see that this is the
frequency which is let us say approximately 1.5 and the third order mode is coming
approximately at 4.5. So, that is the third order mode second order mode impedance is very
high. So now let us see; what are the radiation patterns at different frequencies.
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So, now I have shown the radiation pattern at 3 different frequencies and I will tell you why
also. So, this is the radiation pattern at 1.5 GHz and that is the pattern which is of a λ/2 dipole
antenna at this frequency it is acting like a λ/2. So, you can see that this is the position of the
dipole maximum radiation is perpendicular to this side here and minimum radiation which is
represented by a blue color is in this direction. So, as we move from here to this side here
which is maxima then you can see that the color is changing from blue to green to yellow to
orange and red - red representing the maximum power.
Here we have actually shown the simulated plot here. So, one can see that this is the
simulated plot going on. I just want to highlight here this is the plot directivity and not the
gain, so it is a directivity plot. I had mentioned to you the gain plot will be directivity
multiplied by efficiency and gain also includes the VSWR reflection also.
So, here it is simply directivity and one can actually see that the directivity is increasing this
is very similar to the directivity curve I have shown and we can see that the directivity is
approximately 4.8 dB and that is at 3.75 GHz where dipole length becomes 1.25 λ and let us
see the plot over here. So, we had seen that for 1.25 λ maximize here then it comes to 0 value,
then there is a side lobe and then it comes here. So, you can see that it is following the similar
thing maxima, then reducing the color changes to 0 which is bluish, then greenish and then
coming back over here you can see a little blue dot over there so it is coming down to 0 value
here.
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Now, this is the pattern for third order mode. We saw that 1.5 is λ/4, half wavelength, λ/2 is
the full length and this is the 3 λ/2 lengths at triple the frequency. Remember length we have
kept fixed we are only changing the frequency, so by changing the frequency λ is changing
and hence l/ λ is changing. So, you can see that for this particular frequency the radiation
pattern is not even maximum at perpendicular to the dipole axis it is actually a more like a
conical pattern over here. So, so you can see that a cone is being formed.
So, dipole is in this here. So, in this side here along the axis the radiation is still close to 0,
but it is actually making a cone. So, if we require a conical pattern then only we should really
be using third order mode you can also see that the gain is not very significant.
So, here is an example where I have taken an example of a printed dipole antenna, what we
have done is we have printed this dipole antenna on a very low cost FR4 substrate this is
actually known as also a glass epoxy substrate we use a dielectric constant of 4.4. Typically
FR4 substrate dielectric constant may vary from 3.8 up to 4.6. So, this is the substrate which
we have. So, 4.4 we took the thickness of the substrate as 1.6 mm.
Now since it is a low cost lossy substrate tanδ is high which is 0.02, but it is not affecting too
much in this particular case because there is no backing here. So, this substrate when we print
on the substrate it is only printed on the one side of the substrate other side is blank or there is
a no metal on the other side. So, when you look at the magnetic field which will be around
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this here. So, most of the magnetic field will be in the air only the part of the magnetic will be
confined within this substrate parameter.
So, effectively efficiency is still pretty good here and here I have taken exactly the same
dimension as before, but because of the presence of the substrate part of the magnetic field
and electric field will be confined within the substrate here. So, one can see that the
resonance frequency has reduced slightly. So, basically length remains same, εeffective has
changed earlier for air, εeffective was equal to 1. Now εeffective because of the presence, no, it is not
εeffective here is not equal to 4.4, 4.4 substrate is there only for this thickness and the rest
everything is air. So, hence εeffective is still close to about 1.1 to 1.2 and correspondingly then
εeffective (εe) is reduced.
So, which actually changes the λ, λ becomes now λ0 / √ ε e , λ0 is nothing but c/f. So, that is
why frequency is reduced slightly and here we are getting about a bandwidth of roughly 140
MHz.
Now in the next lecture we will see how we can increase the bandwidth of the dipole antenna.
So, will take different examples, we will actually see that the bandwidth of the dipole antenna
is proportional to its diameter or the strip thickness, will also see what are the other
techniques for the dipole antenna, then we will also study a few other things like how to do
the Balun design because most of the feed are coaxial feed for example, then from coaxial
feed we have to get a balanced line which should feed plus and minus. So, that is where the
concept of balun comes into picture. Balun – b a l is for balance, u n is for unbalanced.
So, balanced to unbalanced concept come. So, we will tell you how to even design very
simple balun also so that you can realize it very efficiently. Then we will also look at how to
design folded dipole antenna.
Thank you very much. Bye.
136
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 2
Lecture - 10
Dipole Antennas-III
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Dipole Antenna. In the last few lectures we have
been talking about dipole antenna. So, we started with the infinitesimal dipole antenna, then
we talked about small dipole antenna, then we talked about λ/2 dipole antenna and also larger
length dipole antenna. And we had actually seen that let say if this is a dipole then the
magnetic field is around this which is actually something very similar to a current carrying
conductor which has a magnetic field around it. So, this is the magnetic field. And the electric
field we had seen that on the top it is close to 0 and it has a maximum radiation in this
direction. So, we have a figure of eight coming like this here and going like here.
And since we define radiation pattern as well as polarization in terms of E-plane, so in this
case E-plane is going like this here. So, that is the E-plane, so that is why a dipole antennas
are also known as vertically polarized antenna, but that is only if you keep as a vertical.
Suppose if the dipole is kept like this, now this is not a vertically polarized antenna now it is
horizontally polarized antenna because E-field will be like this maximum and going here and
H plane will be around this here. So, orientation of dipole is also very very important.
Then we saw that the directivity of a λ/2 dipole antenna is approximately 2 dB or 2.1 dB to be
more precise. And we also notice that has as you increase the length of the dipole antenna
directivity increases, but the radiation pattern does not always remain in the perpendicular or
normal direction to the dipole antenna. In general try to avoid using higher automotive dipole
antenna, in fact if you want a higher gain it is better to use arrays of the dipole antenna. So,
let us say we can have a one dipole like this; maybe we can have another dipole antenna like
this, so that you can use an array of dipole antenna to increase the gain of the antenna.
Then from the dipole antenna we looked at the printed dipole antenna, where the instead of
using a circular diameter dipole antenna we used a flat strip dipole antenna. And then we
looked at two different simulations; one was the strip in the air and then printed dipole
antenna on an electric substrate. So, let us continue from here today.
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So, we had actually left at this particular point where we had this printed dipole antenna
which was printed on a very low cost FR4 substrate. And this is the smith chart plot here and
I just want to go through it one more time. This is the lower frequency, at lower frequency we
can see that it is capacitive, and then it becomes real, then it becomes inductive, then it
becomes capacitive. Basically up to this point is length is less than λ/2, then this is up to
about λ and then another resonant is coming which is around when the length is about 3 λ/2.
So, this is the first resonance and this is the third harmonic. For second harmonic which have
seen that that the input impedance is very high so that is why it is not very prominent.
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Now, we can actually increase the bandwidth of the dipole antenna by increasing the
diameter. So, bandwidth of the dipole antenna is directly proportional to its diameter where
this is the diameter of the dipole antenna. However, we cannot keep on increasing the
diameter of the dipole antenna to a very large value and there is a limit to the absolute
maximum value of the dipole antenna diameter.
The reason for that is we are assuming that the current is let us say if it is a sinusoidal current
we are assuming this is 0 this is maxima and this is 0, but at that point we are assuming that
the current is uniform along the diameter. But if the diameter is large; suppose just think
about that if the diameter is large; that means circumference will be large and if
circumference is large then what will happen, assuming that circumference becomes almost
as high as say λ. If it is λ then the field variation will be than 0 plus 0 minus 0 and then the
entire variation will be there. So, absolute maximum can be where diameter becomes equal to
circumference which is absolutely avoidable should never be used. So, from that only we
generally say that the diameter of the dipole antenna always should be less than λ/10, so that
the resonant does not happen across the diameter.
Please remember we can only increase the dipole diameter to absolute maximum to be λ/10.
Now, instead of using a solid cylinder here we can also use a hollow pipe. That means, if we
use a thick cylinder that will have a very large weight, instead of using a thick cylinder if we
use a hollow pipe of the same diameter, but then the weight will be reduced. In fact, in
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general if you take a hollow pipe or you take a solid cylinder there is hardly any change in the
performance.
Now if we really want to increase the bandwidth further, so one of the other option is instead
of using a cylindrical dipole antenna we can actually use a conical shape dipole and since
there are 2 cones are there it is known as a Bi-conical dipole antenna. In fact, the bi-conical
dipole antenna can be designed for extremely large bandwidth. The only problem is if you
use cylinders like this here or conical cylinder like that the weight will become real problem.
And also balancing these things and trying to put into the actual implementation becomes
difficult. So, many times a wire grid is also used to design these things.
Now instead of actually spending more time on the dipole antenna I will focus more on the
monopole antenna. The reason for that is all these dipole antennas require balanced feed.
Now in general however, from let say microwave generator the field which is available is
more like a single feed. So, we always have to design a single feed to balance or unbalance to
balance network we have to design.
So, let just look into the different configurations which have been used. So, we use a Balun
which is balance to unbalance design. So, here we have a coaxial feed, which needs to be
connected to the dipole antenna. And in between we can see that a lot of things have to be
done, so this is the coaxial feed which is going. So, the outer conductor is connected over
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here centre conductor is connected over here, but in between the we have to add another
portion which is λ/4, because a λ/4 short circuit here will act as a open circuit.
Instead of using this kind of a concept one can use at different concept also, but all of these
things make things very very complicated.
And we will just see some more configurations also. So, here is a another configuration
where this is known as a Sleeve or Bazooka Balun, and in this case again also what is being
done that this is the coaxial which is going over here the outer is connected over here centre
is connected there, but in between a metallic sleeve has been added here of length λ/4 and
which is shorted here, so that the short will act as an open circuit.
Then another option is to use Ferrite Core Balun; now all of these things make design and
even the construction and the cost expensive. So, that is why a many a times people prefer to
use a dipole antenna, instead of dipole antenna people prefer to use monopole antenna, in
monopole antenna we require only single feed and the ground plane will act as a ground one.
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But however, we will actually talk about one very very simple way to design a Microstrip
Balun. So, here what we have done this is a dipole antenna which is printed on a FR4
substrate it is a lossy substrate and a very low cost substrate.
So, what is done here that on the upper side of the substrate this is fabricated which is half of
the λ/2 length which is approximately λ/4. And then the other side of the substrate this one
other half of the dipole is connected. And on the bottom side you can see that there is a
triangular thing here which acts as a ground plane for the top feed which is coming like this
here. So, basically now this is the point where we connect a coaxial connector so that
greenish color shows the back side. So, that will be ground plane connector will be connected
centre pin will be connected here and this thin line which is on the top side. And on the
bottom side also this taper thing becomes now the flat strip here.
Basically we have a strip of both under that substrate and above the substrate. So, one of
them is connected here another one is connected there. And we have done the simulation
using IE3D. And one can actually see that this is the reflection coefficient plot and we have
designed this antenna for GSM900 band which is from 890 to 960 MHz. And one can see that
over here S 11 less than minus 10 dB bandwidth is from 881 to 967. So, one can actually see
that this covers 890. So, we have a margin of a 9 MHz on one side and roughly margin of 7
MHz on other side. So, we can say that roughly 1 percent margin is there on both the side.
And that is an important thing to design because if you keep a margin then there can be
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substrate parameter tolerances, there may be fabrication tolerances. So, it is always a good
idea to design little bit more broadband antenna than the desired frequency.
So, we will show you some more variations of this. So, over here what I have done is this is
actually known as there are different names we can give: first name which I have actually
written as I dipole. So, if you look at here it looks like an I configuration. This is also known
as a top loaded dipole antenna. So, why do we do that? Well it has a small advantage
compared to the previous configuration that now the total length is reduced. In the previous
configuration we will just go back here and show you the total length was 127 mm now the
total vertical length is about 100 mm. So, you can say that the total vertical length has
reduced, but however we have added this length over here. In fact, the total length will be
something like this here and the effective loading because of this. In fact I have just added 2
strips, many a times people also use or offer especially for a normal dipole they even use a
circular plate over here which is known as then again top loaded dipole antenna.
So, here you can see that total length here is 24 mm and this is about now 100 mm. You can
correlate now earlier the total length was about 127 so the total length is reduced. Now this is
the input impedance plot for the previous case and this one here is the input impedance plot
for the loaded case. So, you can see that this one here top loaded has slightly better matching
it is more closer to 50 ohm line compared to this here.
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So, you can see that there is a little more dip in this one here, and because the curve has
shifted up, there will be little more frequency values within the VSWR 2 circle. So, you can
see that the bandwidth is slightly increased. Now, bandwidth can be increased further also.
As I had mentioned that one can use a conical dipole antenna, but here instead of using a
conical dipole we have just used more like a triangular dipole here. So, over here also the
total vertical length is now small because instead of 127 it is about 110. The reason why now
the length is reduced that it is not the vertical length only which is important, current will
actually flow in the outer region here. So, it is the slant length which is now more important
compared to just the vertical length over here. And by doing this over here we also got a little
more bandwidth also. So, this is the reflection coefficient plot.
And one can see that for less than 10 dB the bandwidth is now from 877 to 997. So, you can
see that now we have almost 19 MHz margin on this side and we have about 17 MHz. So,
now, we have 2 percent of margin on both the sides. So, this can actually take care of
fabrication tolerances in a much better way. Or one can think that 890 to 960 is the
requirement. So, one can actually see that this is 900, so 890 to 960. Instead of getting a
reflection coefficient less than 10 dB now we will get a reflection coefficient less than minus
12 dB; that means reflected power will be better.
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Now instead of using a normal dipole antenna one can also use a folded dipole antenna. And
the reason why we use folded dipole antenna in fact, this one actually can increase the input
impedance of a dipole antenna. Now we had seen that just for a simple dipole antenna like
this here if you feed over here then this particular thing can actually be leading to a 73 plus j
42.5 impedance that will be if the length is λ/2, but I had mentioned that do not take this
length physical length to be λ/2; I have told you that the effective length will be larger than
the physical length.
So, generally speaking for this one here we should use the formula which is l plus d equal to
0.48 λ. Then you might wonder then what should we do for the flat dipole antenna which we
have done, because there is a no diameter over here there is a simple width here. So here you
can use a small approximation. So, for a dipole antenna what is circumference?
Circumference is equal to πd and here you can say that width is equivalent to circumference.
So, when you want to use that concept of l plus d equal to 0.48 λ then that d which is coming
over here you can actually say that d is related to circumference which is equal to π d and
circumference is approximately equal to w. So, from this you can calculate d and then use the
formula to find out or design the parameters of the dipole antenna.
So, over here then we should actually take this particular thing length as a 0.48 λ which will
be l plus d. So, for that impedance will be then approximately 68 ohm, but now suppose we
want for some application higher input impedance, and I will tell you also the application
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where these were used where we need higher input impedance. So, in that case a folded
dipole antenna can be used, and by using a fold here the input impedance actually which is
given by voltage by current that increases by N2.
For example, we have taken an example of 2 fold here. So, for 2 fold input impedance will
become 4 times the input impedance of a dipole antenna. In fact, this has shown just the real
part here, but that will be valid at the center point. So, for let us say the impedance equal to
68 ohm then you multiply that by 4. So, that will be the dipole antenna input impedance at
resonance frequency, but off resonance frequency this term will become complex number.
Now earlier the application where this particular concept was being used and that was been
used as a Yagi-Uda antenna. Yagi-Uda antenna basically has a folded dipole antenna then it
has a reflector behind this and it actually has multiple directors in this particular direction.
And this was being used earlier a several decades back you can say for TV reception, because
at those times a TV receptions were mainly done a typically only a TV will be there and that
TV will have a output which is 300 ohm balance line and then that will go up to the top of the
roof where these Yagi-Uda antenna will be connected and it will go connect the center of the
folded dipole antenna. So, that balance feed actually had a characteristic impedance of 300
ohm and you can actually see that 4 multiplied by 68 or 70 ohm is very close to 300 ohm.
So, it was actually a very popular configuration during those days. But however, there are
some applications if we require a larger input impedance, I will show you one of the example
also where we use this particular concepts if you add more arms here this will increase by N2.
So, suppose if we use one more fold; that means 3 fold dipole antenna then impedance will
increase by 32 which will be 9 times this here.
Now here also we can do a few additional thing also, instead of just increasing by 4 times
suppose we need to increase by slightly more than 4 times then the trick is if you use this
diameter slightly less than this diameter. So, we know that if the diameter is small then the
impedance will be large. So, if we use a thin one here compared to this one here then this
impedance will be slightly more than 4 times, whereas if this diameter is larger than this
diameter here then the input impedance will be slightly less than 4 time.
So, one can control the impedance by designing these dimensions properly. However, this
whole thing actually assumes that this connecting length is negligible or it is close to 0, but in
reality there will always be some physical dimension. In fact, I just want to bring your
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attention to something different also. If you look at this carefully doesn’t it look like it is a
loop antenna? So, it actually is a loop antenna. So, when I talk about loop antenna then I will
take this particular example one more time and I will show you that this whole thing can also
be analyzed like a loop antenna, and then this particular dimension plays a very important
role.
So, when we discuss about a loop antenna we will actually show you that the loop dimension
should be approximately equal to λ. In fact, it is kind of similar here if this length is λ/2 and
this is also λ/2 and if this is negligible then the total loop length will be equal to λ, but if this
is increasing then these dimensions have to be reduced. So, that the total loop length is
approximately equal to λ. So, when we talk about loop antenna we will bring this particular
thing one more time and we will show you what can be done with this.
So, now I will show you some other applications of dipole antenna. The conventional
applications are known, we know that a dipole antenna is to be used let us say as a
transmitting antenna or receiving antenna or dipole antenna have been used in an arrays to
actually design a high gain antenna. Dipole antennas have been used in Yagi-Uda antenna to
design a directional high gain antenna. Dipole antennas are also used in log periodic antenna
to obtain ultra-broadband antenna. Modification of dipole for example, a conical dipole can
be used for broadband application.
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But now some other applications are also emerging of dipole antenna, so I have given a
slightly different application then the conventional one here. Here is an application for RFID.
Now RFID here the design is shown more for RFID band just to tell you there is a UHF band
for RFID also. So, in India the band which has been given is around 866 MHz, whereas in
other countries the band is actually between 915 to 935 MHz, but there are RFIDs also
available in the frequency range of 13.56 MHz or 125 kilohertz and so on. But here is an
RFID example which is designed for let us say around 866 MHz or 820 MHz small
dimensions will change.
And this particular thing is actually fitted I have just shown it expanded view, but it is
actually is fitted on let us say of visiting card which is the small visiting card and we need to
fit the antenna. So, let just say here let just take a rough frequency of say 900 MHz. At 900
MHz wavelength will be equal to 33 cm. So, half wavelength will be roughly equal to 16 cm.
Now you cannot have a 16 cm length which will fit in a visiting card. So, what is actually
done? You can actually bend them around. So, this length here on one side will be roughly
λ/4 and this length is also roughly λ/4.
So, one can actually twist and turn them around so the total length should be roughly equal to
λ/4, but it is actually my experience that this length should be slightly more than λ/4 because
of all these bends. And the bends can be used in whatever fashion you need to do it. In fact, it
all depends upon where and how you need to fit the RFID antenna. So, you can actually go
like this here or you can actually go straight like this, then come back here then go over here,
maybe you can go bend like this, you can make it as small as possible. Or you can use in a
circular waveform also like this here; you can make it in the elliptical shape.
Or the idea is that it can fit in suppose you want to put this RFID on a circular shape which
could be something like this. So, then we can even start put the chip in the center here and
then we can go around, you can go like this here, like this here, the other one can go around.
You can make whatever shape you want to do. Of course, optimizations of these shapes are
important because efficiency of the antenna does depend upon how these things are bent.
You can even think about this here, let us say the current is 0 here and current is plus
maximum here. So, this plus maximum goes over here, over here and then here. Now this is a
plus here and this is also a plus here, but this current is going down this current is going up.
So, these to field will try to cancel each other. So, is not very arbitrary that you just put
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arbitrary anything and it will work; no. It will probably fit in that particular area but it may
not be a very efficient antenna. So, design a small compact antenna is a very interesting
problem you really need to use many simulation tools, so for that you can actually use some
of the packages. Let us say I have already mentioned you can use IE3D you can use CST
microwave studio you can use HFSS and so on and so forth.
So, by using this sophisticated software you can analyze any different shape. Let me also
show you one another application which is a folded broadband dipole antenna for RF
harvesting. So, I will first tell you what we actually wanted; we wanted a broadband antenna
for RF harvesting for all cellular bands starting from 800 MHz till about 2.5 GHz. And we
have actually designed this IC and this IC actually uses all these CMOS technology. For best
matching it required input impedance of the order of 750 ohm. So, we have used multiple
concepts here.
So, we have used the broadband concept of the dipole antenna to obtain broader bandwidth
and then we have used the concept of the folded dipole antenna to increase the input
impedance over here. So, we got an input impedance equivalent to about 750 ohm. And this
impedance was relatively constant or in fact it gave us a VSWR less than 2 over the entire
cellular band. And we use this particular configuration for harvesting energy from cell phones
cell tower Wi-Fi and so on.
So thank you very much, in the next lecture we will talk about monopole antenna on infinite
ground plane, finite ground plane; and what are the effects of the diameter of the ground
plane, diameter of the mono pole antenna and so on.
Thank you and we will see you next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 03
Lecture – 11
Monopole Antennas-I
Hello and welcome. Today we are going to discuss about Monopole Antennas. In the last
few lectures we have been talking about dipole antenna. Now, one of the biggest problem
of dipole antenna is it requires Balun especially if you have a single ended feed there. Of
course, tapers can be used for example, we looked at an application where chip is there
that chip requires differential input then that is fine, but majority of the time the source
may be a single ended. So, in that case instead of using dipole antenna we use monopole
antenna.
So, today we will look into various types of monopole antenna, what are the parameters
which govern the performance of monopole antenna.
So, to start with we will actually take an example of monopole antenna on infinite
ground plane. We know that infinite ground plane will never ever be there, but still just
to start the concept we will take infinite ground plane. And generally speaking for a
normal dipole antenna we take a λ/2 length, so for monopole it will be quarter
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wavelength. And I want to emphasize that λ/4 length is only valid when ground plane
size is infinite.
Finite ground plane length is never equal to λ/4, but in general it is slightly more than
λ/4. But let us see here how we have a dipole antenna and equivalent monopole antenna.
So, here it is a dipole antenna of length, let us say λ/2 where we feed over here using a
balanced line; one can see that there is a symmetry here there is a current going in this
direction this current is coming over here. So, if we replace this whole thing by a very
large infinite electric conductor, then we can say that there will be a λ/4 antenna over
here and we can use a coaxial feed here. So, the ground of the coaxial feed can be
connected over here and the center pin will feed the monopole antenna.So, we need only
λ/4 monopole antenna on infinite ground plane and this is the equivalent configuration of
a dipole antenna.
So, now for the monopole antenna on infinite ground plane: all the characteristics which
are applicable to the dipole antenna are applicable here also. So, E and H field for λ/4
monopole on infinite ground plane are exactly same as dipole antenna but only in upper
half, because below half there is a infinite ground plane so there will be no radiation. So,
the E field and H field equations which were valid for the dipole antenna they are exactly
valid for the λ/4 monopole antenna also.
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But now that the total length is reduced by half and there is a symmetry with respect to
the ground plane. So, the input impedance of the monopole antenna is half of the dipole
antenna; we can actually just go back and look into this configuration here. So, think
about this is where we were feeding and we found the input impedance. So, here the
current was +, this was coming as -. Now if we draw the center line in between which is
what is over here. So, that will be a 0 line here, the potential now which was + here then
0 and -. So, voltage will be changing if we take half the thing. So, basically you can say
that half the voltage half the impedance, so that is why the monopole antenna input
impedance is exactly half of the dipole.
So, if it is a λ/2 which has an impedance real part as well as imaginary part it will be the
impedance given by this. But if it is designed as before that is for real input impedance
we had seen that the dipole should be slightly smaller than λ/2 then this impedance was
roughly about 68 Ω. So, then 68 divided by 2 it will be approximately 34 Ω. Now
directivity of the monopole antenna will be 2 times dipole, but this is valid only if there
is a infinite ground plane.
For finite ground plane this is not at all true. And since the radiation is only in the upper
hemisphere, there is a no radiation in the below hemisphere that is why the directivity
will be double of the dipole antenna. So, for dipole antenna directivity is approximately 2
dB, so now it will be 5 dB. But I am repeating this is only valid for monopole antenna on
infinite ground plane and which will never ever happen. And we will study
systematically what is the effect of the ground plane on the input impedance as well as
on the frequency as well as on the directivity and radiation pattern.
Now, to start with we need to design the monopole antenna. So, in this case here now
this design is again valid only for infinite ground plane or extremely large ground plane.
So, earlier we had seen the formula was l+D equal to 0.48 λ we divide everything by 2.
So, h is half of l, radius is half of D, 0.48 becomes 0.24. So, this is exactly same as the
dipole antenna, just a factor of 2 is there. And for dipole antenna we had mentioned that
the diameter should always be less than λ/10. So, here radius should always be less than
λ/20, so that the assumption that along the radius or the diameter field is uniform.
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So, here now we will start with the different example; the first example which we have
done is that is for infinite ground plane. So, we have taken a infinite ground plane, one
thing I just want to mention the effect of the length is straightforward. That if you
increase the length frequency will reduce; if you decrease the length frequency will
increase. So, let us just see what is the effect of the diameter? So, here we have plotted
for different values of radius, and one can actually see that as radius of monopole
increases; that means very thin dipole to very thick dipole.
So, what happens? Its inductance will decrease; so if it is inductance decreases so this is
the plot for the very thin radius. As you keep on increasing the radius it will come over
here. Now, just to go back again think about the dipole antenna, we had seen that for
dipole antenna, impedance will be something like this here which is 73+j 42 which is of
a λ/2. Now half of that will be 73 half which we just looked at here. So, that will be close
to 36.5+j 21, but at real impedance will be around 34 Ω. So, one can actually see the plot
is crossing around that particular point over here, which is valid for very thin monopole
antenna.
As we keep on increasing the thickness, what we can see that it is shifting down because
for a thin diameter inductance is large, for a thicker diameter inductance will reduce and
if inductance is reducing the whole curve is shifting down here. So, this is the thing here.
So, this tells us how the effect on the impedance.
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Let us see, what is the effect on the frequency? as well as what is the effect on the
bandwidth? So, first of all we can actually calculate resonance frequency, here h is fixed
which is 90mm, you can just go back look into here. So, h is fixed which is 90mm; and
then actually have added a radius, so for different value of radius we have taken number
of values here starting from 0.5mm which is very thin, to about 10mm diameter. So, from
here we can calculate the frequency given by this expression here.
So, we have calculated these frequencies over here. So now, there are plots for different
configurations over here; you can see that I have drawn the line over here corresponding
to VSWR equal to 2. Just to tell you sometimes we draw VSWR equal to 2 curve
sometimes we draw reflection coefficient curve, so where we draw generally a line
around - 10 dB or so. So over here is a plot, so this is the plot for the radius which is 0.5
one can see that VSWR less than 2 bandwidth is from 748 to 847 and you can see that
this frequency is somewhere in between that. Or you can actually see here this is the
resonance frequency somewhere here.
So, you can actually see that this very simple formula predicts reasonably ok for the
resonance frequency calculation. So fairly decent one, in fact you can get a very good
starting point by using this particular formula. So, you can see now here as we increase
the diameter you can see that, this is now the response frequency is slightly decreasing
which is expected over here and you can see that the bandwidth is increasing.
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Now recall I did mention for a dipole antenna that bandwidth is proportional to the
diameter. But there I did not show you too many cases, but here we are showing you
systematically the cases for monopole antenna which is also valid for a dipole antenna.
So, we can see the percentage bandwidth here. So, for this here percentage bandwidth is
12 percent approximately 15, then 18, then say approximately 27 and then for the 42
percent. So, one can really get a fairly broad bandwidth using a thick monopole antenna.
So, you can see that this is the curve over here.
And even if you do not require a very large bandwidth, still sometimes it is advisable to
use a little broader antenna. For example, suppose even though the bandwidth required is
small. So, then what we can say if this smaller bandwidth is required we can actually say
that over this bandwidth VSWR will be much lesser which is actually good. So, taking a
larger diameter is always a good idea; however a larger diameter also creates only one
problem, it will have a larger weight. So, you can actually speaking use a hollow cylinder
also which will reduce the weight as well as it will give you a better bandwidth.
So, now let us see the directivity. Actually speaking we have really enlarged the scales
significantly, but in reality what you see here this is the frequency with respect to
directivity for different radius. Actually, even though it may look like it is significant it is
not at all significant, at the center frequency it is only changing by about 0.05 dB. So, in
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reality we can say that directivity of the monopole antenna does not depend upon the
radius, especially for infinite ground plane.
So, directivity will not change. In fact, in the next slide we will see that even radiation
pattern does not change. But this is the plot of the gain now the gain is what gain is
efficiency multiplied by directivity now efficiency of the antenna is still pretty good,
because it is using simple metal. So, the metallic losses are very small dielectric losses
are not there; however, what you see over here it actually accounts for VSWR variation
over the frequency. So, if VSWR varies a lot; that means, reflection coefficient will vary
and; that means, effective gain. So, the gain which is shown over here is not accounting
only for efficiency, but it is also accounting for the reflected power.
So, this the radiation pattern for different radius, you can actually see that one can hardly
make any difference. So, the radiation pattern hardly changes and that is where the
directivity of the antenna hardly changes. The gain is changing only because of the
variation in the VSWR.
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Now, let just see the effect of varying finite ground plane size. So, here what we have
done we have fixed the radius equal to 5 mm and the length is also fixed as before which
is 90 mm, and now we are changing the ground plane. Now for the simulation we have
taken a circular ground plane and we have put the monopole antenna right at the center. I
just want to mention here, if we take a rectangular ground plane performance will be
slightly different and also placement of the monopole antenna is also important.
So, what results I am going to show you they are all the results for the monopole antenna
kept at the center of the circular ground plane here. But suppose it is put over then the
results will change or it will be put here or put over here. So, results will change if the
location is changing and suppose if it is a let us say rectangular ground plane or let us say
smaller width and the larger length, then again the placement of the monopole antenna
plays a very very important role and one really has to properly simulate these cases here.
So, here what we have shown or we have actually shown the various cases taking from a
very small ground plane to little larger ground plane and in the next slide we will show
you even much larger ground plane. Almost tending towards infinity also but let us see
what we are noticing. So, as ground plane radius r increases, that means, if this is
increasing what we can see that the input impedance plot shifts towards inductive region.
So, this is for an extremely small ground plane then it is shifted over here, then it is
shifted over here and then it is shifting like this here now we had actually seen that if the
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ground plane is extremely large, just recall the previous slide r equal to 5 this was
roughly the plot here. So, if you make smaller smaller ground plane, the whole curve is
shifting over here. In fact, sometimes it might be optimize you can optimize very
carefully if you do it.
So, if this is the ground plane which is of course, very capacitive then this one here is
still capacitive. If you take a ground plane size between this and this you can actually get
a response which will be something like this here and that may get perfectly matched
with the 50 Ω line also over a coaxial feed. So, one can judiciously use this curve to
design an optimally designed monopole antenna also, but let us see now what are the
other effects with this here.
So, the resonance frequency changes drastically. So, just to show you here, this is the
radius of the ground plane we have taken from a very small value 10, 20 all the way to
infinity and these are the simulated frequency. So, for infinite ground plane this was the
frequency which was simulated and then if we reduce the ground plane size from infinite
to 100 mm radius, this is 800 and you can see that if it is made so small, then frequency
has increased substantially, you can actually see the plot here. So, these are the plots for
the largest ground plane then ground plane is reducing. So, we can see that the frequency
is increasing. Of course, here the matching is very very poor and that is why we are
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seeing it somewhere here, here the matching is still decent enough. So, one can use
something like this here.
Now, one can actually see these are the corresponding impedance values at the center
frequency. In fact, these values are actually taken from the smith charts which are plotted
over here. So, what we really note from here is that as ground plane radius increases the
resonance frequency decreases and for very small ground plane, resonance frequency is
very high and let me just explain that also let us come over here. So, if we are actually
feeding it assuming that this ground plane is very very small and if this ground plane is
very very small, it almost looks like that, see first let us think about if it is infinite ground
plane this is λ/4 there will be reflected image here so that will be λ/4, but now what is
happening as we keep on reducing the ground plane size. So, this one almost looks like a
dipole antenna from here to here.
So, you can effectively think like this is a very approximate way to tell you can
approximately think this as a dipole length only for finite ground plane not for infinite.
Infinite it will be very very large, but for dipole length which is radius is less than λ/4
you can use that approximation. So, now, when we keep on reducing assume that it is
close to 0 ground plane size then this whole thing can be actually thought about end fed
dipole antenna.
So, this length will tend towards λ/2, but since the length is we started as a λ/4 length,
but it is tending towards that λ/2; that means, really speaking frequency is almost tending
towards the double the value. So, that the λ will be changed, one can actually see here.
So, it is around 775 this is tending towards double of this one here had we taken even
more smaller you would see that this it is increasing and also end fed dipole antenna are
again similar to let just go back see if I feed at end fed assume that if it is just the dipole
and there is a no ground plane if I feed here. For a dipole it would have been 0 current
would have been maximum and current would have been 0. So, if you are feeding now at
a very low current value impedance will be very high which you can see over here, in
fact had we taken even a smaller ground plane this impedance will increase further
which is not really a practical case hence we did not show you this case over here.
So, now these finite ground planes only are required in most of the practical cases. So, in
fact, these monopole antennas are used for cellular and cordless phone. In fact, all the
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Wi-Fi’s which you see they generally use monopole antenna walkie-talkies, CB radios
and so on and so forth.
Now, let us see the radiation pattern. Now, I have actually divided the radiation pattern
into 2 categories one category where the ground plane size is less than λ. If it is less than
λ you can see we have plotted the radiation pattern. Radiation pattern of monopole
antenna almost looks like the radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. Now so, that is where
my point is. If the radiation pattern of a monopole antenna on a finite ground plane is
similar to dipole antenna, where a dipole antenna has a problem it requires a balun it
requires impedance matching network over here you do not require any such thing.
So, it is actually better many a times to use a monopole antenna with finite ground plane
where it is less than λ now here is the gain plot now gain plot maximum gain you can
still get is close to about 2 dB one can see there is a lot of shift in the frequency. The shift
in the frequency is mainly because the resonance frequency of the antenna changes with
the ground plane radius. So, that is why you see the shift here, but in general if you see
the peak is getting around close to 2 dB or so.
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But if we take ground plane size larger, now things change. So, here we have plotted the
cases where the ground plane is larger than λ, but just for comparison I have taken a
relatively smaller ground plane also. So, for relatively smaller ground plane this is the
radiation pattern which is something similar to figure of 8, but as we increase the ground
plane radius, one can see that the pattern is now getting skewed up there is a relatively
lesser radiation on the backside and also the beam maxima is not in this direction any
more beam maxima is actually changing over here and you can see there is a shift in the
beam maximum also with the change in the ground plane you can actually see this is for
a very small ground plane.
So, the gain is less you increase the ground plane greater than λ then one can see that
gain is increasing then gain is further increasing and here is the gain which is
approximately equal to 5 dB which is what should be the directivity of a monopole
antenna on infinite ground plane. So, until unless you take a very large ground plane it
would not happen and. In fact, sometimes these are the real situations also. Think about
antenna which is put on the let us say car rooftop. So, if we assume that the car rooftop is
let us say metallic. So, on that metallic large body one has put a monopole antenna
sometimes they put as a slight slanted here. So, this particular monopole antenna is really
nothing but on a very large ground plane. So, it will have a relatively larger gain in
comparison with the monopole antenna on very finite ground plane or a small ground
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plane. In fact, many a times you would actually see that many antennas monopole
antennas are available which have a magnetic base over here.
So, basic idea is that even though the ground plane of that monopole antenna is very
small, but because of that magnetic base you will be putting it on some metallic body.
So, that metallic body acts as a ground plane for that monopole antenna.
So, now let us see different cases of the monopole antenna how we can increase the
bandwidth of the monopole antenna. So, here we are just taking an example of a conical
monopole antenna which is nothing but the half of the bi-conical dipole antenna. So, it is
fed with the coaxial feed here. This is the thinner version of that instead of using the full
cone we have only used the triangular.
So, this is known as a triangular monopole antenna here is an example of a printed

elliptical monopole antenna and we will see that it is really an ultra broadband antenna
and then we will show you another example of a bent monopole antenna. In fact, the
reason why we have chosen this particular configuration that for these antennas the
polarization is vertically polarized, these are vertically polarized antenna. Now, many a
times signal may be coming which may have a vertical or horizontal component. So, this
particular antenna which we had designed it has both horizontal as well as vertical
component.
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So, we will see one by one these configurations. So, here is a variation of the conical
monopole antenna. So, one can actually see that we actually designed this only the outer
part of the cone here there is not a solid cone that would have a very large weight and
here is a ground plane and this particular thing we had actually designed for a
requirement there was a one defense requirement where they wanted an antenna a
broadband antenna starting from 200 MHz to 1000 MHz or so, but what we have
achieved is much much larger bandwidth. So let us see now; what are the design
principles.
So, design principle over here is that the first thing is corresponding to the lowest
frequency slant length should be approximately λ/4. So, that is the first design principle.
So, let us say we want antenna at say 200 MHz. So, at 200 MHz what will be
wavelength? It will be 150 cm. So, 150 by 4 we can say that will be about 37.5 cm and
we can see that that is exact λ/4, but we have taken this length roughly: Height is about
300 mm and you can see that the radius of cone we have taken as this here. There is a
reason for that because, the input impedance of this particular monopole antenna is given
by this particular expression over here and since we wanted to design an antenna with the
50 Ω coaxial feed.
So, if we take angle α equal to 90 degree; α angle is this complete angle here. So, if we
substitute this value α equal to 90 degree here we got input impedance of about 52.9
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which is very close to 50 Ω impedance. So, for α equal to 90 degree what the thing is α
90 means half angle will be 45 degree and we know that tan 45 is nothing but this
dimension divided by this here. So, this we took as 30 this becomes 30 cm this will be
300 by 300 and this one all we did was we actually took copper coil we just wrapped it
around and put it over here fed over here fed over there.
We can see that this foil also has lot of these bends and other thing it is a very crude form
antenna, but yet because it is very broadband antenna one can actually see the fabricated
or measured result. So, that is the fabricate antenna these are the measured results. So,
you can see that this is VSWR 2 over this entire frequency range VSWR is less than 2.
So, we did achieve a very large bandwidth by using this conical monopole antenna, but it
is a three dimensional structure.
So, in the next lecture we will talk about some printed monopole antenna which are very
flat just printed on a substrate very you can say volume occupied is very small low cost
configuration and so on. So, in the next lecture we will talk about printed monopole
antennas and some of the other characteristics.
Thank you very much and see you next time. Bye.
164
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 03
Lecture – 12
Monopole Antennas-II
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Monopole Antennas. Now in the last lecture we
discussed about various characteristics of monopole antenna. So we saw; what is the
effect of the diameter of the monopole antenna on infinite ground plane, and what we
notice that if you increase the diameter of the monopole antenna bandwidth increases.
Then we saw the effect of the finite ground plane and we actually saw that if the ground
plane size is very small then the frequency is higher; that means for the same frequency
you have to take a larger length monopole antenna than λ/4.
Then we also saw that by change in the radius of the monopole antenna which is
inductive effect also is changing; that means, if you take a very thin monopole antenna it
has more inductance where as if you take a thicker dipole inductive part is less. So, the
impedance plot shifts towards the capacitive region and for the ground plane effect we
saw that when the ground plane size was very small the antenna input impedance was
high as well as capacitive and as we increase the ground plane radius then we could also
see that impedance plot is shifting towards the inductive part and thereby properly
choosing the ground plane size one can have a perfect match with 50 Ω coaxial feed also.
Then we also looked at the broadband configuration. So, one of the configuration we
looked in the last time was the variation of the conical monopole. So, where we did not
take a solid conical monopole, but we just took the outer part of the cone and that gave
us a fairly broadband and we looked a practical example of a requirement from the
defense which was from 200 MHz to 1 GHz plus and we saw that we achieved much
larger bandwidth than that.
Today we are going to see some other configurations which are even much larger
bandwidth than what we saw in the last lecture. So, these are known as ultra broadband
antennas.
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Now, let us see today we will start with the broadband circular monopole antenna. In
fact, I just want to mention, this particular paper we saw almost about 15 years back
where a paper was reported that, they actually reported this circular disk only circular
one circular you can say a plate and which was being fed by the coaxial connector
through a finite ground plane and they reported a very large bandwidth, but they had not
given any explanation why it is happening so, so we actually decided that let us just
investigate this particular configuration and those days we did not have sophisticated
software tool to do the simulation. So, we actually decided to do lot of experiments and
we carried out huge number of experiments on this particular configuration.
So, first of all we actually made circular dishes of different radius. So, this is the result
for a equal to 2.5 cm, but we did take different configurations also for all the cases we
got the broadband. So, here let just see what result we are getting. So, a is 2.5 cm which
is the radius and this is the p which is the distance between the coaxial probe which is
from this feed point with respect to the ground plane. So, that is the probe dimension
which is protruding and one can see the response, this response is really really broad if
we draw a line here from VSWR 2 we can actually see that the bandwidth here for
VSWR less than 2 is right from 1.17 MHz to all the way 12 GHz even you can see that
even 13 GHz is almost within VSWR 2, it is slightly more than 2, but practical purpose
this is still within this entire bandwidth is there.
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However, there is a one major problem with this configuration that is the radiation
pattern varies over the bandwidth, but we will come to that part a little later let us see
quickly how we can do the design, how we did the design what are the other cases which
we studied.
So, even though we started with the circular dish here, but then since we saw very good
result and we wanted to understand what is really happening? So, then we took elliptical
dimension with the ratio of let us say a by b major axis divided by minor axis. So, we
took that as 1.1 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 we studied that then we actually made circular shape then
we made the square shape we made rectangular shape we made hexagonal shape
triangular shape and so on. So, we studied all these different different configuration and
then we came out with a very simple one line expression to predict the lower resonance
frequency of the antenna and the concept we used was very very simple.
For a larger ground plane we know that the height of the monopole antenna is given by
h+r equal to 0.24 λ. Now r here is defined more if it is a monopole antenna of a
cylindrical shape, but over here the shape is not cylindrical, but the shape is let us say
circular or it could be elliptical. So, what we did was for that circular shape we found out
what is the equivalent radius by equating the area of the circle what is the area of a circle
which is equal to π r square what is the area of the let us say cylindrical dipole antenna it
is 2 π r multiplied by the length.
So, that is the area of that. So, what we did? We used the combination of the two,
equated the area, but what we kept the height of the circular dish is taken as the length of
the monopole antenna and then the radius was calculated. So, by putting that and then we
actually put this thing concept into different configuration for circle for elliptical, for
triangle and we got the result within 5 to 8 percent accuracy.
So in fact, this we published paper in the IEEE journal also, starting from knowing
nothing about this antenna we did extensive study and we could publish and in fact, that
paper has been referenced by very large number of people, but very quickly you can
think about here, so a is 2.5cm. So, this length will be roughly 5 cm effective length will
be slightly more than that, but let just for a quick calculation if I take this as a 5 cm, 5 cm
if that is λ/4, so, λ will be 5 into 4 that will be 20 cm and 20 cm will correspond to the
wavelength of roughly 1.5 GHz. So, that is where it will come.
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So, just to give you an idea, but effective length will be not just λ/4 it will be used that
formula has to be used which is l+r equal to or rather in this case h+r equal to 0.24 λ. So,
if you do that you will get very close to what we have got over here. Now of course, this
is a 3D configuration where this particular circular dish is placed perpendicular to the
ground plane over here we had taken a circular ground plane. So, after that lot of
research was actually reported where they came out with the printed monopole antenna.
So, here is an example. So, what it is that, this is a monopole antenna which is printed on
a dielectric substrate, so what you see over here this is printed at the top side and this is
the ground plane which is on the other side of the substrate, a coaxial connector is
connected here which is feeding the this particular antenna which is fed back and, for
this you can actually see that S11 less than -10 dB bandwidth is very large you can
actually see here this is a -10 here it is going all the way we have not done the simulation
beyond this, but you can actually see that the bandwidth starts from almost say 0.8 GHz
it is going beyond 4.8 GHz. So, it is a very large broadband antenna.
In fact, the only problem with this particular antenna is that the radiation pattern varies
over the bandwidth. So, why that is happening? So, again one can actually think about a
circular shape or in this case elliptical shape will have many higher order modes. So, we
will start with let us say circular shape, we saw that a fundamental mode will be at one
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frequency as we go to the higher order modes which will happen at higher frequency. So,
all these higher order modes will come together and they give the broadband response.
In fact, when I discuss about broadband microstrip antenna then I will talk about this
particular configuration in much more detail how the higher order modes of a circular
patch antenna giving a very large bandwidth, but if you are curious right now, you can
refer my book which is ‘Broadband Microstrip Antenna’ book, it is available freely now
from the internet, you can simply say broad band microstrip antenna pdf and you can
download and you can read Chapter 9 of that particular book here. But here are the
printed versions of that which are really broad band; again the concept is used in a
similar way you can find out the resonance frequency in a similar fashion which I
described earlier.
Now, based on these things here many other variations have been reported. So, some
people have reported here where instead of this curve shape they have used a step
configuration over here, some people have reported instead of using a square ground
plane they have used a circular ground plane or some people have used a tapered ground
plane over here sometimes this particular shape has been not taken a full circle here, one
can take half semi circle also here, one can actually take may be a shape like this here.
So many variations have been reported for this particular configuration. There probably
are thousands of papers today which report about elliptical monopole antenna or
variation of that and in fact, there are floods of paper specially for UWB band which is
designated from FCC from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz. So, we require a bandwidth ratio of 1 is to
3.5 or so.
Now, for that this is an absolutely perfect ideal antenna because it can give a very large
bandwidth. However, majority of the time people only talk about VSWR bandwidth one
should also be concerned about the radiation pattern what is the radiation pattern over the
given bandwidth see it is not just important to design a broadband antenna.
So, let us see how we can do what are the different techniques we can apply to get a
uniform radiation pattern over the desired bandwidth. But before we move there I also
want to mention that lot of things which are coming on UWB band which is say from 3.1
to 10.6. So, first of all I want to tell this is the band approved by FCC this band is not
approved by Indian government and counterpart of FCC in India is WPC - Wireless
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Planning Commission which is a branch or comes under the umbrella of DOT -
department of telecommunication. So, you can actually do Google search say WPC DOT
and then you can download their document you can see which frequency can be used for
which purpose. So, that you become more practical when you are designing an antenna
and then only the dream of our current prime minister who is saying Make in India.
Now as I said before make in India will happen only when first you do design in India
and before you do design in India you must know that what frequencies are used for
which application. So, until unless you know that it is not going to do it and also another
thing I want to mention in that UWB band also which is from 3.1 to 10.6 lot of other
things are coming in between which are let us say 5.8 GHz. So, then they integrate
within that band reject filter or antennas with some slot which will reject that particular
band also. So, basically first you design a broadband antenna then you reject certain
portion. So, that you can reject undesired configuration, but please remember that UWB
band of 3.1 to 10.6 is not available in India.
So, now let us see how we can do something. So, just to tell you we have actually
designed a dual ring monopole antenna the applications were mainly for you can say
GSM900, 1800 and 3G. Now we notice that if we had used just a simple circular
monopole antenna, it was not giving us a stable radiation pattern at these desired
frequencies. Now when we were doing the simulation and we also can tell you that the
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current is generally confined in the outer region and there is a very little current in the
central area.
So, what we did it is we made instead of a circular antenna we actually made it a circular
ring antenna and within that ring then we added another ring antenna here and just to tell
you. So, the outer ring was designed around 900 MHz and the inner ring was designed
around 1800 MHz and since we wanted to cover the other band also. So, we made it little
more broader inner ring.
You can actually see the response over here. So, one can actually see that the it has a
decent bandwidth at the lower band h and then also one can see that at the higher
frequency range also the reflection coefficient is less than -10 dB, this band was not of
interest not of our interest for this application. So, VSWR is more than 2 or reflection
coefficient is more than -10dB, but let us see the pattern here.
So, you can see that at 900 MHz it is a very good pattern here symmetrical. Over here
the pattern is fairly good there is a little bit asymmetry is there, but that is still within 1 to
2 dB, which is acceptable for most of the application and then at 0.1 GHz also you can
see that the pattern is very symmetrical very similar to that here. So, by using this
configuration we could get a relatively symmetrical pattern.
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Now, let me show you one another configuration in parallel we worked on it this is
actually dual band trident monopole antenna. So, what we have done here is we have
designed an antenna at the center over here which resonates around again 900 MHz.
And then we designed this antenna here which is at the higher band which is to cover the
1800 to 2500 MHz, but we had to put two of these things over here they are both
symmetrical, the reason for that is if just this was used then this particular antenna will
act as a reflector for this here and that means, then the radiation will be less in this
direction radiation will be more in this direction and that will not be a symmetrical
radiation pattern like a monopole antenna.
So, by putting this symmetrical here so for this here let us say this acts as a reflector for
this, but then this is also acting reflector for this also. So, it still gives us a symmetrical
radiation pattern in this particular plane here. So, the trick here is that you design the
central point which is at GSM900 band and you put the symmetrical antennas which are
required at the higher band. Now I have taken 900, 1800 it can be any other frequency
range the focus should be this should be at the lower frequency these should be at higher
frequency.
So, approximate dimension this length is approximately λ/4 and this length is
approximately λ/4 at higher band. So, one can actually see that at 900 MHz our
requirement was from 890 to 960, we got 20 MHz extra on this side 20 MHz extra on the
other side which is a good thing to do, when you are doing the design and you can see
that measured and simulated results are matching pretty good. And then at the higher
response you can see that right from here 1.5 up to 4.2 GHz we are getting broad
bandwidth.
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Now, let us see our goal was to look at the radiation pattern. So, let us see what is the
radiation pattern? So, here we have shown the radiation pattern at two frequencies 920,
which is between that 890 to 960 you can see that it is a very good symmetrical pattern
these are the measured results, you can see that they are close to this simulated results
and these are the results which we have plotted at 2150, which is between that 3G band
of 2110 to 2170 MHz. So, one can actually see that again the pattern is symmetrical and
even the measured pattern is relatively symmetrical.
Now I just want to mention these are the antennas still which gives us the vertically
polarized antenna and this is a dual band antenna.
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So, we actually got little carried away. So, we decided why not we do little bit of a
broadband antenna right from low frequency to the end frequency. Now in order to
realize a broadband antenna what one needs to do instead of using a simple monopole
antenna we have used a triangular monopole antenna and even for the side patches we
use the slightly tapered antenna so that we can get a broad bandwidth. So, this gave little
more broader bandwidth, this one also gave little broader bandwidth. So, one now see
that the response is right from here to here reflection coefficient is less than -10 dB over
the entire band.
Here is the gain plot also, so that is the gain variation from 0.8 to about 2.8, one can
actually see that the gain of the antenna is around 2 dB at the lower frequency, but it
slightly increases at the higher frequency. So, which is close to about 3 to 3.3 dB, but the
pattern is symmetrical over the entire frequency range and you can see from here.
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So, we have shown the pattern here at 950 MHz, 1850 MHz, 2150 MHz, 2450 MHz
which is for Wi-Fi application. So, one can actually see that you know this is the Omni-
directional pattern that you can see here. So, that is also an Omni-directional here it is
still considered Omni-directional even though there is a absolute maximum variation is
about 5 dB over the band and yet the pattern over here it is forming that 8 shape here this
is also forming similar thing and you can still see that cross polar level here is of course,
is less than 35 dB, here it is still less than about 25 dB, here less than 22 dB less than 20
dB so we can see that it is a fairly good antenna which has a symmetrical radiation
pattern, it is Omni-directional at various frequencies of interest and hence very useful
antenna, but these are all vertically polarized antenna.
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Now, for some application we also need a antenna which actually has a dual polarization
also. So, just to tell you the application we were actually looking at is again for RF
harvesting. Now for RF harvesting when we wanted to design an antenna for RF
harvesting or even sometimes we want to measure let us say radiation intensity at a
particular place. So, for example, let us say there is a cell tower which is transmitting
there are multiple cell towers are there CDMA, GSM900, 1800, 3G, 4G now and Wi-Fi.
Now you want to measure what is the radiation coming from there? What is the radiation
intensity? So, what we had done, we had designed the radiation monitor. So, earlier we
had used a vertically polarized monopole antenna because let us say the antenna is
transmitting from this side here and then you put the another antenna, but now we have
actually noticed that the pattern does not remain vertical all the time specially after
multiple reflection pattern changes and also if this is mounted over here there will be
components which are horizontal as well as vertical component. So, we needed an
antenna which should receive both horizontal as well as vertical component not just
vertical component only. So, we were looking into some configuration which should give
us some broadband configuration also as well as it should give us some multiple
polarizations.
So, let us just look at an example here. So, what we did I will just mention first what is
the starting point here. So, the starting point was we know that this particular antenna a
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triangular monopole antenna is relatively broadband antenna. So, what we did and here is
a ground plane. So, this ground plane we reduced the size here which is coming right
over here and you can see that the triangular antenna is flaring up. So, we started with the
small which is over here then the dimension is increasing then the width is increasing,
width is increasing and width is further increasing.
So, we actually started with this particular concept not 100 percent same as this here, but
the concept is coming from here. Now what is really happening this one will radiate let
us say vertically polarized, but now those vertically polarized components have been
bent around. So, let us say this is radiating like this, this then this is radiating like this,
this is radiating like this here, this radiating like this here. So, we are getting both
horizontal as well as vertical component.
So, let us see here the result. So, this is the designed simulated one here, this is the
fabricated antenna and here we have the results which are both measured as well as
simulated result. So, one can actually see that both measured results and simulated
results are in good agreement and you can see that bandwidth which we are getting is a
fairly large bandwidth starting from say less than 900 MHz to up to beyond 0.2, 0.3 GHz
or so, which is actually meeting both GSM900 and 1800.
Let just see now the radiation pattern. So, here we have shown the radiation pattern at
950 MHz which is in between the GSM band and this is in between the GSM1800 band.
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So, one can actually see that now there are all 4 components are there, these are the
components which are Eθ in Φ = 0, Eθ in Φ = 90, EΦ in Φ = 0, EΦ in Φ = 90 or in other
terms you can it that E polar E cross polar, H polar H cross polar all 4 components are
now present over here and one can also see that pattern is relatively symmetrical.
Now this is the pattern at 1850 MHz. So, you can see that the pattern is relatively
symmetrical. So, one can actually say that this particular component has both horizontal
as well as vertical polarization. So, this antenna can also be said that this is a polarization
insensitive antenna so; that means, if you have this particular antenna as a receiver you
can actually orient in vertical direction or in horizontal or any other plane it will still
receive the signal. In fact, just think about it.
Let us say if in a mobile phone antenna if we just use this particular thing here which
will be a normal monopole antenna that will have only vertical component so that means,
if it has to be perfectly aligned with the transmitter and which should come over here.
Now we all know that nobody uses mobile phone like this you know we use mobile
phone like this or we may use mobile phone like this here. So, we need an antenna which
can actually receive various polarizations. So, that is why earlier when we had a mobile
phone they invariably had a monopole antenna like this and then the receiver will have
sometimes problem depending upon the orientation.
Later on because this length was too large they came out with a normal mode helical
antenna which had a height only of about 2 cm which was actually put over here. Much
later than that what happened? A Microstrip antenna came or printed monopole antenna
came which are now behind the mobile phone only so you really do not see the antenna
and in fact, sometimes they even use a slot antenna also. So, where they put the metallic
ring here and they cut the slots in the ring so that you can get a radiation pattern.
So, that is what I am going to discuss in the next lecture. So, in the next lecture we will
talk about loop antenna and slot antenna and we will also see very interesting thing loop
antenna is again can be derived from the dipole antenna we will just see that how a small
loop antenna can be equivalent or equated to a magnetic dipole instead of electric dipole.
So, electric dipole has let us say H field like this, we will see that small loop antenna will
be actually equivalent to a magnetic dipole and then electric field will be like that. And
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then we will see slot antenna in fact, slot antenna is nothing but a complement of the
dipole antenna.
So, whatever we have studied for dipole antenna so E field in the dipole will become H
field for slot antenna and vice versa. So, please read carefully dipole antennas, monopole
antennas and come prepared for the next lecture which is going to be on loop antenna
and slot antenna. So, prior knowledge is very very important.
Thank you and we will see you next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 03
Lecture – 13
Loop Antennas
Hello and welcome. Today we are going to discuss about Loop Antennas followed by Slot
Antennas. Now in the last lecture we had talked about dipole antenna and monopole antenna,
so let just look into this here.
Suppose, if this is a dipole antenna which is carrying a current we are feeding in the center
here, now for this particular case we saw that H-field is like this here and E-field is in this
particular fashion which is making a figure of eight like this here. Now a loop antenna is
nothing but a complementary of this; in a sense if we take a small loop then small loop will
be let us say something like this here we can actually look into small loop is like this. Now
this small loop if we assume that the current is uniform over here. So, this can be thought
about that if there is a magnetic dipole like this then a magnetic dipole; see for example if it is
electric dipole we will have a magnetic field, if it is now a magnetic dipole then this will be
electric field or a current is flowing like this.
In fact, a small dipole antenna is nothing but we can correlate that with a magnetic dipole
antenna. So, whatever the derivations whatever the calculations we did for the dipole antenna
they are valid for the loop antenna; in a sense that E-field will become H-field and H-field
will become E-field, open circuit over here will be close circuit over here. So, let us see about
Loop Antenna today.
So, today as I mentioned we will talk about loop and slot antennas we will first cover loop
antenna and in the next one we will talk about slot antenna.
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So, we will actually think about a very small loop, let us say this small loop is put around the
origin. So, this is the origin here x axis, y axis z axis and as before we are going to measure Φ
angle from x axis, θ is measured from the z axis and these are the components which are the
E-field component at any faraway distance r. Now we can actually start with the let us say
circular loop or a square loop. In the beginning we will just look at the small circular or
square loop; small means whose circumference is much less than wavelength.
Now in this particular case as I mentioned if we assume that there is a uniform current then
this can be approximated as a magnetic dipole over here and along with that there will be
electric current. So, all we need to do it is we use the same concept of the dipole antenna
except that we change E-field to H-field and H-field to E-field. So for this particular case
when the loop dimensions are small; now by the way this can be a single turn loop, it can be
multiple turn loop, the loop can be wound in the air itself or it can be wrapped around a
dielectric which can be solid or hollow or it can be even a ferrite material also. So we will see
one by one; what are the different scenarios.
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So, let us first look at the radiation pattern of the loop antenna. Here we have taken a
diameter which is λ/10 so circumference will be equal to π times d. So, C λ is nothing but C/λ
so that will be 0.314 which is nothing but π /10 that is the value here. And here the loop is
placed in this particular fashion over here. So, the loop is placed over here and we are saying
that this particular loop will be equivalent to a magnetic dipole which will be something like
this here. So for a dipole we know that there will be no radiation in this direction, so here also
for the same in the same way for loop antenna there is no radiation over here.
So, please remember loop is placed like this here and then the pattern in this particular plane
is nothing but making an eight, figure of eight shape. And if you look at the pattern in this
plane here that will be circular just like a dipole antenna, but now this is actually instead of
electric field earlier now this is a magnetic field, and the field which will be uniform along
this direction now will be electric field. Now, we will look into different patterns. So, let us
say for diameter equal to λ C λ will be this, so now this pattern changes it is not maxima in
this particular direction. Again this is somewhat similar to a dipole antenna; for larger length
dipole antenna radiation is not maximum here, but radiation is maximum in this direction.
Now, these are now, further larger ones instead of λ it is 3 λ/2 and 5 λ. But I just want to tell
you that this is not really a real scenario, in a real scenario current will be never be uniform
along the loop. So, that is why theoretically it is we can assume anything, practically this is
not going to be feasible. So, in general very rarely these kind of a antennas are used, the most
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popular antennas are only this one here where loop antennas are taken smaller in diameter or
circumference and for that we know that this is the radiation pattern.
So, for this then for single turn loop we can actually find out what is the radiation resistance.
In a very similar way for dipole antenna what we had done we found E and then from E we
also knew H-field and then power was calculated by integrating E and H and then power was
equated to half I2 Rr. So, the same way we have to do the same thing, so we get a radiation
resistance which is given by this formula here. Now please recall for a small dipole antenna
radiation resistance was 20 π 2l/ λ 2. Here the differences it is to the power 4, but this is for
small loop antenna; where C is circumference, circumference is nothing but 2 π a which is
also equal to π d.
Now most of the time we do not use a single loop antenna, we use multiple turn loop antenna.
This will be obvious when we take this design example here. So, if we take N turns, for N
turn Rr increases by a factor of N 2. So, radiation resistance can be increased significantly by
increasing number of turns then Rr increases by N 2. Now for large loop antenna the value is
given by this particular expression.
I want to tell again most of the time we do not use large loop antenna, but never the less let
just see here. So, this expression is valid for C by λ much less than 1. This expression is valid
for C/λ much greater than 1. Let us see what happens if C/λ is 1. If C/λ is 1 this expression
will give me roughly 200, because π 2 is approximately 10. And this one here for C/λ equal to
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1 will give roughly 600. So, we know that for C/λ equal to 1 neither of these two formulas are
correct, it will be between say 200 to 600 Ω.
So let just take an example; here the example we have taken is C/λ is 0.1. So, if we now
substitute this value over here what we get is 0.02 Ω. Now you know that this is a very very
small impedance if we try to feed this 50 Ω coaxial feed it will result into a large mismatches
and most of the power will reflected back very little power will be transmitted. But here now
if we take N equal to 50, so N equal to 50 this has to be multiplied by 50 and 50. So, 50
multiplied by 0.02 will be 1, another 50 will give us 50 Ω.
So, you can actually see that if I take a C/λ equal to 0.1 use 50 turn we can get a good
matching with the 50 Ω coaxial feed. So, that is a very simple way to design an antenna.
Now, these are the relations for radiation resistance versus loop circumference. So, actual
value calculated is something like this here which is varying sinusoidally, but increasing
along this line here. So, this particular variation has been approximated by two equations; one
is this equation that is valid for very small loop antenna and one can see that for the real value
here this approximated formula is matching fairly well, but for larger loop antenna this is the
expression given by the 60 π2 C/λ.
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And again I want to repeat that most of the time you do not use a large loop antenna,
generally use a small loop antenna. So, this expression is relatively ok and this is what you
need to use majority of the time.
So, now many a times this loop antenna is actually put on a ferrite core and I will tell you the
reason also where it is done also. And the practical example is; AM radio receiver generally
uses loop antenna which is wrapped around a ferrite core. So, if it is wrapped around a ferrite
core then the actual radiation resistance will increase by a factor of mu 2 and here it is used as
effective mu, because some air might come into picture in between when you put a loop
antenna around a ferrite core. So, this is the expression to be used. And let us just look at one
example.
So, let us say we have N turn circular loop antenna whose diameter is say 2 cm and the wire
diameter is thin which is 0.2 mm. Now this is put on a ferrite core whose effective
permeability is 10. And what we need to know is how many turns are required to obtain 50 Ω
impedance at 3 MHz. Now at 3 MHz, what is the wavelength? Wavelength is going to be 100
m. So, that is the wavelength λ 100 m we have converted into cm so that becomes 10,000 cm.
Desired R input is 50 Ω which comes over here, mu is 10 so 102 20 pi2 comes here, and C is
nothing but π times d, and d is equal to 2 cm. And if we use this here one can now see
calculate this and find out √N 2 which comes to this. You can see that it requires about
127485 turns.
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Now you just imagine if it was not a ferrite core if it was air then this number will change by
a factor of 10. So, if it was wrapped around just air then this number would actually increase
by 10 times. So, that is the advantage of using a ferrite core that you can reduce the number
of turns.
So, here is the expression for the directivity. So, here we have a loop circumference
normalized with respect to wavelength and this is the directivity in dB. Now for a very small
loop which is actually here. So, very small loop you can see that the directivity is slightly less
than 2 dB, which is somewhat similar to for a dipole antenna which is a small length dipole
antenna we saw that the directivity is of the order of 1.74 dB. So, it is very similar to that.
Now, one can see that the directivity increases with the loop wavelength. However, if you just
look at it corresponding to wavelength of 10 here which is a normalized thing loop
circumference. So, 10 times wavelength if you corresponding here, if you see here you are
only getting 8 dB or so. HowGHzever, if we use different types of antennas or if we use
arrays of antennas we can get much larger directivity. Hence, this one I strongly recommend
never ever to use it.
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So, now in the last lecture if you recall I did mention we talked about a folded dipole antenna
and I did tell you that folded dipole antenna can also be thought of as a rectangular loop
antenna. So, just have a quick thing here: suppose if it was just a dipole antenna for a dipole
antenna fed with plus minus 1. This is the dipole antenna; we have done the simulation for
these dimensions. So, we have the length of each segment of dipole which is 50 mm here, 50
mm here, the width is actually taken as 2 mm and the air gap is taken 2 mm here. So, just for
this particular dipole antenna the impedance is about 70 Ω and resonance frequency is close
to 1.5 GHz.
And that can be very quickly looked into it. So, if I just say approximately this is 50 and 50,
so that will be 100 mm that is approximately equal to 10 cm corresponding to 10 cm,
wavelength will be that is the wavelength if we take 10 cm as λ/2 then wavelength will be
equal to 20 cm which corresponds to frequency of 1.5 GHz. So, you can see that it is very
close to that.
Now for a folded dipole antenna we have seen that for a folded dipole antenna impedance is 4
times Zinput of dipole antenna. Now by the way these are all simulated results we have
simulated using IE3D software. Now when we looked into this folded dipole antenna that
particular equation does not say anything about what is the length of this connecting strip
here. So what we have done here, we have used variable as a connecting strip length here. So,
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we have taken this over here as 3, 6, 10 20 and the width of the connecting strip has been
taken as 1 mm.
Now if we just notice here. So, as we increase this width here, so the resonance frequency
keeps on decreasing. And impedance is roughly 4 times you can say that 70.3 multiplied by 4
will be about 281 Ω, so we are getting about 286 which is close, but as this strip length
increases it is this expression or the impedance is increasing slightly. Now this phenomenon
cannot be explained only by this over here. Also if we notice as we keep on increasing the
strip length 3, 6, 10, what is happening? We can see that the resonance frequency is
decreasing.
Again that phenomena cannot be explained by just this particular expression here. However,
this phenomena can be very easily explained if we assume that this whole thing is now acting
as a loop antenna. Then when this connecting strip length is increasing what will happen?
The total loop circumference will increase. And if the circumference increases and we can
actually just notice here that circumference approximately equal to λ. So, if we just add up all
the dimensions and calculate the resonance frequency you will see that with increase in the
strip length here the total length will increase. So, resonance frequency should decrease.
So, a folded dipole antenna can be very easily explained by rectangular loop antenna. And
also please recall I did mention when circumference is equal to λ the limit can be between 20
π 2 which is 200 to maximum 60 π 2 which is 600. So, between 200 and 600 Ω this is what we
are getting it for the λ equal to C.
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So, here are some of the plots here. So, what we have done we have taken a little larger loop
here. So, connecting strip is taken as a 20 mm long over here and this whole thing is total is
100 2 mm this is 50 and 50 with a gap of 2. So, for this we can see actually the input
impedance plot, and I want to show that we started with a very low frequency simulation. So,
at low frequency one can see all these things are inductive. Now recall for a dipole antenna,
for a dipole antenna it was all capacitive. Now this is a reverse of that so this is now all
inductive here.
You also know that for a closed this thing it acts as a inductor or a multi turn loop also will
also act as an inductor, and that is why impedance is inductive. And one can actually see that
there is a resonance first coming over here. So, this is the fundamental resonance which we
had seen in the previous case for which impedance is close to 300 Ω we can just check that.
So, corresponding to this here impedance was roughly 300 Ω. So, in the smith chart we know
that this is about 50 Ω here that is close to 300 Ω. And then this one here is actually
corresponding to the second order mode and the second order mode can be determined
whenever circumference is equal to N λ.
So, for N equal to 1 it will be the fundamental mode and then N equal to 2-3. So, this result is
actually for the second order mode.
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And one can see the reflection coefficient plot. So, this is the value corresponding to the
fundamental mode and this is the value corresponding to the second order mode. This is the
value corresponding to the third order mode. And one can actually see that from here this is
approximately double of that value. So, we see that it is not matched with the 50 Ω because
input impedance is close to 300 Ω it will not be matched with 50 Ω.
Now let us see; what is the radiation pattern. Even though the case which we are looking; so
radiation pattern at 1.32 GHz at which this whole circumference was equal to λ even for that
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the radiation pattern is very similar to that of a dipole antenna except that E-field has become
H-field, H-field has become E-field. So, we can see that the maximum radiation is not in this
direction, but it is in this direction which is perpendicular to the loop axis. And perpendicular
to the loop there is a no radiation which is given by dark blue. So, we know that dark blue is
the least radiation and green and yellow and orange, red shows maximum radiation.
Now I have shown the radiation pattern at the second order mode; you can see that the
radiation is maximum in this direction in that direction as well as in this direction here. So,
majority of the time this is not really used, so we generally use the fundamental mode only.
Or in fact, majority of the time we use small loop antenna which could be a multi-turn loop
antenna. And you can see that here gain is actually close to 0 dB it is not the directivity,
directivity may be close to 1.52 dB, gain is less because matching is not very good at this
particular point here.
One can see that at this point because of the good matching gain is also higher; you can see
the higher value of the gain which is approximately 5 dB.
So, let us just look at one of the typical application of a loop antenna. So, we did look at one
of the application where the loop antenna was wound around the ferrite core there, but now
let us just look at another application. In fact, loop antennas are finding lot of application
these days in RFID tag what is RFID tag radio frequency identification. So, let us see what
we have here. So, one can actually see that there is a one; this is the chip which is put over
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here and that is the padding where the connection is done. So, one turn of the loop, so let us
just follow here; so the loop is going over here it is going around this is printed on a flexible
PCB or you can call it a substrate and it is actually going from here going all the way. So, the
loop antenna almost looks like you know spiral antenna also, but it is still a loop antenna.
And then the last turn over here you can see that a plated through hole is made over here and
through the other side then from the backside of the substrate it is actually connected over
here. So, one can see that this is a multi turn loop antenna which is actually going to the
RFID chip. So, this is one of the applications, in fact of the majority of RFID tags are either
using something like this here or in the last lecture I even showed an application where RFID
had used the dipole antenna. So, here application of loop antenna is there.
In fact, some of these things for example this particular RFID tag which I showed you that
application is for 13.56 MHz. Now 13.56 MHz if one tries to use a dipole antenna the length
will be very very long. However, a multi-turn loop antenna can be used which will actually
still be in a very small area, so the area is important because many of these RFID tags their
size is almost fit on to a visiting card of about the size here. So, we need the compact antenna
which should fit in that particular size.
Many a times I just also want to tell that capacitance is also put in parallel so that we can
create a resonance also. In fact, I would like to emphasize for AM radio now AM radio
frequency range is from 530 to 1620 kHz. So, if I take a in between frequency which is 1
MHz. Now at 1 MHz wavelength is about 300 m. Now you cannot have an antenna of 300 m
for a receiver.
Now just to mention for AM transmitter they generally use λ/4 monopole antenna. Now λ/4
for 300 m will be 75 m. So, 75 m is almost if I take a building height as 10 feet which is
equal to 3 m. So, 75 m tall will be about 25 storey building. Now we also need a radio
receiver which is going to be this small. So, for radio receiver working at let us say around 1
MHz, so what need we use actually a loop antenna and it is actually wrapped around a ferrite
core and then the two ends of the loop antenna are actually terminated with a variable
capacitor. And that variable capacitor, so when you change or tune the radio station all you do
it is you actually change the value of the capacitance. So, resonance frequency is given by ω 0
1
is equal to
√ LC
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So, this loop antenna does two things; one is it is acting as an antenna, another thing is it is
acting as an inductor and you put a capacitor in parallel to that and change the capacitor value
and that is how you tune the radio station. So, loop antenna are used in some of these
applications and RFID has been used; I mean they are using loop antenna in so many
different applications. In fact, many a times these loop antenna are also used for sensing the
magnetic field at a given place. So, it is a good antenna to be used, but most of the time it is
the small loop antenna which is used not really the large antenna with respect to the
wavelength.
So, just to summarize we talked about a loop antenna and we recommend strongly only to use
small loop antenna; it can be multi turn so that you can do the impedance matching properly.
And typically total circumference length should be approximately λ so that the resonance
condition is obtained. And then we also saw that if you use number of turns then R r increases
by N 2.
Of course, I want to again emphasize it is not just radiation resistance it also has associated
inductance. So, at lower frequency inductance is there and that is why sometimes we put
capacitance to tune it out or you can use a larger number of loop turns and then we saw that
you can get a just a real number also and which can be fed directly with the coaxial feed to do
the matching. And then we looked at some of the application.
In the next lecture we will talk about slot antenna. Again just to tell you slot antenna is
nothing but a complement of a dipole antenna, so whatever is good for the dipole antenna it is
again good for the slot antenna; except for the difference. In the case of dipole antenna
whatever is E-field it will become H-field and H-field will become E-field. So, in the next
lecture we will see how to design a slot antenna.
Thank you.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 03
Lecture – 14
Slot Antennas
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Slot Antennas. Now, in the last few lectures we
have actually talked about dipole antenna, monopole antenna, and loop antenna. Today we
will actually start with the slot antenna and we will see that slot antenna is nothing but
complementary of a dipole antenna.
So, let us start our discussion on slot antenna. So, let just see here slot antenna is nothing but
it is a complement of a dipole antenna. Here instead of showing a normal dipole we have
shown a conical dipole antenna. For conical dipole antenna we need to feed it by a balanced
transmission line. Now, just the opposite of that will be that what? See here it is all air and we
have a metal. A slot antenna is nothing but all metal and then in between we cut this
particular thing. So, you can just see it is exactly opposite of that, metal is replaced by the slot
and air is replaced by the metal. Of course, now practically realizing this kind of a slot is
impossible, because you need to have a infinite ground plane and then you cut a slot in that.
So, practically we always have a finite ground plane and in that we cut a slot and we need to
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feed here the transmission feed line. So, one point will be connected here another point will
be connected over here.
Now, there is a one very interesting relationship between dipole antenna and this here and the
relationship is nothing but you can actually see that Zs multiplied by Zc that is the impedance
of the dipole and slot antenna is nothing but equivalent to this here and that should not come
as a surprise because see free space impedance is nothing but eta which is equal to 120 π .
So, we can actually see that if we use this concept here. So, that is one which is the dipole,
this is the slot antenna.
The product of this will be related to the free space E-field becomes H-field, H-field becomes
E-field the ratio of E and H-field is nothing but eta. So, that is how this is a constant thing. In
fact, lot of research these days is being done. Where people are trying to combine dipole
antenna and slot antenna. So, if you combine these two antennas, then the product will be
constant and if the product is constant; that means, it will give us a very large bandwidth over
the frequency range. In fact, theoretically or ideally this actually there is no frequency term
coming you can say that the product will be having a infinite bandwidth. Of course,
practically it never happens, because you will never have a infinite ground plane and all the
conditions of ideal will never happen in the practical scenario.
But, nevertheless this expression is very useful to design very broadband antennas also, but
right now let us just look at the slot antenna.
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So, now for slot antenna far field electric and magnetic field will be exactly same as the
dipole antenna with only one difference that, E-field will be replaced by H-field and H-field
will be replaced by E-field. So, other than that everything remains same.
So, here now we have taken a practical example and I just wanted to tell you. See this project
was actually given to us that we had to design an antenna, which is at 5.8 GHz and this
should have a large beam width. We will tell you what are the beam widths and other things.
So, gain was not that important for a single element, but of course, gain was important for
larger arrays. So, we will look into that also one by one.
So, our objective was to design antenna at 5.8 GHz, but the requirement was also a
unidirectional not Omni directional, but unidirectional. So, it should radiate in one direction.
So, what we have done here let us look into this here. So, here we have taken one substrate
and on that substrate here let say on the top side of the substrate we have a metallic patch and
in the substrate we have actually removed this rectangular slot.
So, rectangular slot has been cut of length l 1 and width w 1 and then a feed line is put on the
other side here. So, this is a microstrip line feed and this microstrip line feed here then is fed
by a coaxial probe. So, the ground plane of the coaxial probe will be connected on the top
side and then the center pin will be soldered to this here. So, this has lot of different different
parameters which we will look into one by one and this is backed by a cavity. So, that it gives
us a unidirectional radiation.
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See a slot will radiate like this here that is how the E-field will be like this. Remember for
dipole antenna H-field was like this, but for slot antenna E-field will be like this here. So, we
have put a cavity. So, that it goes here and reflects back and the cavity has been at a distance
of approximately λ/4 because short circuit at λ/4 will act as an open circuit. So, loading of the
cavity will be relatively less on this here now this is of course, the project, but in reality just
to tell you what actually is done for the slot antenna let us just look into that here. So, let us
say we have a metallic plate we cut a slot.
Now in case of a dipole antenna what we had seen if the length is λ/2 or approximately λ/2
for dipole antenna we actually take effective length as λ/2, but physical length is less than λ/2
and for the dipole antenna current is 0 here current is maximum and then current is 0. Now
for slot antenna reverse of that happens why because here it is all metal. So, at this point now
voltage is 0, but current is maxima. So, voltage is 0 here voltage is maxima and current is
maxima here current is 0. So, at this particular point then along this impedance is very high
the reason is that voltage is maximum current is zero which is reverse of the dipole antenna
that is why we are feeding it off center. Since the voltage here is 0, impedance at this point
will be 0 and impedance is maximum at this point. So, in between we can find a point where
we can feed it.
But, in a more simpler way if you just take a metallic plate, we need not always have a slot
antenna printed on a dielectric substrate. We can just have a simple metallic plate we can cut
a slot in this here and then if we need to feed that what simply we do we take a coaxial cable
and for the coaxial cable the outer shield which is a ground, will be soldered over here and
the center pin can be connected over here. Of course, we do not put in the center because
impedance will be high.
So, generally coaxial connector can be put over here the outer cable will be put somewhere
here and the center pin can be connected to this other side here and that way one can feed a
simple slot antenna. But here it is a slot antenna printed on a dielectric substrate and also
backed by a cavity. So, here we have taken a substrate which has a epsilon r equal to 2.55 and
thickness is approximately equal to 0.8 mm. So, let us see what are the things we have taken
the cavity dimensions are taken as this one here, but before we come to this here what we
need to do now we need to choose the slot length. Now, slot length should be approximately
λ/2. But now recall again for dipole antenna physical length was less than λ/2 because,
fringing fields were outside here it is reverse the case.
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Now where will be the fringing fields? So fringing field will be actually inside. So, for the
slot antenna fringing field will be inside. So, effective length will be now smaller than the
physical length. So, this is the major difference compared to a dipole antenna in dipole
antenna the physical length is slightly less than λ/2 in slot antenna physical length is slightly
more than λ/2.
So, let us just look at 5.8 GHz wavelength is approximately equal to 52 mm. So, 52 /4 is 13
mm which is the cavity here, but 52 /2 will be about 26. But you can see that we have taken
slot length which is larger than 26. So, physical length is now more than the effective length,
effective length should have been close to 26 mm as λ/2. So, you can see that there will be
fringing field; however, now there are too many additional parameters are there.
So, what is the effect of the length? We know that in general, if the length is increased
frequency will change. We need to know what is the effect of the width, we also need to see;
what is the effect of this offset, we need to know what is the effect of this length over here,
we also need to know what is the effect of this width here. Now generally this width is
chosen as a 50 Ω line which is for a microstrip line corresponding to the epsilon r and
thickness. Now this length here determines the coupling from this line to the slot. So, just to
tell you here, current is 0 here and current will keep on increasing. So, at a distance of λ/4
current will be maximum. And at maximum current there will be a magnetic field which will
be maximum and that will get coupled to this particular slot here.
So, if we choose λ/4 length here that will give rise to maximum coupling. But we can control
the coupling from here to this slot here and why we need to control the coupling, because we
would like to have a impedance matching with a 50 Ω line. So, let just see quickly; what is
the effect of the various parameters.
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So, remember whenever you are doing any design, it is always good to start with a good
starting point what should be my starting point and then to refine your design you should use
some software to do the refinement. But what we generally do we also do a parametric study.
So, that we know what are the effect of different parameter.
So, let us see here we have the plots for 3 different slot length. So, this is 33.4, 31.4, and
29.4mm. So, we know that if the slot length is increased, what will happen if the slot length is
increased from here to here frequency should decrease. So, you can see that from here
frequency is decreasing. So, that is a straightforward thing here we can also look at the smith
chart plot here one can actually see that the starting point has shifted slightly. So, we can
actually see that with increase in slot length resonance frequency decreases which is obvious
and input impedance locus also rotates clockwise recall that for an antenna as you change the
frequency the position on the smith chart also changes.
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Now, here is the slot width variation. So, what we have done we have taken 3 different slots
here 3, 4, 5 by changing the slot width the change in the resonance frequency is very small,
but what we really see here is the change in the impedance plot is very very significant. So,
for thin slot the bandwidth is actually less or we can say other way impedance is high. So,
impedance variation will be more. So, which is given by this curve here and then the slot
width is increased.
So, this is the curve over here and this is the slot width increased further and that is over here
now we know that, for the dipole if we have a thicker dipole; that means, if the width of the
dipole is increasing then its impedance bandwidth will increase and since we know that
impedance of the dipole multiplied by impedance of the slot is a constant quantity. So, if the
dipole antenna’s bandwidth is increasing then slot bandwidth will also increase.
But; however, if you see this curve here let just see here. So, this is 3 mm this is 4. So,
compared to this 3, you see that this is the VSWR 2 line here compared to this here we can
see that the green has a wider bandwidth. However, for this here you actually see that the
band width has not increased significantly. So, you might start wondering what is that why
bandwidth has not increased well the reason for that is impedance is not matched properly.
So, we need to do something. So, that we can do better matching for this particular width if it
is properly matched then this curve will shift on this side and then this is the VSWR equal to
2 circle. So, you will have a larger frequency inside the VSWR 2 circle.
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So, remember bandwidth for w equal to 5 mm will be larger than bandwidth for width equal
to 4 mm it is not. So, obvious over here the reason for that is impedance matching is not done
properly. So, impedance matching if that is done properly you will see a much larger
bandwidth for 5 mm.
So, here is the effect of the feed length variation. So, what is feed length? Let us just look into
here. So, this is the feed length variation. So, if we increase the feed here we know the current
will be 0 here and the current will be maximum at this point and also if the feed length
changes my feed point is over here. So, the effective length is increasing. So, one can actually
see that, if the feed length is changing from 16.5 to 18.5. So, as the length is increasing
frequency is also changing slightly. So, one can use this parameter also to do the optimization
for the slot length.
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So, here is the effect of the feed width variation now. As I mentioned generally you should
choose the width of the feed line as 50 Ω which is what the coaxial feed which you are using,
but this is just for seeing what is the effect. So, if we choose the feed width smaller, smaller
feed width would imply larger impedance. So, that is why the curve is here now as the feed
width is increasing its characteristic impedance will reduce. So, the curve will shift towards
this particular direction here sometimes this different width can be taken to do the proper
impedance matching.
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Here is the effect of the offset. So, if you change the offset now one actually wonders why if
the offset is changed, the resonance frequency changes? The reason why resonance frequency
is changing that this offset feed is placed on the slot. So, what is happening here now this is
getting coupled along with this here. So, current distribution variation varies because of this
loading.
So, the loading effect is there and because of the loading effect, the effective length of this
one changes and that is why there is a change in the resonance frequency now this effect may
not be very obvious as such. So, that is why we need to study all these things to do a proper
design. So, once the design has been optimized for the case values, which I had shown in the
table. So, after studying all the parameter these were the things chosen and then fabrication
was done.
And now let us see; what are the measured results, so this is what is the slot which one can
see over here. And here is the cavity which is not so visible and that cavity has been soldered
to the slot and here is the feed-point and that is where a microstrip line is going over here. So,
one can see that the impedance matching is fairly decent and this is the measured E plane
pattern at 5.8 GHz. And one can see that the maximum radiation is in 1 direction and the back
radiation is relatively less because we have provided a cavity in the backside.
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So, here is a comparison of simulated and measured results. So, simulated results we got a
bandwidth of you can say that fairly large bandwidth of more than five hundred MHz and
these are the measured results. You can see that they are relatively close to each other gain
measured and simulated are fairly close and these are the half power beam width. So, this half
power beam width can be actually seen from here, that one can see that this was much larger
thing here.
Now, had it been just a slot antenna only slot antenna. Then it would have been full coverage
like this here which will be omnidirectional. But, because of the cavity here back radiation
has reduced, but we can see that half power beam width is still within 3 dB over a large angle
which is given by about, measured is about 145 degree. Now just to tell you when we got this
project the requirement was minimum half power beam width of 120 degree larger beam
width was acceptable so we achieved that. Now there was another requirement and that was
the beam width in this plane is fine, but the requirement was also a narrow beam width or a
higher gain by using an array of this one here. So, what we are showing you here is we have
used arrays of these elements.
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In the next lecture I am going to talk about antenna arrays, but today you can think about a
preview of things which are going to come, in time to come. So, what we have here let just
have a quick look here. So, one can actually see that there is a top view and a bottom view I
will show you one by one here. So, there is a this whole thing is a metal and in the metal, one
can see that a slot has been cut over here a slot has been cut over here, a slot has been cut
over here do not worry this metal is same as this metal here this just shows the way modeling
is done.
But otherwise you can see a 1 slot, 2 slot, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. So, there are total 8 slots are there
you can actually say it is an array of slot antenna, this is known as also linear array why we
say linear array, because all the slot elements are arranged in the linear fashion. Now we have
8 slots we need to feed these slots also. So, how do we feed? Generally there is only 1 feed
point and then we design a power divider network. So, let us see one by one.
So, here we actually saw there is a one slot antenna and for this slot we need one microstrip
line feed here. So, this is fed over here, now this we had seen that it was matched with 50 Ω
line now this 50 Ω we have used a quarter wave transformer. So, quarter wave transformer of
characteristic impedance approximately 70.7 and we had seen that if you use a transmission
line concept, this acts as a quarter wave transformer. So, impedance at this point will be Z 02
divided by the load impedance.
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2
Now, Z02 is 70.72 which is actually (50 √2) /50 that gives us 100 Ω now we can see another
slot here that slot is again a quarter wave transformer is used. So, we get 100 Ω. So, 100 in
parallel with 100 we get 50 Ω then that 50 Ω again a quarter wave transformers is used, again
a quarter wave transformer is used. So now, these are 2 slot these are another 2 slot. So, the
same for the other two slot is done and then this is combined and feed over here.
Now this combination of 4 slots is right over here and then from here we took the point on
this direction here. Now I just want to tell you normally, when we design an array generally
feed is actually this 2 into 1 then 2 into 1, 4 element. So, this is the feed for 4 generally what
is done we take the point from here, we take a point from here we do the combination from
here and then feed. In fact this kind of a feed is actually known as a corporate feed. You know
how the corporate structure is? That let us say corporate structure will be let us say there will
be 1 president, then there can be 2 vice presidents then there will be people working under
them. Let us start let us say 1 then 1/2 then each of them let us say 2. So, this is what is done
normally. So, 1, but here we took it on the other side, the reason was when we were taking
this thing on this side over here.
Remember, now these are slot antenna and here there is a feed network. So, these were kind
of acting like a reflector for these slot antennas. So, radiation pattern was not coming
symmetrical. So, that is why. So, partly this acts as a reflector, partly this as a reflector. So,
they kind of evened it out. So, this one had a more symmetrical radiation pattern. So, now,
what is really happening? Now in this plane we have not added any slots. So, beam width
remains broad in this plane, but we added number of slots in this direction here. So, beam
width is reduced in this particular direction.
So, when we talk about linear array in the next lecture we will look into that how the number
of elements are fed. So, whether they are fed with equal amplitude or equal phase and what is
the amplitude between them and how we can design? But this is just a preview of that. So,
here, but conceptually what you can think about that if there is a one element which is let us
say giving a gain of say, in this particular case we saw let us say 5 dB. So, suppose now if
you use 2 element now naturally one would expect if I use 2 element gain should double
which in terms of dB it will increase by 3 dB. Now instead of 2 element if you use double of
that which is from 2 if you go to 4.
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So, what do we expect? That gain will increase by further 3 dB. So, 4 element gain
approximately be increased another 6 dB if you use 8 element then what do we expect the
gain will increase 8 times which will in terms of the dB that will be equal to 9 dB. So, let us
just see now how we did the fabrication part. So, here is the design part here is the fabricated
part. So, if you see the top view that is what you see here on the top you only see the slots and
nothing else and that is the integrated cavity back antenna you can see that the shadow is
basically nothing but it is cavity has been connected over here and then you can see there is a
bottom feed network which is actually shown over here.
So, only the feed network is coming on the backside of this here. So, you can see that these
are the microstrip line and then you integrate. So, this is the complete antenna assembly you
can see that basically one thin substrate. On the top side we have just etched the slot on the
other, other side we have etched this one, just one substrate and one metallic thing, so it is
relatively low cost also.
So, now let us what are the results. So, one actually got here for this particular array we got a
decent matching you can see that it is centered around 50 Ω line over here we will see the
measured and simulated VSWR here is the radiation pattern. So, we can see that in one plane
there is a no change because we have not added array, but in the other plane you can see that
this is the one main lobe and then there are lots of side lobe. One can also see that the back
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radiation is less compared to this (Refer Time: 26:05), because we have added a cavity. So,
the back radiation is relatively less ok.
In fact, this met the requirement which was there and let us see; what are the measured and
simulated results. So, one can actually see this is the simulated result here measured results
are reasonably close to the simulated result. So, we got an approximately a bandwidth of
about 600 MHz center frequency desired was close to 5.8 GHz there is a small shift, but still
it is meeting the requirement of the bandwidth now here is the gain plot, which I mentioned
to you for a single element gain was roughly 5 dB. So, if we use a larger number of elements
which is in this case.
So, we got a larger gain which is approximately 14 dB and one can see that the gain is
relatively constant, but yes at lower frequency gain is reducing and that is also one can also
apply the concept of the aperture area concept what is the aperture area which says that
directivity is equal to 4 π a/λ 2. So, 4 π is a constant ‘a’ is area of the array now area remains
fixed, but 4 π a/ λ2, whereas at lower frequency λ will increase. So, if λ increases directivity
or gain will reduce, but we can see that reduction is not very significant over the desired
bandwidth here. So, it meets the requirement of the antenna.
So, now we have discussed different type of slot antenna we actually saw parametric study.
So, we noticed that and it is very very important whenever you are designing an antenna it is
important that you do parametric study see what are the effects of various parameter because
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that helps you to design an optimum antenna where you can do proper impedance matching
you can do a proper requirement matching of the gain or the radiation pattern. So, we also
looked into today how to use a cavity, to convert an antenna which is a bidirectional or
omnidirectional antenna to a unidirectional. In fact, the same concept can also be applied for
a dipole antenna.
You can have a dipole antenna put a metallic plate behind it. So, it will radiate only in this
direction or we also saw that by cutting a slot on a substrate then we fed it using a microstrip
line from the other side and then the location of the feed point or the microstrip offset is very
important for proper impedance matching and again remember one another thing that the
total effective slot length will be slightly greater than λ/2. So, physical length will be greater
than λ/2. So, that effective length will be approximately equal to λ/2 then we applied the
concept of the array to realize a larger gain antenna with a narrower beam in 1 plane. So, in
the next lecture we will talk about arrays, arrays and arrays.
So, we will start with the linear array we will see different cases of amplitude different cases
of phases how we can change the beam how we can change the pattern how we can increase
the gain of the antenna. So, first we will talk about linear array and then we will look into
planar arrays.
Thank you very much. We will see you next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 04
Lecture - 15
Linear Arrays-I
Hello, today I am going to talk about antenna arrays. Till now we have discussed about
basic antenna configurations which are dipole antenna, monopole antenna, slot antenna
and loop antenna. Now all these antennas have a very small gain relatively 2 dB or it
could be 3 to 4 dB depending upon the length of the say dipole antenna or or monopole
antenna it depends upon the size of the ground plane. For example, monopole antenna
for infinite ground plane, directivity is about 5 dB whereas for smaller ground plane
monopole directivity is only about 2 dB.
Now, also these antennas have a very broad beam. So, they will be sending the radiation
in all the directions. For many point-to-point communications, we require antennas
which are pointing towards a certain direction and for that we can use arrays of these
elements. So, today we are going to discuss about various types of arrays.
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So, we will start with the arrays of 2 isotropic sources. So, where we will assume that
there are 2 isotropic. As I mentioned earlier there is no isotropic source as such, but for
assumption we can use isotropic source which radiates equally in all the direction. So,
we will use the arrays of 2 isotropic sources and we will consider various cases. For
example, they are fed with certain amplitude and we will vary the phase and we will see
that how the radiation takes place in different direction.
The next topic we will take is principles of pattern multiplication where we will take a
real antenna example. In this case, we will take a dipole antenna and then we will see
how dipole antennas can be used in an array form and we apply the principle of pattern
multiplication. After that we will talk about linear arrays of n elements, where n can be
anything from 2 to 10, 20, 100, and to start with we will take a case that all these
elements are fed with uniform amplitude, but their phases will vary.
So, for example, if all the elements are fed with the same phase, it will radiate in the
broadside direction which is perpendicular to the direction of the array. Then we will go
to the next topic that is ordinary endfire and in this case the phases are changing and then
from ordinary endfire we will actually see that there is a problem. The directivity of that
is not as good as we would expect and also beam was broadened. So, by using the
concept of increased directivity end fire array. I have given a nickname of idea, an idea
can change the life. So, we will see that by using just slightly different phase difference,
we can increase the directivity of the antenna and then we will look into scanning array
whereby changing the phase element you can stand the beam in different directions.
After that we will talk about non-uniform amplitude and we will actually see why we
need it.
First of all, if you use uniform amplitude, what we will see in the case of a uniform, first
side lobe level is about 13.5 dB below and we cannot get lower than that. So, by using
non-uniform amplitude we can reduce the side lobe level to 20 dB or even 30 dB. And
after that we will take examples of planar array in which we will talk about rectangular
array, circular array, triangular array, hexagonal array and so on.
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So, let us take example of array of 2 isotropic point sources. So, let us say we have 2
sources here, which are source 1 and 2. Both of these sources are isotropic elements, and
we want to find out what is the E field at point P. Now few assumptions we will do it
here, first is we are actually going to a faraway point. So, we are going to calculate what
is the far-field radiation? So, the condition over here is that far field distance is much
greater than the d, which is the distance between the 2 elements. So, now, assuming that
since the distance is very large we can assume that the field over here will be relatively
constant as far as the amplitude is concerned, but the phase will be different. So, we can
write total E field
Where, r1 is the distance from source one and beta r2 from source 2. Now, since r is much
larger than d, r is the distance from the origin. So, r 2 can be drawn over here, and this
distance will be half of the total distance which is d/2. This angle is . So, we can say
that will be this particular distance. So, r1 and r2 can be written as
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And here we are just measuring angle  if it is measured from the perpendicular axis. So,
then we can say  +  = 90. So, we can also write  = 90- .
So, now we substitute the value of r1 and r2 in this case in this equation here. So, that
equation gets modified. What you can see here that r is constant. So, we can write
outside so E-filed will be
. Now here we are just denoting .
Many a times, we write  = k. So, both the symbols are acceptable. If you read different
books you will see they use different symbol. So, the above equation is the expression
for Instead of measuring angle  from the axis of the antenna, if we do measure from
.
perpendicular axis then we can write in the form of in terms of . Now,
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This is very similar to writing something like and that will be
equivalent to . So, we can replace this function by a very simple cos
function and now we can substitute the value of . So, this is the array factor for 2
elements which are from isotropic elements. So, now let us just see a case here. So, we
have just noticed that . Now, this is a constant factor. So, we
can normalize this factor and say it is 1.
So, we can write normalized E field
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So, one can actually use this simple expression. So, let us take an example where spacing
. Substitute the value over here and using this, E-field gets simplified to
So, now here  will actually vary from 0 to 360 to calculate the overall radiation pattern,
but we can just take a few quick numbers and try to estimate the radiation pattern. So, let
us say if I take a case of  = 0.
Now for  = 90,
Now for  = 60,
So, based on just this information we can do the plot. So, this is  = 0, and this E = 0 and
now this is increasing at  = 60, this value is 1/2, and then it becomes maximum value
which is 1 and then it is getting repeated over here. Now this one is just showing the
radiation pattern in this plane, but there is a also pattern which is along that this entire
pattern will be rotated along this particular axis. So, what you are going to see that this
lobe is here and that lobe is completely rotated and it will be full 360. So, we can
actually now mention, that half power beam width in this particular plane is nothing, but
60, we can say that this is the half power point 60 is from here. So, this is 30 + 30 =
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60. So, half power beam width is 60 in this plane, but half power beam width is 360 in
another plane and these 2 half power beam width can be used to estimate the value of the
directivity, and for that we have given you formula earlier which is 4/(E x H). So, here
in one plane E = 60= /3 and in the other plane H = 2, from that you can calculate the
directivity of the antenna.
Now, instead of taking the 2 dipoles which were symmetrical with respect to origin, we
can actually take one antenna at the origin and we can take second antenna at a distance
of d. Now it does not matter how you place it E-field should remain same, but let us just
look at the derivation now, for 1 which is at the origin. So, far field will be nothing, but e
to the power minus j beta r. So, there will be no r1, because r1 = r here. So, that term
corresponds to 1 and this distance is d. So, now, the term will be e j .So, this here you
should remember that, if the distance is d/2 this will become /2. If the distance later on
we will take example when it becomes 2d, then this expression will be 2 .
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So, now this 1 + ej can be simplified, if we take e j /2
outside. What we are left with
terms and if you write this whole thing this is same as before
which is . Of course, there is a additional phase term, but the
additional phase term is really speaking we are not concerned about when we are looking
at a far field. See we are concerned about the phase term only, when you were trying to
do vectorial sum of different element. But once you have done the vectorial sum after
that we are only interested in the magnitude of the whole system. So, now, by setting E 0
= 1, we can write exactly the same expression as before of course, there is a phase term
which we are going to neglect and this entire equation can be also looked into the
graphical form.
So, one will be that will be the horizontal here and + ej which will be somewhere here
and if we take the effective or the addition of these 2 vector component, and that will be
maximum will be along the direction of /2. So, it does not matter whether we take
antennas symmetrical to the origin or one antenna at origin or some other place.
Radiation pattern amplitude will remain same.
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So, now let us just take another case where the 2 antennas are of the same type, but they
are fed with opposite phase. So that means, now this antenna is fed with let us say
amplitude a then this is fed by -a, which is 180 phase shift. And they are again
symmetrical with respect to origin. So, for the first element, the element value will be
Here, the second component E-field has a negative amplitude. So, now, instead of cos
/2 now the term will be sin /2 and this can be further expanded we can put the value
. Again let us take a case for d = /2. Now, the question comes all the time
why we take d = /2, we can always take d = /10 or /4 or  or 2 or 3.
Now actually speaking when you take the spacing as /2, the mutual impedance between
the 2 is actually close to 0. So that means, this antenna can be individually optimized and
another one can be individually optimized and the impedance loading of this antenna to
this will not be there. So, basically what happens if you excite one antenna, some field
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will be induced on the second antenna and if the second antenna is excited some field
will get induced on the first antenna. So, if we take a distance as /2, the impedance
effect is almost negligible. That is why, we take as /2, but later on we will see what
happens. If you change the spacing what is the effect on the gain, radiation pattern and so
on. So, right now we will take a special case of d equal to /2. We substitute this value
over here and we get the total pattern as . So, let us try to plot
again. So, we will take again a few cases here. So, let us take we take  = 0. So, this
expression becomes ,
when  = 90, cos 90 = 0 
when  = 60, .
So, if we now start plotting it over here. So, along  = 0, E = 1. So, field is maximum. As
we move along field is decreasing; it becomes 1/2 here and then it decreased to 0. And
then this whole thing is repeated in 0, 90 to full  plane here. And now we can actually
see the half power beam width in this case is equal to 120. Now in the previous case, we
had seen half power beam width was 60, over here we see the half power beam width is
120. So, that made people think why we cannot improve it, and this thought process
only led to the increased directivity endfire array which we will see later on.
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So, now let us take a next example where the 2 antennas are fed with equal amplitude,
but the phase difference is 90. Here, we are going to take 2 different cases of distance.
First case, we will take when the distance is /2 and since the phase difference is 90
which is equal to /2. So, we can actually take 0, /2 or we can take -/4 and +/4. So,
that is the value which has been put here, by substituting the value of that phase
difference. So, that equation gets modified slightly, and this is the combined effect where
we are putting /4 plus the rest of the term. This term is same as what we had seen earlier
when the phase difference was 0. Just because of this additional 45 on one side, we are
getting the term. So, again we normalize. So, let us say 2E 0 is normalized to 1. We are
taking a case of d = /2. So, we substitute the value. So, this is the total field for these 2
antennas which are of equal amplitude, but 90 phase difference.
So, we put  = 0
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when = 60
And that is how you fill the entire axis starting from 0 to 180 and that will be repeated
for 360. See again we start plotting this whole thing. So, along 0, E = 1/2, which is
now going to 0 at 60 and then it increases to 1/2 and then it goes here at 120, it is
maximum. Then at 180 it becomes 1/2. So, if you really see here in this particular half,
the half power beam width is complete, 180. Because it starts from 1/2 here, and then
it goes to 1 then 1/2, 1 and 1/2 and there is a back radiation here.
However, this situation changes slightly if I instead of taking /2 distance. If I take /4
distance; if you put instead of d = /2 over here, we put /4 this equation gets modified
over here and now if you substitute different values of  just to take one example. So, cos
0 if we put here
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Then we can fill all the other rows here, now, coming to this one here. So, we start
plotting. So, this is 0 and at 60, it is increasing, at over here it becomes 1/2 and the
beam maxima is over here, and then it is coming back to this. Now if you look into here
that the back radiation is almost negligible.
Now, you can actually think about. For example, if the antenna is put near the coastal
area. So, if you put omnidirectional antenna at the near the coastal area then it will be
radiating lot of power in the sea or along the ocean, which is not really desired, but if you
put 2 elements of equal amplitude with the /4 distance and /4 phase difference, then
we can actually realize a radiation pattern which is radiating only in the one side and the
backside radiation will be almost negligible. Of course, the same thing can also be
obtained by using a reflector also which will reflect the signal from the backside.
So, let us just take now the next case which is a 2 isotropic sources of same amplitude
with any arbitrary phase difference. So, that any arbitrary phase difference is defined by
 here. So, we can again do the derivation that this is-/2. This is +/2. So, expression is
similar, except that now is total will be including +. So, the expression is exactly
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same as before which is cos /2, except that now consists of the distance as well as
consists of the phase and by changing the value of the phase, we can actually change the
beam direction. As we had seen if  = 0, beam maxima was on the broadside direction,
and when  was changed from 0 to let us say 90, the beam maxima was 120 for
spacing equal to /2 and when  =180, the beam maxima was along the endfire. So, you
can change the radiation from broadside to the end fire direction, simply by changing the
phase difference between the 2 elements.
Now, let us just take a real example, where instead of taking isotropic elements. So, we
have taken 2 same dipoles and these are small short dipole and these are kept in the
horizontal direction and for this horizontal direction, they are fed with equal amplitude
and equal phase that is what means same. So, we have 2 same antennas. Now these 2
antennas are actually kept horizontal. Dipole is kept in the horizontal direction. So,
where will be the beam maxima? Beam maxima will be in the perpendicular direction.
Recall what I mentioned when we were talking about a dipole antenna. So, dipole
antenna if you see from the front side, you will actually see the maximum intensity and
as you move from the maximum towards the tip, you will see the minimum radiation, but
in this case dipole is not vertical it is horizontal. So, for horizontal, if you look at the
dipole you will see the maximum radiation in the broadside direction and minimum
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radiation in this particular direction which is along the x axis. Now that is the dipole
pattern.
Now, array factor since these 2 amplitudes are same. Phase is same. So, array factor will
be having in the maximum in the broadside direction. So now the total pattern will be
multiplication of these 2 pattern and that is known as principle of pattern multiplication.
So, in the form of equation, we can say for the dipole we can write the equation. Now
this is sine  it is important how  is mentioned and how you are doing. So, in this case if
you see  is measured from the x axis. So, in this direction,  is equal to 0. So, sine 0 will
be equal to 0, and that gives the minimum radiation. And that  = 90, sin 90 = 1, and
that gives the maximum radiation here.
Now, the array factor is nothing, but cos /2. So, what will be the total radiation pattern?
It will be multiplication of these 2. So, that is the total field and what is ? is over here
and since it is broadside  = 0. So, now, we need to multiply these 2. So, if you just look
at here. So, this is 1 x 1 = 1. So, let us say if this is 0.7 here, and let us say this is also
approximately 0.7. Then 0.7 x 0.7 = 0.49, which will make it much narrower. In fact, you
can think in the lighter way that 2 fat people multiplied together will give rise to a slim
person. So, if we can apply this concept in the real life, we can actually solve the
problem of obesity from the entire world, where 2 fat people multiplied together will
lead to the narrow people or thin person well that does not happen in the human being,
but over here the simpler wires or dipoles here can multiply and this is giving a narrow
beam, and if the beam is narrow naturally it will have a higher directivity. Now, it is
important how you place the antenna. Instead of putting the antenna in the horizontal in
this case if we put the dipoles in the vertical orientation, which is right over here which is
a vertical.
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So, now even though the dipole is same, but we are now writing instead of previous case
we had written sin, now it becomes cos. So, it is important that from where  is
measured. So, just look again, this is the  = 0 axis. So, cos 0 = 1, that will give me
maximum radiation and when  = 90, cos 90 = 0. So, this is what is the dipole pattern.
But the array factor remains the same because the 2 dipoles are fed with equal amplitude
and equal phase. So, array factor is in the broadside direction. So, now, if we multiply the
2 what we get we get kind of a butterfly pattern. Why let us see this is 1 here. 1 x 0 = 0
here, over here this is 0, but this is 1. Again, 1 x 0 = 0 here. So, in between along this
here this has a finite value, this also has a finite value. So, that gives me a maximum
thing, but now suppose you just thought this as a dipole antenna, and you are going to
put the thing, but orientation is very important. So, if you just put horizontal then the
beam maxima will be this, but if you made the mistake of putting it vertical, and you are
trying to make the measurement in the broadside direction, you will actually get 0 value.
And that actually creates butterflies in your stomach that is what is the pattern about. So,
please ensure that how you place the antenna what is the orientation of the antenna and
how do you feed the antenna. Of course, this vertical thing will be perfect case if you are
designing an endfire array, if it was endfire array, then what happened this is the dipole
pattern which is maximum here. Endfire array then the array factor will be also
maximum in this. And then what will you get you will get narrower beam in this thing
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that would mean higher directivity in the endfire direction. So, it all depends upon what
is the application you are looking at.
So, now we can actually go through the next point n-isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude and spacing. So, here what we have? There are n number of elements are there
and they are started with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on. We are starting from origin. So, that will
be the first point here, axis is same, this is  = 0. So, this will be  = 90 over here. So,
we can actually now find out what is the total field at a faraway point. So, it is relatively
simple if you follow the principle which we did for 2 elements and since this is origin,
origin the distance will be r1, but r1 = r. So, this will be 1. The next term will be .
Then the second will be next will be because the distance is 2d, then 3d is the
distance of and so on.
Where is as before, there is a no change. Now, we need to solve this particular
equation. The easier way to solve this equation is that you multiply this entire equation
with . So, it is multiplied on both left side and right side.
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Now all it is we take the difference of above 2 equations. And if we take the difference of
the 2, this term will be left which is 1, and the last term over here. All the other terms
will get cancelled over here.
From here we can find what is E and that is given by this expression.
This is the array factor and what is the maximum value of this array factor? The
maximum value is when 0. Because when 0, see if you just look precisely  = 0,
it will give you something different. Like say (sin 0 = 0) / (sin /2 = 0). So, 0/0 will be
indeterminate. But you have to apply D-hospital rule and that says when x  0. So, sin x
0, where, x is small, sin x = x. So, this term becomes x and this n/2 and down below
is /2. So, the maximum value will be equal to n. So, we can now write E norm is nothing,
but sine n/2 divided by this here. Now, this is an important thing and in the next lecture
we will talk about more detail about this particular thing here and remember all the
pattern all the calculations can be derived from just this one very simple equation. I will
just show you the plot, but we will continue in the next lecture.
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So, this plot which has been plotted for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10, and if you can actually
see the number of side lobes here. By using this equation, we can find out what is the
half power beam width, we can find out what is the direction of the null, we can find out
in which direction there will be side lobe, what will be the amplitude of the side lobe. So,
in the next lecture, we will do the larger array and we will also see different cases.
But just to summarize. So, we started with the 2 isotropic elements, which are fed with
equal amplitude different phases, and we also saw for 90 phase difference, for 2
different cases /4 and /2 and for /4 we could actually realize the radiation which is
negligible in the back direction and then we looked into the pattern multiplication and
how the dipoles can be placed and how the radiation pattern cumulative can be obtained
and we just looked at the derivation of the n element. So, please go through it and in the
next lecture. We will talk about more about how to calculate directivity, how to calculate
null positions and so on.
Thank you.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 04
Lecture - 16
Linear Arrays-II
Hello, in the last lecture we discussed about linear array and we actually started with a
very simple concept of 2 isotropic elements and we had seen that when these 2 isotropic
elements are fed with equal amplitude and different phases, we can get the beam in
different direction. For example, if the phases between the 2 elements is 0 then the beam
is in the broadside direction; that means, if I have an array axis like this. So, beam will be
maximum in the perpendicular direction and then we had seen that as we change the
phase between the different elements. So, for example, when the phase difference was
180 for spacing of /2 we saw that the beam instead of being maximum in the broadside
it went into the endfire direction and as we changed the phase from 0 to 180, we can
change the beam.
So, we started with 2 isotropic elements, and then we discussed about 2 dipole antennas
which are fed with equal amplitude and then different phases, and we had actually seen
the principle of pattern multiplication.
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So, how the dipole orientation will change the pattern, after that we did the derivation for
linear array of n elements, and what we have found out that for a linear array, the array
factor is given by and the maximum value of this can be obtained when
 0. So, when  0 then sin (n/2) = n/2, as we know that sin x  x. The
denominator sin /2 = /2. So, .
If we normalize this particular function then we divide it by n so; that means, now this
function has a maximum value of 1. Now this entire thing can be plotted for different
values of n and different values of , and the plot is shown over here.
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So, along the x-axis what we have?  is varying from 0 to 180, and along the y-axis
we have a array factor which is the normalized electric field. So, let us see if there is a
single element what will happen, array factor will be simply equal to 1, for n = 2, the
array factor goes from 1 to a low value of 0 at  = 180. In fact, this can be checked if 
=180 and if n = 2, we can see that this value will go to 0 value and then as n increases.
So, n = 3; the curve goes like this here there is a one side lobe level when n = 4. There is
a complete side lobe level and if I look at n = 10, there are multiple side lobe levels
whose amplitude is decreasing progressively.
You can also see that as we are increasing n. So, n = 2, 3, 4, 5,…, 10 if we look at the
half power beam width, how do we define half power beam width where array factor is
reduced from 1 to 1/2  0.707. So, if you draw the horizontal line from here. So, we can
see and this is the half part. In fact, the other part will be actually symmetrical to this
which will go like this here. So, we are only showing the one part from the broadside
direction.
So, we can see that the half power beam width continuously will decrease as we increase
number of element say from starting if we our imaginary line then n equal to 2 half
power beam width will be large then it will decrease, it will decrease, it will decrease.
So, which is we also know that from array factor theory that actually says aperture area is
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nothing, but equal to directivity is given by 4Ae / square where Ae is area. So, we
increase number of element area will increase and that is how the directivity will
increase. So, half power beam width decreases mean that directivity is increasing.
So, now from here we can actually find out various things that, what will happen where
will be different nulls there, but before that let us just look at what happens if we change
the phase for number of elements.
So, we will take a case here where, we have 4 different elements. All these elements have
a spacing of d in between and we are taking a special case of d equal to /2. So, we start
with the function , = +  this derivation we did in the last lecture. For
broadside,  = 0, we have taken d = /2 and n = 4. So, then if we substitute this value in
the function , we can see that d = /2. So, if  = 0 and the array
factor is as before .
So, let us just try to plot this. In fact, we would like to plot this, radiation pattern and we
can of course, start with let us say  = 0 and then 10, 20, 30. We can rotate for
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complete  = 0 to 360 and that takes lot of time. So, we can do some quick things also
and that is suppose if we take  = 0. So, if we take  = 0, cos 0 = 1. So,  =  here and if
 = , we put the value here, this is  and we put n = 4 here then this function will
become equal to 0. So, that is why it is 0.
At  = 60, cos 60 = 1/2, this will become /2, again we put here  /2 and this is 5. So, 4
into (/2) *2 = , and sin  = 0. So, again this will be 0 now when we take a case of  =
90 which is broadside. So, cos 90 = 0,  = 0 and will be nothing, but again we
have done that before that. When   0. This whole function will now become 1
because this is normalized with respect to n. So, we get 1.
So, if we now start plotting here. So, starting from here  = 0. So,  = 0, E = 0. As value
of  increases this lobe comes and then at 60 this function goes to 0 and then we
increase further to 90, it goes to the maximum value of 1 and then this whole trend is
repeated because the sine functions repeat itself. So, we can see from here that half
power beam width will be given over here, but the beam width between first null is
nothing, but in this case 60 because this angle is 60. So, this will be 30 and 30. So,
beam width between the first null will be 60.
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Let’s just take another case now that is the case of ordinary endfire. So, we start again
with the . We are taking d = /2 and this time we want beam maxima in  = 0 that is
what will give us endfire array and for this particular value we force the conditions  = 0
that is for maximum radiation. We put these values over here. So,  is calculated from
this which comes out to be minus  or 180. We substitute the value of this  over here
we get . Now, again we can look at a different
different angle. So, at  = 0, and if  = 0
array factor gives us value 1 when  is 60.
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and if we substitute this value in the array factor that comes to
be 0 and when  = 90, .
So, we can now do the plot same way. So, along  = 0, this is maximum and as 
increases, it is changing and it goes to 0 value. Then in between it increases and again
comes back to 0 value. So, if we now see the beam width between the first null. So, the
beam width between the first null is given by this particular angle here, which happens to
be 120 and that actually is much larger if you compare this with the broadside array, the
beam width between the first null was 60, now it is 120. So, this made researcher think
why ordinary endfire array has a broader beam width which results to a smaller gain. So,
what can be done? So, to do that then this concept of ordinary endfire came into picture,
we look into that what is that concept, but let us first look at as an example first.
So, here we have actually 10 isotropic elements. In this case the distance is /4 between
these elements. So, there are 2 plots shown over here. This is the plot for ordinary end
fire array and this is the plot which is actually increased directivity end fire array, which
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I have given a nickname as IDEA an idea can change the life and here an idea has
changed the directivity, and increased the directivity. So, what really is happening how it
is happening? First let us see the example quickly. So, in this particular case for ordinary
end fire array, half power beam width is 69 whereas for increased it is 38. So, one can
see that there is substantial reduction in the half power beam width and that is why
directivity increased from 11 to 19. So, how this particular thing is realized, so for that
we have to actually think about what is the phase for end fire array, we had seen that
where, this accounts for the phase,
but for increased directivity we take additional phase delay of /n compared to the
previous case and why do we take this additional phase difference. So, that will be clear
if we actually look at this plot here.
So, just look at the now we will not look at the normalized value, but let us just look at
this function here. . So, in this case we have plotted 2 plots separately, this is
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the plot for the denominator which is and  is varying from 0 to . So, as
 changes from 0 to  at  =  it will be sin(/2) = 1. So, this one will vary sinusoidal
from 0 to 1.
What about the top case numerator here numerator is ? and we have
taken an example of n = 8. So, if we start with 8 here and then as  changes one
can actually see that there are number of sinusoidal variations and the total you
can see here the maximum for  =  , and that is that
variation will be close to 4 half cycles or 2 complete cycles. So, what is the first maxima
here, the first maxima come when  = / n, and that is the
maximum value. At = 2 /n,
Now, if we look at the radiation pattern, We can see that

the first beam maxima comes and then there is a null and then there is a side lobe coming
into picture. So, now, just remember this now after the null only some maxima comes
right. So, now, if we just look at this plot here, so that first side lobe level actually
corresponds to this point, because it is coming after the null. So, what is this point then
why something is maximum over here and if you actually look at this point here, at this
particular point, the beam is maximum and at this particular one if we just look at the
corresponding value. So, here the maximum value is 1. So, sin (n/2) maximum value
will be equal to 1, and what will be the corresponding value here well we have to put  =
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/n. So, this function becomes now sin(/2n). So, this is the maximum value of this
particular function, so if you normalize that with respect to .
So, now for increased directivity end fire. Normalized value is not this function divided
by n because n happens over here that is the maximum point. This is the value which is
corresponding to this maxima divided by corresponding value over here, if we go back
and look at the same curve. So, the point which we are looking at is somewhere here,
where this value of the numerator is increasing to the maximum value and divided by
denominator value. So, if we now start from that. So, what is happening? We are starting
now instead of starting from here, now we are starting from here. So, if we start from
here you can see that my null will come much faster and if the null is coming faster and
from here if I look at half power beam width half power beam width will come very fast.
So, that is the reason if we provide this additional phase and we start from here my half
power null beam width is reduced and we have a more side lobe and over here if you
look at the amplitude of the side lobe is much larger than the amplitude of the side lobe
over here. The reason for that is over here all the side lobes were divided by a maximum
value of n, whereas all the side lobes are not divided by n, but a lower value and hence
side lobe levels increase, in this case that is the reason why adding this additional phase.
So, this is the additional phase corresponding to  = /n. So, if you use this particular
thing we need to use this normalized function and that is how we can realize the
increased directivity endfire array.
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So, let us look at a few other example, let us say we want a beam maximum at  = 60.
So, this is  = 60 here. So, this is our desired beam maxima. So, for that we need to
calculate what should be the corresponding phase value. So, 
= 0 we put that condition this is same as before .
So, we need to calculate  and we take a case of d = /2, if you
do that dr =  and  becomes - /2 so; that means, if we take a phase delay of -90; that
means, this should be fed at 0, this should be at -90 then this will be another -90 which
will be -180, and this will be -270. So, if we feed it like this then the beam maxima will
be in this direction which is at  = 60 and since the beam is symmetrical with respect to
the axis of the array, the whole pattern is getting rotated by full conical thing. So, that is
the reason we actually see the 2 different cone, but actually this is 2 dimensional, but the
whole this cone is getting rotated completely here. So, what you really get is a conical
radiation pattern.
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So, now we need to find out where is the direction of null and other parameter. For
example, here one of the thing let us just go back. So, we can find the null over here and
here, but how do we mathematically calculate in which direction null is coming and also
we would like to find out in what direction minor lobes are coming and also we want to
find out what is the amplitude of these minor lobe or also known as SLL side lobe level?
So, how do we calculate these? Well, these can be calculated from the simple this array
factor function. So, let us start looking into that one by one.
So, null direction. So, this is our array factor when will be the null whenever the
numerator becomes 0 except for the condition that  should not be 0. Because there it
becomes 0/0 and that is maximum value. For all other values wherever this becomes 0.
So, now, we can say we would like sin (n/2) = 0 which will give us the direction of
null. So, k = 1, 2, 3,… k  0 because that will
give us a 0 value. So, from here we can find out what is . So, .
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So, let us just take an example. We will take an example of a broadside array. So,  = 0.
So, we now substitute the value of  over here, which is
So, 0 can be calculated and this one will give us the direction of null and all these thing I
have done for just a broadside. All these general cases are given over here. So, what we
have? First case is general case where  will have a  term.  can vary anything from 0
to 180, and this one is a null direction for any length. This is an approximation which is
used for a long array.
Normally what it means long arrays if number of elements are more; that means, if n is
large, array will become large. So, some approximations have been made here, and then
beam width between the first null this expression is given here. So, let us say for
broadside. Now if you see here it shows sine inverse whereas what I have written here is
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cos inverse. So, there is nothing wrong everything is fine. The only difference is this 0 is
measured from the axis of the array whereas, over here 0 is measured angle from the
broadside. So, from broadside  0 will be nothing, but 90 - 0, cos90 - 0 will give rise to
sine. So, that is why the function sine is coming into picture here and from here if you
just look at it sin-1x = x that is the approximation when this term is very small and that is
obvious if n is large, this term will be small and the same thing is done for ordinary end
fire or increased directivity and if the null direction is given here. So, beam width
between the first null will be 2 times this. So, that is the expression given for this.
So, now let us just look at the next case examples which we have seen beam width
between first null and approximate array length. So, we can see that as array length
increases we can see from here as array length increases. So, n increases then null
direction will reduce; that means, beam width between the first null direction will reduce.
So, you can see that as the so, this is the situation for broadside that is the case for
ordinary endfire and you can see that for increased directivity a beam width between the
first null is reduced; that means, correspondingly half power beam width will reduce also
and that is why directivity will increase. Now, there is a just small approximation which I
want to highlight. That is nd/ is considered as approximately array length what is d  =
d/, but in reality for linear array with uniform spacing d array length is actually equal to
(n -1)*d. So, this is just an approximation over here.
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So, now let us see how we can calculate the direction of maximum side lobe level and it
is actually a gain we start with the array factor what we really want is now this time we
want the numerator should be equal to 1 and when numerator will be one when n/2 =
/2 then sin /2 = 1. So, if we just put that into here sin (n) = 1. Now, just to mention
see array factor is always the magnitude of the entire value. So, whether it is plus or
minus ultimately we are concerned about only magnitude. So, from here we can say n/
2 should be odd multiple of /2. It cannot be even multiple because even multiple will
give us a 0 value. So, this is the function how n/2 is related and from here, we can find
out the value of  =2k + 1 and once we know what is the value of  for side lobe level,
we can put now and depending upon the value of , we
can calculate the value of maximum radiation, other than the main lobe and that will be
minor lobe radiation.
So, this actually gives us the direction of side lobe. How do we calculate the magnitude?
Well let say this is the array factor all we now know that sin (n/2) for this case should
be equal to 1? So, we have put one over here, and now in the denominator, we have n
sine and what is ,  is given by this value here if we substitute this value. So, this is the
magnitude of the SLL function coming into picture here and from here we can make one
more approximation now that is if n is large. So, for very large n we can say sine x will
become x. So, we make this x over here multiply this here, n, n will get cancelled that is
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the array factor for large n. In fact, this gives us value for side lobe level for different
values of k.
So, the first side lobe will be for k equal to 1 and that comes out to be 0.212 and if we
take 20*log (0.212) = -13.5 dB. So, we can actually see that if all the elements are fed
with uniform amplitude, the best side lobe level we can get is -13.5 dB for first side lobe.
For second side lobe k = 2, this value will be smaller. For third side lobe k = 3, this value
will become even further smaller and this is obvious from the curve that the first side
lobe level is larger, we go to the next one then we go the next one, we can see that the
side lobe levels are decreasing, but the problem is that the first side lobe level is never
below -13.5 dB.
So, now the next thing is. So, what is the desired side lobe level so in fact, in general
think about the side lobe as power going in the undesired direction. So, let us say if the
side lobe level is say -10 dB. That means -10 dB corresponds to 10 % so; that means,
10% power is going to the undesired direction. So, if the side lobe level is -20 dB. That
means, only one percent is going in the undesired direction. So, think about a radar
application which is probably transmitting 1 kW of power in the main beam and if side
lobe level is only 10 dB. That means, 10 % of 1kW = 100 W. Power is getting directed in
some other undesired direction. Even 20 dB, would mean 1% of the power. So, 1% of
1kW = 10 W power going in the undesired direction. So, especially for application
where, we need to transmit higher power. We always try to make a lower side lobe level.
Also for many satellite applications, we prefer that the side lobe level should be 20 dB,
or 30 dB below the main beam. So, the direction of the minor lobe can be obtained just
from the same expression here.
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So, substitute the value of  and we can get the different values of the minor lobe. So,
this is the general case here, where this is nothing, but . Special cases are given over
here for broadside, ordinary endfire. So, by using this concept here you can actually
speaking find out the direction of minor lobe.
So, how do we calculate half power beam width. So, half power beam width can be
actually found in a simple way, wherever array factor becomes 1/2 because this
maximum value is 1 so; that means, now if we assume again assumption of large n then
this function here sin(/ 2) = /2. So, this is like sin x = x which is the sinc function and
we want that 1 /2. So, if we solve this one here n/2 = 1.3915 and if you want to use
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your calculator to find out you can actually put this value here except that you put 1.3915
in degree and that means, you convert 1.3915 multiplied by 180/ otherwise this value is
in radian. So, again for broadside, we put the value of  here  = 0, and from here we can
calculate what is the cos  and this gives us the expression for half power beam width
which is 50.8/L, what is L = nd/.
Here, this expression gives all the different cases here. So, here we have a beam width,
directivity, aperture. First we will start with the linear source which is broadside endfire,
increased directivity. Expression for directivities are given here and here half power
beam width expression are given. So, one can see that half power beam width in one
plane is 50.8/L as we saw, but in other plane it is 360, but for ordinary endfire, half
power beam width is same in both orthogonal plane and here we have a case of square
broadside array; that means, an aperture of a square of length total L  and L. What is A
for square is L x L. Similarly, for square we can say what is the aperture theory says D
= 4A/ 2, and what is A = r2. So, 4 x r2 reduces to D = 2d2/2 and these are the
corresponding half power beam width.
So, today what we have seen that different cases we studied. So, how array factor can be
simply seen for the broadside array for ordinary end fire and for increased directivity
how normalized value of array factor changes and then we actually look at some of the
special cases of broadside array, ordinary endfire array increased directivity, and we also
found out how to calculate the phases for the desired beam direction and then we also
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derived the expression for how to calculate the null direction, how to calculate beam
width between the first null, then how to calculate the direction of side lobe level, and
how to calculate the magnitude of side lobe level and then towards the end we saw how
to calculate half power beam width of the antenna and from half power beam width we
can calculate the directivity.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 04
Lecture – 17
Linear Arrays-III
Hello, in the last lecture, we looked in to the linear array and for the linear array, we saw
how the maximum radiation can be calculated in the main beam direction as well as how
the radiation can be calculated in the minor lobes which actually are also known as side
lobe level. We also looked at the expression, how to find out the null direction and then
how to calculate the first null beam width. Then we looked into the different thing and
now the let us just look at the again one more time the radiation pattern of the array.
So, we can see here that the array is reducing down to a certain value, but there is a
possibility that if we increase the  value to a greater value. For example, if  increases
beyond 180 it goes from 0 to 180 and then it becomes let us say 360. At  = 360,
again the radiation will be maximum. So, if that value happens somewhere in this
domain for some other value of  that can give raise to grating lobe. So, we should
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always try that  should not become 2. If  = 2, then again will have a maximum
radiation. So, that maximum radiation is known as grating lobes.
So, we need to avoid the grating lobes in all the situation. So, we have seen that  is
given by this particular expression and this should be less than 2 and where m is the
direction of maximum radiation, just to recall if m = 0 that will be an end fire array and
when m = 90 that will be broadside array. So, over here the condition is that  must
always be less than 2. So, if we simplify this, we can see that d/ should be always less
than this term over here.
Now, the maximum value of cos , as  varies from 0 to 360 can be -1 and over here the
maximum value of this again can vary from 0 to 1. So, we can say that if d/ is always
less than, this which is the maximum of the denominator. So, that will be So, if this
condition is satisfied,  will never ever become 2 for any given value of
m. So, that leads to a condition. For broad side what is m? m will be 90, cos 90 = 0.
So, d/ < 1. So, if you are designing a broadside array, d < , but if we are designing an
end fire array in that case m = 0, cos0 = 1. So, this should d < /2 and this is an
important thing that for end fire array d < /2 and for broad side d <  and if d = /2, it
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will give rise to the grating lobs. In fact, we can actually look at the very first example of
the 2 element which we had seen that in this particular case.
If you see that this is the end fire array and the distance taken was d = /2, and that is
why there is a grating lobe on this direction. Had we taken d < /2 then this grating lobe
would not have occurred. So, you have to remember that that d must be less than /2 for
end fire array and if you are scanning the beam. So, let us the beam is
being scanned to say 60. So, cos 60 = 1/2 So, d/ < 2/3 for a beam maximum to be at
60. So, that is why majority of the time, when we design a broad side array invariably
we take d as may be 0.5 or 0.6 or 0.7, but never close to . Similarly, when we
design a end fire array, majority of the time we take d less than 0.25 or may be 0.3, but
never close to 0.5.
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So, now let us see what happens when power to one of the element is missing. So, here is
the case when all the 5 elements are fed with equal amplitude and equal phase, and in
this particular case just to tell. So, there are 5 sources, each source is space at /2, the 5
elements. So, from here we can just look at. So, this array factor is very similar to the
array factor which we have derived earlier, and for this case you can see that the beam
here is going to at 0.71, at after a 10.4. Here, this angle is varying from 0 to 90. So,
half power beam width will be double of this here.
Now, instead of all the 5 elements, let us say that if one of the element here is not getting
the power. So, array length still remains the same. So, one can see interesting that, this
particular beam width remains almost the same, but what is the difference, this might the
nulls are almost disappeared, and we have a side radiation which is actually fairly high.
So, if you try to calculate directivity using the expression D = 4/(E x H ), it is not a
good idea you should also look at what is happening to this. So, compared to this pattern
here directivity of this is actually higher compared to this because, unnecessarily
radiation is going in the undesired direction. So, over here, now there is a different
situation the central element is not fed, but all other elements are fed. Now, if central
elements is not fed let see what is happening. This one has reduced from 10.4 to 9.2, but
the side lobe level has increased drastically. So, again if we blindly apply the concept of
that half power beam width reduce, directivity will increase. Then this will give us a
wrong answer. In fact, the directivity here is reduced compared to this here why?
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Because lot of power is getting wasted in this particular minor lobe which has increased
significantly, over let just pay little attention here. So, what we are doing we have put 1 1
1 0 1 1. So, the central element is 0 what we are noticing side lobe level increases. So,
now think other way round. So, if the central element is fed more power then what will
happen? Side lobe level will decrease and over here half power beam width actually
reduces. So, but if we use more power here than half power beam width will increase, we
will see in the next slide, what happens if we actually use an non uniform amplitude, but
let just take another one last case here, that the last element is not fed and when the last
element is not fed, this whole thing is equivalent to 4 element array and we know that for
4 element array the half power beam width will be more, and there will be just one
complete side lobe and that you can see from the array plots. So, let us just now see what
happens if we use uniform amplitude or we use non uniform amplitude.
So, again let us take a case here. There are 5 elements are there. So, for these 5 elements
equal amplitude is fed and the spacing between the element is /2 and if the spacing is
/2 total lengths will be 2 from 1 to 5 element. So, for this case we can see that this is
the radiation pattern and the side lobe level here would be less than -13 dB. If we use
binomial distribution, what is binomial distribution? We will see in the slide, but over
here, let us just look at this distribution here, where we are feeding at 1, 4, 6, 4, 1; that
means, the amplitude fed over here is 6 times more than the end element and in this case
if you see there is absolutely no side lobe level. So, that is a great thing.
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But there is a difference is that the half power beam width increased from 23 to 31. So,
even though there is a no side lobe, but just because half power beam width increased.
So, drastically the gain of this antenna is relatively less and I want to tell you here except
for 3 element binomial practically binomial distribution is not used. So, generally a
practical case is somewhere over here. Even the terms is optimum in this case here the
levels are 1, 1.6, 1.9, 1.6, 1 so that means, the central element is approximately twice of
the power fed compared to the end element and in this case you can see side lobe levels
have reduced which is less than -20 dB, but the half power beam width here is slightly
more than this one here, but it is less than binomial distribution.
So, gain of this will be slightly less than this, but side lobe levels are improved further.
This is the just one case you can actually think more like from a grating lobe point of
view, if only 2 end elements are fed what really would happen. It is like spacing between
the element is now = 2 and we have seen that for broad side grating lobes happens if the
spacing between 2 elements is , but here it is 2. So, there are 2. Now, there are 2
grating lobes which have come.
So, generally speaking this is not desired except for an application where you probably
want to send maximum beam in multiple directions, which is very few applications
require that. So, in general we should never ever have a situation, where spacing between
the element for broadside is more than . Otherwise it will give rise to the multiple lobe.
So, half power beam width may look narrow, but the directivity is much less.
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So, how do we calculate binomial amplitude distribution? Well it is something like (1 +

x)m-1. So, if m =1; there is only one element, then m =2, 3. You can actually think about
something like (a + b)2. What is (a + b)2 = a2+ 2ab + b2 So, a2 coefficient is 1, 2ab
coefficient is 2, b2coefficient is 1. If you look at (a + b) 3, it is a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2+ b3, but
one can actually also do the derivation in a very simple manner. You can actually make
like concept of the tree here. So, what we do here, 1 +1 =2 put here and side 1 goes there,
over here 2 + 1 = 3, 2 + 1 = 3, put that in between end elements are 1. Next here 3 + 3 =
6, 3 + 1 = 4, 3 + 1= 4 here. Going down further 6 + 4 = 10, 6 + 4 = 10, 4 + 1 = 5. So,
now think about if I have to go to even a larger element. Suppose if I go to 7. M = 7; this
it will be then 10 + 10 = 20 will be here. 10 + 5 = 15 will be there. If I go next it will go
to 35. So, the amplitude ratio changes drastically, and that is why power fed to the end
element is very small and if the end elements are not getting power it is almost
equivalent to having a lesser number of element. Yes, we do not get any no side lobe
levels are there, but beam width becomes very bad gain decreases and hence practically
binomial distribution is not used.
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So, what are the different plots here let us just look into it. So, here is an non uniform
amplitude distribution for different cases, but first one here is uniform; that means, all
elements are fed uniformly. What we have taken here, total number of elements 17. So,
here are central element 8 elements on the right side, 8 elements on the left side and the
spacing here taken is /4. So, the total length of the array is 4.
So, for uniform all 17 elements are fed with equal amplitude. A binomial distribution
which we had just seen in the previous one, if we take that binomial distribution that
distribution will look like this. Now you can see that the last 3 elements 8, 7, 6, this side
and 8, 7, 6, the power fed to these element is almost close to 0. So, it effectively works
more like a 13 element array, instead of 17 elements and that is why the directivity of
binomial distribution is very poor. So, now, these are the 2 extreme cases, we have two in
between cases here. So, we have a Taylor distribution which is shown like this here, just
like a Taylor series and this is the Dolph Tschebyscheff distribution here, just like
Tschebyscheff filter, which has maximally flat response. So, these are the different cases
here. In fact, you can also approximate this as a roughly a triangular waveform with
some pedestal. This can be almost thought off as a sinusoidal waveform with some
pedestal. So, there is a similarity between triangular and cosine function.
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So, let us just see if we actually use the distribution which is given by these here. If you
have a cosine distribution that will be the cosine distribution, at triangular distribution is
given by dotted here. That is a triangular distribution and this is a cosine square
distribution. So, if you actually see cosine square distribution kind of resembles with the
binomial distribution. So, that is why this cosine square gives the lower side lobe level
compared to the uniform thing. So, actually speaking instead of using many a times those
dot Tschebyscheff or Taylor. It is actually simpler to use triangular distribution or
sinusoidal distribution because it is easy to derive these expressions.
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So, here is the plot here. You can see here uniform, triangular, cosine, cosine squared. So,
what we have here. Distribution is given that is i 0 and triangular will be given by this
cosine. I just want to bring to your attention that we started with the linear array which
has a number of element, but if number of elements are increased drastically and if we
reduce the spacing between the 2 element. Let just take a case here. Instead of 17
elements if I say that the distance is reduced from /4/10 times. Let us say /40. So; that
means, we will have very large number of element, but since that distance is reduced, I
will use 10 times more element. So, it almost looks like a discrete array is now close to a
continuous element array. So, here we are actually showing instead of writing an array
factor, we are defining the term space factor. So, array factor limiting condition is space
factor. So, array factor in which d is reduced to small value, n increases. So, we know for
array factor what we had seen the function was sin(n/2)/(nsin(/2)).
Now, if  is small, because d is small then nsin/2 = n/2. So, really speaking it
becomes a sinc function. So, looking at uniform, all elements are fed with uniform or if it
is a line source the current is uniform and for this the array factor response will be a sinc
function. If it is triangular, that is the triangular distribution, this is the cosine
distribution, this is the cosine squared distribution. Now these currents can be well
defined with the equation and for that then space factor is also very well defined and you
can calculate space factor for these cases. So, it is easy to do the next derivations which
are as follows.
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Now, we want to calculate the let say half power beam width. We have seen earlier that
half width beam power beam width is given by this expression, but for a triangular, you
can see that the half power beam width has increased cosine it has increased. So, that
increase in half power beam width leads to the lower gain, but what is important first to
look at is the side lobe, because that is the reason we use this here. So, for uniform if we
get a side lobe level as say – 13.2 dB. If we use triangular, side lobe level drastically
reduces to -26.4 dB. Cosine distribution is in between and cosine squared reduces the
side lobe level to below 30 dB which is -31.5 dB.
So, now looking at these numbers, we can see that if we use this distribution non
uniform, then we can reduce the side lobe level, but one can also see half power beam
width increase, which results into the decrease in the directivity. So, this is the directivity
factor for large L. So, this is 2L/ which we had seen for uniform. So, now, that is
reduced by a factor of 0.75 for triangle, by a factor of 0.81 for cosine. So, you can see
that the directivity has reduced. So, that is why a many a times what is actually done, that
instead of using a simple cosine distribution we actually use a cosine with the pedestal.
So, what we can do instead of using amplitude from 0 to 1 which is normalized here we
use let us say 0 to a constant 1, and then from a you make a cosine function. So, that
looks somewhat similar to that dolph Tschebyscheff function here or we can use a
triangular distribution with pedestal, and if we use triangular distribution with a pedestal
it almost looks like a close to Taylor distribution. So, we can reduce the side lobe level
by using this pedestal and also since this element here is actually being fed 0 power. So,
that is why it actually array in effect reduces from 17 elements to 15 elements. So, if we
provide the pedestal; that means, some power is fed to the last 2 elements and hence you
will get a little better directivity compared to these numbers here. So, by providing a
pedestal to cosine, we can increase this factor from 0.81 to may be close to 0.9 or may be
0.7 can be increased to 0.8 or 0.85. So, that will reduce the side lobe level slightly, but
also decrease the directivity also slightly compared to the uniform array.
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So, now instead of that here we had taken a simple space factor for the aperture. The
proper aperture line source that can be extended to the square, but if we use a circular
aperture or circular array, what we see now here if the distribution is uniform, a radial
taper, it is going from 0 to the outward or the radial taper square. So, if we use circular
aperture what we see here, that for uniform distribution also side lobe level is -17.6 dB,
whereas for uniform square aperture it was -13.2 dB. So, from -13.2 dB it has reduced to
-17.6 dB so what is the reason? So, you have think about a square aperture as a complete
thing which is fed over here whereas, circular aperture is in between. So, if you think
about a square aperture super impose on a circle. What we are seeing is that the end
element is not being fed and also the next to the end element now are actually getting
less excited. So, in reality what we have done by using a circular aperture and there are
no end elements only so; that means, there is no power going to the end element and
hence it is kind of natural amplitude taper.
So, since there is natural amplitude taper here, side lobe level is reduced for all the
direction. So, it is actually sometimes good to use a circular aperture or circular array and
here I just want to tell that these arrays theories are very very important when we going
to look at all the other cases for example, when we discuss next topic which is a
microstrip antenna, we will see that it is an array of 2 slot antenna. When we discuss
about let us say horn antenna. For horn antenna, we will see that in one plane we have a
uniform distribution and in another plane we have we will see that it has a cosine
distribution. So, in both the planes you can use the array theory or you can apply the
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space factor concept and simply by using this concept we can actually find out what will
be the radiation pattern. Let us say in this plane if it is uniform or we can find out what is
the radiation pattern in this plane if it is non uniform.
So, this array theory will be very very useful. The same thing will also applied let us say
when we talk about a reflector antenna. So, again a reflector antenna has a circular
aperture it may be a parabolic, but the outer here is a circular. So, we can actually apply
again the circular amplitude concept and find out what is the radiation pattern in the 2
planes. So, array theory becomes then space factor and it can be applied even for a
helical antenna when we look into the helical antenna actual mode. We will see that
helical antenna normally follows increased directivity area concept. The same array
theory will also applicable to log periodic antenna and Yagi Uda antenna. So, I want that
you people should study this array theory very thoroughly.
Now, we will just quickly look into the planar array. So, if you are going to the planar
array what we have now? Array elements are there in both x- and y- planes. So, it is a
combination of linear array, but now it’s linear array if you think about, this is a x
direction, this is a y direction. So, think about there is a linear array over here of m
element and then this linear array is getting repeated by n times. So, the total number of
elements are m x n. So, finding array factor is actually very very simple. All we do it is,
first we find out the array factor for this linear array and that will be nothing by given by
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this term here, 1/(m*sin (mx/2)). What is x here, that is corresponding to the element
going towards x direction.
Now, we can apply principle of pattern multiplication. So, this entire linear array can be
thought of a single element, and then that single element is getting repeated n time. So,
we have now an linear array of this combined thing over here, here, here and we can now
apply n element array which is over here. So, now, the difference compared to the
previous cases that in the previous case we had only one side term, but now we will have
a x term. So, x is nothing, but given by this expression here. How do we get this
expression? Let us say we are trying to find out the radiation pattern at far away distance
r? What we do it is we take a projection that on the x-y plane. Now since this angle is ,
the projection of that in this one plane here will be multiplied by sin. So, you can see
that sin  is coming at both the places.
Now, when this is projected down here, if we take this particular thing along x axis, then
we need to multiply by cos and that is what is done over here and if we multiply this
along the y axis now it should be multiplied by sin  and that is the term over here and
what is beta x and beta y, well it is same as delta earlier. So, that is a phase difference in
x direction phase difference in y direction and we can find the phase values in x and y
direction simply by making x, y = 0. So, if we make that 0, we can find the value of
the phase shifts. So, for any given value of 0 and 0 we can find out. So, let us say we
want the beam maxima at 0 =10 and we want another one  maxima at 0 = 0. So, our
angle is given. See remember 0 = 0 = 0 that will be broadside. So, now, if 0 = 10, that
will be from here 10 and  = 20 that will be from here. So, that is how you look at. So, I
want that you do little practice now. So, find out as a problem find out what is the phase
shift for let us say a 0 = 10, and 0 = 20. You can take the spacing to be = /2 for both
the cases. So, we will continue from here in the next lecture.
Just to summarize. So, today what we have seen we started with the grating lobe, how
the grating lobes can be avoided. Then we looked into it that even if one of the element is
not fed, array will still perform may be not to the optimum level, but still connectivity
will be maintained and after that we looked into the different cases of the non-uniform
amplitude. So, we saw that. So, we can use a triangular distribution, cosinusoidal
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distribution or cos squared distribution or in parallel we can use binomial distribution or
Tschebyscheff or Taylor distribution. By using non uniform distribution what we have
achieved is we can reduce the side lobe level, but at the expense of decrease in the gain
of the antenna and then we looked into how to calculate the array factor for planar array.
So, in the next lecture, we will look into different examples of planer array, we will look
into rectangular array, square array, triangular array, hexagonal array, circular array and
so on. Ok, meanwhile please do some practice and do some design. You can even look
into a simple design let us say that we want to design an antenna array. For example, a
rectangular array which should give me a beam width of let say a 30 in one plane and in
orthogonal plane I want beam width to be 20. So, look into that how to design that
particular array.
Thank you and we will see you.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 04
Lecture – 18
Planar Arrays
Hello everyone and welcome to today’s lecture. Today, I am going to talk about planar
antenna arrays. In the last few lectures, we have been talking about linear antenna array
and in those different cases we had discussed about for example, we started with uniform
amplitude array then we looked at non uniform amplitude array, then we also looked into
what happens if the phase between the different elements change. So, the beam changes
from broad side towards the end fire direction and also we looked into how the gain gets
affected. Because as you change the amplitude of the different elements. So, yes side
lobe levels reduce, if we use for example, cosine distribution or triangular distribution,
but gain also reduces. So, those are the different things which we talked about.
Now, today we will discuss about how these linear antenna arrays can be made into
planar configurations. So, let us start with this planar antenna array.
So, in the planar antenna array, we had discussed little bit about in the last lecture. We
will continue from there. So, let us assume that we have an array which has M number of
elements along x-axis and we have N number of elements along y-axis. So, the total
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number of elements in this plane will be M x N. Now the analysis of this can be thought
in a very simple way that. What we do it is we take these linear arrays along the x-axis
the elements are from 1 to M. So, it is a linear axis with uniform spacing of dx all along
now all of these elements 1 to N can be combined with a single expression and that is
given by its array factor
So, now, we can apply the pattern multiplication to find out the array factor of the
combined array.
So, what we do the first step is that consider 1 to M elements as now a single element
placed over here whose array factor is given by this term and now all of these M
elements come over here, this one comes over here, this one comes over here and now
what we do, we apply the array factor for N element which is now along y-axis. So, if we
put the array factor of this; that is the array factor for the elements along the y-axis. So,
the total array factor for this planar array will be product of the 2.
Now, the difference from a previous array and this here is actually in the term x and y.
Earlier we had only  and we had only one axis. Here we have second axis. So, for
example, let us say we want to find out the far field act at point r. So, this particular
distance is r and we take a projection along the x-y plane. Now since this angle is  when
we take projection of this one x-y plane, that projection will result into  is here. So, that
will be sin. So, you can see that the term sin has come into picture. Now when this
projection has taken over here, if you want to consider the element along x-axis, this
angle is ; we multiplied this by cos and that is why we have term cos. For y-axis
element, we take the projection along this here. So, we multiply by cos this is cos; this
will be now sin. So, that is the term coming over here.
Now, x and y are same as  which is a phase difference. So, here x is the phase
difference along x-axis and y is the phase difference along y-axis. So, now, we can find
out if we want to know in which beam direction, we want the maxima to be. So,
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normally what we do? we put x = 0, y = 0. So, we put that 0 over here and if we put x
= 0, we can write x as minus of this term over here and y is given by this term. So,
now, let us see we want the beam direction in particular angle. So, to start with let us say
if we want to be maxima in the broad side direction. So, in the broad side direction 0 =
0, and sin 0 = 0. So, x = 0 and y = 0 so; that means, all the element should be fed with
same phase then the beam maxima will happen in the broad side.
Now, suppose we want the beam maxima at let us say an angle 10 from the broadside.
So, 0 =10. So, we put that value over here that will be sin10 and let us say we want  =
20; that means, the beam maxima will be now in this  direction along with . So, then
these are the 0 values. So, from here, we can find out what should be the desired value
of x and y for the given values of 0 and 0. So, that is the simple way and one another
thing. So, let us say point here let us say we start with the 0 here. So, then this element
here element number 2 shown along x-axis will be x then this will be 2x this will be
3x and so on. Similarly, elements along m-axis will be, the phase will be here y then
2y then 3y and 4y.
Now, let us just look at this point here, what will be the phase at this particular point. So,
this will be x coming from here and y coming from here. So, that will be x + y. If you
move along this axis here this point, this has travelled x and this is 2y. So, that will be
the phase difference of this particular element. So, that is what the principle of the
phased array is that we by changing the phase of x and y we can change the beam
direction to any desired direction of 0 or 0.
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Now, suppose if x, y are given in certain case. So, in that case you can calculate tan 0
and 0 from the previous equation, if we take the ratio of the 2. If we take the ratio, this
term will get cancelled with this here and we can actually see that sin divided by cos will
be tan0, that is the expression given over here. So, x and y are known, we can
calculate what will be the b maximum. Now we can find the value of 0 from here. So, if
we know that sin20 + cos20 = 1. So, we square both the sides and then add that terms
that gives rise to the term
Other terms are k = 2/, dx is distance along x direction, dy is distance along y

direction. Now, the principle maximum can be obtained when we put m = n = 0 and we
can put over here, but the grating lobes can be obtained when m = n = 1 and we should
try to avoid grating lobes as much as possible. So, we should try that this condition
should never ever happen.
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So, let us just take an example of 5 x 5 planar array. So, this is a M = N = 5 because array
size is 5 x 5 and x = y = 0 so; that means, the beam maxima will be in the broadside
direction. The 2 cases which are shown over here, distance between each element is /4.
Here, distance between each element is /2. So, if we look into this here, the total
aperture will be more and if the total aperture is more, beam width will reduce. Here total
aperture is less. So, beam width is wide. So, this will give us less gain, this will give us
more gain.
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So, directivity of a planar array can be calculated. If we know, use the concept of the
earlier. So, directivity along x-axis which is a one linear array. Directivity of the elements
along the y-axis, so that will be dy, the total directivity D = DxDycos0, where, 0 is the
angle measured from broadside. So, for broadside cos0 = 1. So, that will be the
directivity term. So, that is broadside direction. In the same way, we can find out the
directivity of circular array. So, we know that for circular array the concept is aperture
area theory says D or G. If we assume D = G for 100% efficiency, G= 4A/2 and for a
circular array A = a2. So, we can just say directivity is given by
So, now let us just take some special cases. So, here we have taken a hexagonal array
which has total 7 elements and these 7 elements are placed like there are 3 elements
placed over here, and the 2 elements are upside 2 are in the downside and the term here
hexagonal array is used that this distance between this element and this element that is
exactly equal. So, this is equal to /2, this is /2. So, all the dimensions are /2 or in a
general case the dimensions can be d. This can also be thought in another way equilateral
triangle. So, this all these 3 dimension are equal. So, this is also known as equilateral
triangular array or hexagonal array.
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So, now we want to find out what is the radiation pattern or array factor of this one.
Again we can think this whole thing as a planar array and if we apply the similar concept
what we just studied for the rectangular array, we can apply the same concept. So, these
7 elements can be broken into 2 groups. So, group 1 consists of 3 elements here and
group 2 consists of 2 x 2 array over here. So, if we can find out individually array factor
for group 1 and group 2 then the total array factor will be sum of these. So, let just see
now what will be the pattern.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:18).
So, array factor for group one M = 3, N = 1. So, we simply use the previous expression 1
/m sin this function here. So, we substitute m = 3 we got that here and what is dx is in
this case, dx is the distance along x is shown here as in this side and y-axis is this side
here. So, along x, the distance is /2. So, dx = /2.
So, now array factor of group 2 which is nothing, but 2 x 2 array. So, both M = N = 2, we
substitute the value and what is dx, dx = /2 which we can see over here and what is the
distance along y-axis since this is an equilateral triangle. The height of the equilateral
triangle will be 3/2*d or the length here. So, the total will be nothing, but 3/2 and
that is what we put here the total array factor is nothing, but sum of these 2 array factor.
So, this is the one of the easiest way to find out the array factor.
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Now, we just took 7 elements. Let us say if we take larger array now this is a 19 elements
array here. So, where what we have we have 3 elements then 4 elements then 5 elements
then 4 then 3. Now all of these elements are actually forming an equidistance. So, what
we have here. All these are distances are /2, and then these distances are also /2. In
fact, I just want to tell you. So, I had designed this 19 element array using a circular
microstrip antenna way back in 1985. So, more than 35 years back, I had designed this
array not just for isotropic element, but for circular microstrip antenna.
So, let just see now how we can do the analysis, first we need to do the grouping. So,
here what we do. We make a one group here and that group is of 5 elements, 5 elements
into one array. Then we have a group 2 which consist of 4 elements along x-axis and 2
elements along y-axis. So, that is the 4 x 2 array. Then the group 3; group 3 consists of
these 3 elements. Now do not include the second time here this is already included in the
5 x 1 array. So, here we have these 3 element and these 3 element. So, that is the 3 x 2
array. So, now, all we need to do it is find out the individual array factor for each group
1, 2, 3. So, let see what we have.
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So, array factor of group one we have 5 elements and one element. So, all we need to do
it is put M = 5 and what is dx = /2. Then we have a second group where we had a 4
element. Let just look back here. So, 1, 2, 3, 4 along x-axis and we have a 2 elements
along y. So, M = 4, N = 2; we put 4 over here and we put 2 over there and then we need
to know what is dx. So, dx = /2 in this side and what is dy = 3/2 that is all we put at
there that is for group 2.
Now, we need to find out for group 3. So, for group 3 now the dimension is 3 x 2. So, we
put M = 3, we put N = 2 again dx remains same which is /2, but dy = 3, why you can
see that the distance is from here to here. So, this one here each one of them you can
think about double of this. So, which will 3.
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So, all we need to do put these terms over there, and that will give the array factor for
this here. So, we got array factor. So, you can think other way round also there are total
19 elements. So, what we have here 6; 6 + 8 = 14; 14 + 5 = 19. So, that takes care of all
the elements.
So, same thing now we have got all the array factor which takes care of 19 elements.
Please do not multiply because that will not give a correct answer we have to add array
factor of individual terms.
So, now we actually can look at 2 different arrays. One is hexagonal array which we just
covered and then another is a planar circular array. If we just look at these 6 elements of
the elements along the circular axis then this one if you look at hexagonal, they are
exactly same so that means, the radiation pattern or array factor of hexagonal array and
this circular array will be exactly same, there will be no difference.
Now, sometimes the center element is also placed here. So correspondingly, we can put a
center element here, but now for the next one that is the outer has above see just to tell.
So, there are 6 elements here each element is at 60 angle. Now, there are 12 elements.
So, each will be at a 30 angle. So, if you now try to compare this with a hexagonal array
which is the outermost here. So, we can see that these elements are exactly same as along
the circle. It has these elements here in between they are not really the same as the
circular array.
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So, now there are 2 ways to do it, one is we can need to find out let us say the array
factor for this here. So, one way is that circular array it is defined in terms of Bessel
function. So, you can write this particular function in the form of a Bessel function.
Those expressions are available in the text books which I had mentioned Balanis and the
Kraus Book, but however, the other elements which are missing over here. So, what we
can do? Either we can use the Bessel function concept or we can consider these elements
and for this element and this element, we can consider them separately and now we can
add them together.
So, one concept if you have learnt properly which is this concept of the array factor here,
you can apply that to any general array and you can actually consider these 2 as another
element array. The other one you can consider which are not part of the hexagon. So, you
can use any of these technique to find out the overall radiation pattern or array factor. Of
course, now for all these cases what we have assumed that all of these are isotropic
elements, but in reality there will be practical element array and I also want to just say
that let us just look at a little bit of a design also.
How do we design these particular axis? So, let just go back here little bit and look at this
array over here. So, for example, now there are 2 ways the problem can be defined. One
is known as a analysis problem. So, in the analysis problem, the problem will be given as
there are let say 4 elements on this side and then 8 elements on this particular side. So,
you find out what is the overall directivity. So, for 4 element, you can find out what is the
directivity using the formula for linear array. Then for these 8 element you can find out
the directivity for this and then you can use the combined directivity formula which is
given over here and that way you can find the directivity. Now this is a analysis problem
then there is an another thing which is known as a design problem. So, in the design
problem, generally what it will be said that design an array which actually along x-axis it
should give me let us say beam width of say 30 and it may say that along this axis, it
should give me a beam width of 10.
So, now we need to design a rectangular array which should give me a beam width of
10 in this side and let us say beam width of 20 on this side. So, now, you can apply the
concept of the linear array which I have given you the expression. So, you know that for
a linear array a beam width relationship is there with the total length. So, from that you
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can find out the total length and then you can see what are the number of elements
required; you can use as a starting point you can take d as /2, but you can always adjust
that. So, instead of 0.5 you can take 0.6 or 0.7 or may be 0.45, but not more than
0.7 or 0.8.
So, now you might wonder if I take more than 0.7, it will still have a no problem of
grating lobe, but actually speaking that is true for x-axis and y-axis. Let see what
happens along the diagonal axis here. So, if I take this as let say 0.707 and this I take as
0.707 and the diagonal length will be now 0.707*2 = . So, we may satisfy the
condition along x-axis or y-axis, but along 45. I will have a problem of grating lobe. So,
generally speaking we do not try to take more than 0.707 for this spacing here and that
is the way hexagonal array does help if we look at a hexagonal array which we just
looked at. So, over here now this distance is /2, this distance is /2 or if I take this as a
d. So, I can still take this 0.707 and this takes still take 0.707. I do not have that
problem of 45 here.
So, many a times hexagonal arrays are preferred and as I mentioned that I had designed
this particular array way back in 85 and I did use a microstrip antenna. So, let me just
give you a little simpler array, so that you can see how these things can be practically
used here.
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So, I have actually included an example of a 4 x 4 electromagnetically coupled
microstrip antenna. I know there are a lot of new terms have come, but let just see what
are each thing over here? So, what we have here, this is actually a rectangular microstrip
antenna and just underneath this also, there is another rectangular micro strip antenna.
So, these 2 antennas are electromagnetically coupled. So, what we have here, there is 4
elements are this side, 4 elements are this side. Now we need to excite each of these
elements. So, what we have done here is we have used a speed network here. So, let us
say these 2 elements. So, there is a feed network over here and then there is a feed
network here that excites these 2 element and 2 elements. Then we combine this feed
network and then we bring over here.
Now, the same that 2 x 2 set is repeated here as well as repeated here as well as over
here. The feed network is symmetrical for this side also and this side and now what we
are doing? We are connecting these feed network like this here for this also we have
connected here like this and then we are connecting the feed point and then feeding at
this particular point. So, you can actually think that this is my input. The power is getting
divided into 2 ports here, then this one here is further divided into 2 ways then this is
divided into 2 ways then this is further divided into 2 ways. So, that is how 2 x 2 array is
built up 1 x 1, because it is electromagnetically coupled. So, these 2 patches are exciting
each other it results into a very broad band antenna.
So, one can actually see over here that this antenna is designed in the X-band and what
we have got here |S11| < -10 dB which corresponds to VSWR = 2. So, what we are getting
a percentage bandwidth of 14.8 % and if you look at here that is 1.4 GHz bandwidth that
is huge bandwidth by using this particular configuration and also the next important
thing is that this 4 x 4 array gives us a gain of about 19 dB maximum and notice that the
gain is fairly flat over the desired bandwidth. In fact, there is a less than 1 dB gain
variation over the desired bandwidth of 8.75 to 10.15 GHz.
In fact, many a times there are more restriction are there for example, people instead of
designing a reflection coefficient for 10 dB. They demand even a reflection coefficient
for less than 15 dB. So, of course, for that case what will happen, the bandwidth will
reduce slightly compared to this here, but let us say if the required bandwidth is only say
a few hundred MHz, we can even get a reflection coefficient less than even 20 dB and
we get a very flat gain over the bandwidth. So, it is a very nice concept. So, then you
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might wonder what is this microstrip antenna array and all that. So, after this planar
antenna array we will talk about in detail microstrip antenna.
So, I will have included a one more example here which is a very typical monopulse
radar antenna application and this particular thing we have just recently done. So, what it
actually consists of just from the concept point of view. When we discuss microstrip
antenna arrays then will talk about this thing in more detail, but just to tell you what are
the applications here. So, here what we have? This is a circular dimension which was
given to us and that is a 240 mm and in that diameter we have to fit whatever maximum
we can get. So, we had actually done that 4 x 4 array. Now that 4 x 4 array completely
could not have fitted over here. So, you can see that this actually consists of 4 quadrants.
So, it is a one quadrant, second one, third and fourth one here.
Now this is also a concept of monopulse comparator, where what we do we actually feed
one quadrant here and then second third fourth and we take the signal from these 4
quadrant and we generate sum pattern and we generate difference pattern. So, by creating
this sum and difference pattern, we can actually identify the location of the target. So,
what we have tried to optimize here that we optimize the area which is available to us.
So, if you actually look at the central point here what we have done. So, there were 1, 2,
3, 4 we had a space. So, we added another element here which takes power from this side
and we did not have a much space here. So, we have a 3 element here.
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Now, as we mentioned earlier that when we are talking about linear array. That if you use
uniform amplitude side lobe levels are relatively high -13 dB. But here what we have
done. So, we have taken power from the outer one which gives here. So, this actually
provides a amplitude taper and the center is maximum it goes down and that this
particular array also gives us the reduced side lobe level and let just look at the VSWR
plot for all these thing here. So, what we have got here 8.8 to 10 GHz that is nearly 13%
bandwidth for VSWR < 2 and for this element we have got a maximum gain of about
24.7 dB and again in this particular case here if you see, the gain variation is less than 1
dB.
So, in the next lecture, we will start talking about various microstrip antenna and just to
summarize what we have done today. So, we started with the planar rectangular antenna
array. Now of course, rectangular array will become square if M = N. Then from that
planar array rectangular planar array then we discuss about hexagonal where the all the
elements are located along the triangular grade, and then we talked about a circular array
and we saw some similarities in circular array and hexagonal array and then we took
some practical examples of microstrip antenna array. So, we looked at a 4 x 4 array and
then we looked at the real application, where these are actually used in a monopulse
radar system. So, thank you very much. We will see you next time and will talk about
micro strip antenna in detail.
Thank you, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 05
Lecture – 19
Microstrip Antennas (MSA)
Hello and welcomes to today’s lecture. Today we are going to discuss about microstrip
antennas. So, in microstrip antenna we are going to discuss about different types of
antennas.
But we will start with a very simple thing which is a rectangular microstrip antenna. Let
us see what a rectangular microstrip antenna is, first of all; and what is a microstrip
antenna. So, microstrip antennas is actually very simple configuration, where what we
have is a we have a ground plane, and then we have a dielectric material whose dielectric
constant is εr, thickness of the substrate is h, and then there is a patch which is printed on
the other side. And if the shape is rectangular it is known as a rectangular microstrip
antenna. If the shape is circular it will be circular microstrip antenna. Or if it is a
triangular shape it will be triangular microstrip antenna. And this whole thing is actually
known as a substrate.
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It is very similar to, you might have seen a printed circuit board inside your mobile
phone or TV or any electronic gadget, it is very similar to that that we have a printed
circuit broad where one side there is a ground plane or a copper. Then we have dielectric
material and on a top there is a copper and in fact, if you see any of these micro
controller they have so many parallel lines running here. But for a microstrip antenna,
very simple thing which is required. Just keep the group plane at the bottom as it is so do
not etch it out. So, that will be the case for majority of the microstrip antenna. And the
top can be as I said it can be circular or triangular or hexagon shape that is what the name
comes out from.
So, let just see the basic thing, we will start with a very simple rectangular microstrip
antenna. So, a rectangular microstrip antenna is defined by its length, which actually
determines the resonance frequency of the antenna. Then there is a width. In fact, we will
see that if smaller is the width, lesser will be the radiation, larger is the width, larger will
be radiation which leads to larger bandwidth as well as larger gain. Now we need to feed
the antenna. So, we are using a coaxial feed to feed the antenna. And this coaxial feed is
chosen such a way that wherever the input impedance is roughly 50 ohms we connect
with this, 50-ohm coaxial connector and in fact the beauty of this is so you can do the
matching directly. There is a no need of any external impedance matching network.
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So, let just see what are the characteristics. So, we will compare here microstrip antenna
with a microwave integrated circuit. The reason I am showing microwave integrated
circuits have been in existence for a very long time, whereas a microstrip antenna the
starting point was in 1953, where this was observed that there is some radiation going on.
But it was almost 2 decades later. That was in 1974, when Manson had proposed how to
practically use this one here. But again, MIC were there people have been using MIC and
the substrates were getting printed. So, a substrate is defined by it is different parameter
for example, dielectric constant εr. So, for MIC we would prefer εr to be large, whereas
for microstrip antenna we prefer εr to be small. And I will tell you the reason and
thickness we generally take for MIC small thickness, for microstrip antenna it is large
thickness. A width is generally taken small in case of MIC; we take large width in case of
let’s say rectangular microstrip antenna.
Now, all these 3 conditions here actually lead to minimum radiation or maximum
radiation. So, in case of MIC we do not want any radiation to take place. And how
radiation takes place? It is basically from the fringing field. So, in the case of MIC we
always want to minimize the fringing field and in case of microstrip antenna we always
want to try to maximize fringing field. So, how does this fringing field helps. So, again
think about that antenna which I mentioned to you and on top of that we have a radiating
patch. So, think about this: suppose if the patch is very thin, so, what will happen the
fringing field will be there, but that will be very small or before that even think about the
parallel plate capacitance.
Suppose we have a one ground plane and there is another parallel plate. So, for the
parallel plate there will be fringing fields all along. And if we increase the thickness there
will be more fringing field. If the εr is increased which reduces the size of the antenna,
then the fringing fields will reduce. So, the whole purpose for an antenna is try to
increase the fringing field as much as possible. So, the difference, the main difference
between MIC and MSA is that in MIC we do not want to any radiation to take place.
For example, the examples are filters, power dividers, couplers, amplifiers etc. So, let us
say if we are designing a low pass filter. What we really want is for lower frequency
whatever is the input that goes as an output. And for higher frequency it should do the
attenuation, but suppose if the radiation takes place, then what will happen. Let us say
we are giving one, we are not getting out as 1 we may be getting 0.9 or 0.95, now part of
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that can be accounted for that there are some dielectric losses. So, that is why we need a
good quality substrate or there may be some conductor losses because of the conductor,
but then there are radiation losses. So, MIC we want radiation losses to be small, for
antennas we want radiation losses to be very high. In fact, the term radiation losses
actually is used from circuit point of view. Otherwise from antenna point of view
radiation is the desired thing.
So, now let just look at what are the substrates to be used for microstrip antenna. So, we
have given some popular names over the substrate. So, let us say alumina is one of the
substrate which was earlier used extensively, and even today used extensively for
microwave integrated circuit. Only in very few applications we would use alumina for
microstrip antenna and most of the time that application could be a compact antenna.
Now the typical dielectric constant of that is 9.8 even though that may vary from 9.6 to
about 10.2. It has a very low loss tangent which is 0.001.
What is loss tangent? Well, it is related, in the simpler way, with dielectric constant in a
sense a dielectric constant is a complex quantity; εr is actually defined as εr dash minus j
εr double dash. And that can be written as in the form of tan which is the ratio of the
two εr. So, it is very very low so; that means, dielectric losses are very small the only
problem with the substrate is it is very high cost, of course, alumina is not very useful as
an antenna because it is a high εr leads to very less radiation.
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Then next very low cost alternative is to use glass epoxy substrate also popularly known
as FR4 substrate. Now this is the commonly used substrate for all printed circuit boards.
The typical dielectric constant can be 4.4, but in reality it may be from 3.8 to about 4.6.
The problem with this is that the loss tangent is very high which is 0.02, but the big
advantage is the cost is very low. I mean just to tell you the idea between low and very
high, the cost can be 30 to 50 times more than this particular substrate. So, overall cost of
the antenna increases significantly.
Now, these are the 2 popular brand names Duroid and Arlon. Substrates are available, the
typical substrate dielectric constant is around 2.2. In fact, this is actually a variation of
glass. So, we know that the glass is a refractive index of 1.5. So, refractive index is
related to dielectric constant. Relation is dielectric constant, square root of that εr is equal
to refracting index. So, if refracting index is 1.5 εr will be 1.5 square which is 2.25. So,
these substrates actually are variation of this. In fact, they are typically fiber reinforced
glass. So, fiber is put here. In fact, this is also glass, but epoxy is glassy material. And we
know that glass cannot be used; it can be broken very easily. So, that is why these fiber
glasses are used and typical dielectric constant may vary from 2.1 to about 2.5 also.
I just want to tell there has a Teflon can also be used. Teflon has a dielectric constant of
2.1. The beauty is that the tan delta is very small it is 0.0009 or it has variation again
0.001 to about 0.0015 also, but again the cost is very high. We can use foam also. The
foam has a typical dielectric constant of 1.05 you can see the loss tangent is really very
small the cost of the foam is in general very low, but if you want the grated foam then
that cost is about medium cost and of course, the best material actually is air has a
dielectric constant of one, loss tangent is actually 0 and you know that you do not have to
pay for the air right.
So, this is really a very good alternative and in fact the lowest dielectric constant also
leads to the highest bandwidth among all of these cases also, as well as the highest gain.
Only thing is how to make antenna in air and that is where lot of thought process has to
go how to use air effectively as a substrate. So, we can see that this PCB is really a light
weight thing I mean you only need to print the antenna on a substrate, now substrate is
thin, so you can actually make out from there
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that it has a very light weight, low volume, low profile planar configuration which can be
made conformal. In fact, these days flexible PCBs are also available which can be
wrapped around the mobile phone or it can be wrapped around the plane or missile or
satellite and so on. So, the fabrication cost is more except that if you use expensive
substrate then this material cost may be more, but when we are talking about a
microwave antenna the size is very small. So, overall cost may not be too much. And
since it uses the PCB technology, mass production is very very easy, you can produce
millions of pieces without any problem.
Now, using microstrip antenna we can design it both for linear and/or circular
polarization. In fact, here also one can design antenna for both horizontal and vertical
polarization. So, that is very easy to do it. Now we can design very easily dual frequency
antenna using microstrip. In fact, these days’ people have triband, quad-band, penta-band
also using microstrip antenna. And another beauty is that feed line matching network can
be easily integrated with the antenna structure. Now because of these advantages it finds
lot of applications, of course, it has disadvantages.
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So, let us see what are the disadvantages. So, the top most disadvantage for a microstrip
antenna is the bandwidth is limited, which is 1 to 5 percent. Now I just want to tell you
my PhD thesis was on broad band microstrip antenna and that was in 1979, I submitted
the thesis in 1982. So, it is almost like 34 years back we had designed microstrip antenna
for bandwidth of 20 percent, 25 percent, 30 percent also. So, in these lectures we will
talk about what are the broadband techniques, how to increase the bandwidth.
Now, the next disadvantage is low power handling capacity. Which is obvious, if you use
a printed circuit board which is very thin, how can you use for high power? However,
here also the remedy is there. That one can use metallic plate, thick metallic plate,
suspended over an air and they can handle very high power also. The next practical
limitation is on the gain. So, typically microstrip antenna array can be give us about 30
dB or so however, now it is lot of research is going on. So, people have broken the
barrier of 30 dB. So, there are arrays of 32 dB, 34 dB, 36 dB and so on. But still if
somebody wants a gain of 40 dB or 50 dB, 60 dB or 70 dB then the only solution right
now is to use reflector antenna. There are some problems with the isolation between the
feed and radiating element. So, if you use feed to feed the radiating element there will be
some coupling. So, isolation is poor; however, in the last 3 decades lot of research has
been done now how to increase the isolation.
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Excitation of surface wave. What is surface wave? Suppose for example, if we take a
typical microstrip antenna which is radiating let us say in the broad side direction which
is perpendicular to the surface of the patch, but what happens, the fringing fields are
there from the patch to the ground plane. So, these fringing fields which are at the edge
they start propagating along the surface. And which is not a desired thing. Of course,
again now lot of research is going on how to reduce the surface waves and there are
certain conditions if we meet then surface waves can be reduced.
Now, tolerance problem of low cost substrate is the problematic. So, that is why we need
to use good quality substrate which are expensive, but will also show you how to use
even a low cost thing for better performance. Polarization purity is difficult to achieve,
yes, it used to be a disadvantage, but nowadays again many techniques have come which
improves the polarization purity.
Now, of course, the one big disadvantage is size of microstrip antenna is large at lower
frequency. Now, so, designing a microstrip antenna at let us say 1 megahertz is almost a
forbidden thing because at 1 megahertz wavelength will be 300 meter. So, even if
somebody wants to design a /2 antenna which is 150 meter you even make it on a
dielectric thing it is still running into 50 meter who is going to make a 50 meter printed
circuit port. So, that is major disadvantage; however, lot of research has been done to
realize compact microstrip antenna. And I just want to mention I had published a book
on broadband microstrip antenna and that was published by Artech house in 2003 and we
have devoted one full chapter on compact microstrip antenna. So, as we can see that
advantages of microstrip antennas are just too many and even the disadvantages which I
have mentioned, they have been overcome; many of them. So, that is why these
microstrip antennas find lot of applications.
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So, if you look at your mobile phone inside, it has a microstrip antenna. Or there is a
variation of that; there are printed monopole antennas are there. So, pagers used to have
microstrip antenna. So, Doppler radars and others they use microstrip antenna. Satellites
are major user of microstrip antenna because of its light weight, low volume. Radio
altimeter is typically used for an aero plane. So, when the airplane is flying it would like
to know. So, microstrip antennas are fantastic because of it is light weight, low volume it
can be fleshed with the body of the plane. It is these are being used in the missiles also
again. Main advantage of all of these thing is the small volume and we can get all these
polarizations and multi band configuration. So, in fact, microstrip antennas have been
used as feed elements in complex antennas also. In fact, more than a decade back what
we had done was, we replaced the horn antenna of a 4 gigahertz parabolic dish.
So, remember decade back there used to be a large 8 feet parabolic dish which had a horn
antenna as a feed. So, what we did, we studied the characteristics of the horn antenna
which was feeding that reflector antenna. And that horn antenna was, we replaced that
with that microstrip antenna. And we reduce the size significantly. So, when we are
progressing in this particular lecture on microstrip antenna will show you the details of
that. So, of course, it is being used for satellite it is also being used for biomedical
radiator.
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So, let us see what are different shapes of microstrip antenna. I just mentioned about
rectangular, but. So, many different shapes have been used. So, square microstrip
antenna, circular, triangular; even in triangular there are lot of variations are there.
Equilateral triangle antenna, isosceles triangle antenna, 30-60-90 triangular antenna and
so on. Then semicircular antenna in fact, people have used sectorial antenna also; 30
degrees, 60 degree, 120 degree and so on. Then annular ring can be used or a square ring
can be used or even a triangular ring can be used. And besides that there are many other
configurations like the pentagon antenna octagon hexagon and so on.
So, depending upon the shape and then lot of times you cut different kinds of slits and
slots or use shorted configurations and you can realize varieties of these different types
of microstrip antenna. And one has to see what are the advantages and disadvantages of
all of these configuration. So, how do we feed these microstrip antennae? So, there are
various techniques how to feed microstrip antenna.
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So, one technique we have already discussed. So, here we have a rectangular patch we
are using a coaxial feed right over here. And what do we do, you take a coaxial wire you
can connect that with the SMA connector or N type connector and what is normally done
then that coaxial wire or connected the ground of that. Or the outer shield of that is
soldered to the bottom ground substrate, and then the center pin is here, a hole is drilled
here that center pin goes through there and we solder it into the top patch over here. And
that is all a microstrip antenna is. So simple PCB use a coaxial field it needs to be
optimized job is done. So, that is the one type of the feed.
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There is an another type of the feed is microstrip line feed where we connect this
microstrip line to the patch. In fact this type of feed is very very popular, specially for
arrays where we have n number of elements and we need to connect all those n elements,
most of the time a microstrip line feed is used for that purpose.
There are some variations are also there for this case. So, one can feed instead of feeding
along this axis here one can also feed along this, will see what are the advantages and
disadvantages. And instead of feeding here one can actually feed it over here, this is also
known as inset feed, why it is done? In fact, this is actually done if you recall for coaxial
feeds we were feeding somewhere here. Why we were feeding here? we could get the
impedance matching, instead of feeding here with the microstrip line which impedance is
high as will see shortly. So, instead of feeding at this point where impedance is very high
which results in impedance missmatch, we actually cut an inset over here we used to
almost this point to get a matching. So, that is what is known as an inset feed and
sometimes if we cannot do any of these, what we do it is we use a /4 quarter wave
transformer.
So, whatever is the impedance here that can be transformed to another impedance. So,
just to think about if this impedance is set to 200 ohms and what we really need is a 50
ohm here. So, you can actually use a quarter wave transformer of 100 ohms. So, input
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Z 20
impedance at this is given by which is ( Z L ¿ the load impedence. So, if I take
ZL
this as 100. So, 100 square divided by 200 will give me 50-ohm impedance which will
be perfectly matched.
Another way to feed is electromagnetically coupled feed. Actually speaking there are 2
different substrates used here. So, there is a bottom substrate here, which consist of the
feed line. And this bottom substrate can actually use the concept of MIC; that means high
dielectric constant and thin substrate. So, we can optimize the performance from MIC
point of view. Whereas the top substrate is printed on the, that is taken as a thick
substrate of low dielectric constant, and then the patch is printed on that. And how this
patch gets excited? This feed line is going there. So, when this feed is fed there, we can
see that the current will be 0 here current will be maximum. So, by using this
electromagnetically coupled. So, this coupling is through the magnetic field. So, that
magnetic field gets coupled to the top patch and it excites that. That is what is known as
electromagnetically coupled field.
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Then there is another feed which is known as aperture coupled field. So, again it is
consisting of the 2 substrates, one is the bottom here and another one top here. This is the
common ground plane. So, it is just shown as a separate thing you do not need separate.
So, this ground plane will correspond to this over here. So, you just keep the copper as it
is, but cut a slot in that here. And the patch is on top of the substrate and on the other
side. So, this is on the bottom side now there is a feed line. So, again this feed line will
actually have a current distribution which will have a magnetic field, that magnetic field
will couple through here and excite the top patch. So, that is how the top patch will be
there. The only disadvantage with this particular feed is that there is a back radiation. So,
front to back ratio of this is relatively very poor.
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So, now let just look at a very simple rectangular microstrip antenna and how we define
it. So, this is substrate which has a finite size. And here is a rectangular patch which is
shown over; here the feed is as before. Now we know that if there are a 2 parallel plates
are there will be fringing field. So, fringing field what does, it actually increases the
effective capacitance. So, for example, there is a plate capacitance that is given by
C p =ϵ0 ϵ r A /h
where A is area. Now there is a fringing field. So, due to the fringing field the total
effective capacitance increases. So, that can be compensated. We just assume that the
length is and width they are arbitrarily more compared to the physical dimensions.
So, if you look into that then this is the fringing field around this. So what we have now
the effective length will be
Le =L+2 ∆ L
Similarly, effective W will be
W e =W + 2 ∆W
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and of course, to calculate ∆L they are so many numerous expressions are available
one line to 5 line and so on. But I suggest that you use this very simple expression and
that is
h
∆ L=
√ ϵe
And after that what we need to know is that this length should be approximately /2 for
fundamental mode. So, the resonance frequency can be defined by this particular
expression here, but to just make things simple majority of the time we use a
fundamental mode which is 1 0. So, this is 1 this is 0. So, if this is 0 then this term is out
this is 1 here. So, one by L, L square root it comes out here. So, frankly speaking f 0 is
nothing but
c
f 0=
2 Le √ ϵ e
So, I just want to share so L is nothing, but equal to 0/2 and why √ ϵe because that is
the effective wavelength. And we substitute 0 equal to c/f. So, just by using this simple
expression we can find out what is the effective length.
So, in the next lecture we will talk about how to design rectangular microstrip antenna in
less than 15 minutes and maximum error it we about just 1 percent or so. So in the next
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lecture will see how to design rectangular microstrip antenna, we will also see how to
choose the proper substrate to get the desired bandwidth and then we will move on to the
other geometries like circular microstrip antenna, triangular microstrip antenna, will also
cover how to increase the bandwidth. So, what are the different broadband techniques are
there. We will also see later on how to realize a compact antenna, how to design
circularly polarized antenna and then towards the end will talk about lots of different
microstrip antenna arrays, which can realize different desired gain as well as half power
beam width.
Thank you very much looking forward to see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 05
Lecture – 20
Rectangular MSA
Hello everyone and welcome to today’s lecture on microstrip antenna. In the last lecture
we talked about microstrip antenna, just a very simple rectangular microstrip antenna
configuration. Then we looked into what are the advantages and disadvantages of
microstrip antenna, and based on it several advantages there are too many applications.
In fact, today microstrip antennas are replacing majority of the conventional antennas.
Now because of these several advantages it is finding these applications. Of course, there
are some disadvantages we looked into the previous lecture, but slowly and steadily
many of those disadvantages are also being taken care of. And then we also looked into
what are the different feed techniques. So, for example, a microstrip antenna can be fed
by a coaxial line, it can be fed through a microstrip line, it can be aperture coupled or it
can be electromagnetically coupled.
So, today we will look into how to design very simply and in a quick manner a
rectangular microstrip antenna.
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So, let’s just see a basic rectangular microstrip antenna. A basic rectangular microstrip
antenna is defined by it is length L and it is width W. And what we have here is, we have
a substrate. So, it is on one side of the substrate there will be a ground plane so; that
means, copper will remain as it is in the backside and on the front side we cut this or etch
this patch of length L and W. So, now, we need to design antenna for a given frequency,
but before we do design let just look at what are the parameters and what are the things
there.
So, first of all if we have a patch here, so that patch will have a fringing field. Just like,
think about this as a one plate metallic plate and one metallic plate is on the backside. So,
there will be fringing fields all around. So, the total capacitance will be the capacitance
of the parallel plate plus the capacitance of the fringing field. So, what is done actually
that to account for those capacitances because of the fringing field, we define the
quantity Le and We. So, Le is nothing but total length L plus this ∆L that accounts for the
fringing field on one side and ∆L on the other sides. So, Le becomes
Le =L+2 ∆ L
Similarly, we define
W e =W + 2 ∆W
Now, the next part is how do we calculate ∆L? And there are several expressions
available in the literature and they are fairly complicated expressions available and these
expressions have been derived by writing boundary conditions for electric field,
magnetic field, solving all those Maxwell’s equations, but that takes lot of time. And
what we would like to do in the real life, specially the practicing engineers, they would
like to design antenna quickly. So, what we have proposed here is a very simple
expression to calculate ∆L. And that can be calculated from the height of the substrate or
sometimes we call it thickness of the substrate divided by √ ϵe . So, then comes the
next part what is the resonance frequency of this particular antenna.
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Now, the resonance frequency of the antenna is defined by the expression
In reality it is relatively simple thing. I just explain first for the fundamental mode, A
fundamental mode is nothing, but 1 0 mode. I will explain one by one. So, if we take
fundamental 1 0 mode so; that means, m is equal to 1 and n equal to 0 when this is 0 this
m
term will not exist and is 1/ L2 and there is a square root. So, L will come out
L
here. And in reality if you actually see this is nothing, but when L becomes roughly equal
to /2 that is what will be the resonance frequency for the fundamental mode.
Will see one by one what are the different modes, but let us start the discussion for
fundamental mode. So, we put m equal to 1 and n equal to 0, and what is this
fundamental mode really imply. So, if it is one then that this length L is equal to /2. And
what does /2 really mean, that see we have for current let just look from the current
point of view. So, we have an open here and we have a open here on this side. So, along
the open, current will be 0. So, since the length is /2. So, current will be 0 it will go to
the maximum it will come back to 0, that is what is a half wavelength and that is what’s
the variation is known as 1. Since we have talking about n equal to 0, but n equal to 0
means that along this axis there is low variation so; that means, if the current is 0 here
maximum here 0 here then current is 0 here maximum here and 0 here.
Now, since effective length is slightly more than the physical length. So, in reality
current is absolutely 0 here goes to maxima and then comes back to 0 here. Now voltage
distribution will be reverse of that. So, open circuit means voltage will be maximum and
then it will go to 0 and then it will come back to the minus this thing, plus, 0, minus. So,
what it really is, again, this is nothing but equal to /2 lengths which is the variation of
the waveform.
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Now since voltage is maximum here current is closed to 0 well here it will not be exactly
0 here it is 0, but this one we do not see we only see the physical dimension, but
nevertheless current is small voltage is maximum. So, V by I, which is the impedance,
will be maximum. At the center, voltage will be 0 current will be maximum. So,
impedance will be V by I. So, impedance will be 0. So, along this length here, either you
think this length or along the center or along the top the impedance will be 0 here it will
be maximum. So, we feed at the center point here specifically it is known as a
symmetrical feed. So, if we feed in the center here. So, then this is 0 impedance and at
the edge it is a maximum impedance. So, between 0 impedance and maximum
impedance we want to find a point where impedance will be equal to 50 ohms because
coaxial feed which we are using those will be coaxial line or connector which are 50-
ohm line or 50-ohm connector.
So, our next problem would be is to find out the value of x, so that we can get a good
match. So, now, let just see systematically one by one, how is the field distribution going
on.
So, along the length we will just start from here. So, I have already told you that at the
end current is 0, then, that is the maximum and then current is 0 along this here the
voltage is maximum, and then voltage is becoming 0 over here. So, if we plot this
voltage distribution along here. So, voltage is maximum. So, the field will be going from
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here to here this is the electric field and then the field will be going here and along the
edges there will be fringing field. And this amplitude which is maximum here and
gradually it is reducing to 0. So, gradually it is reducing to 0 and then it changes the
direction. So, now, the arrow directions are there, now, at this point if you see. So, the
field is going towards the patch which is a negative and these are the fringing fields.
So, now this whole thing can be represented in this form here. What we are looking at?
We are looking at 2 sets here, one is the field beneath the patch. Now the radiation takes
place from the edges because the field is confined within the patch here. So, now, these
fields here can be represented in 2 components: horizontal component and vertical
component. So, horizontal component will be in the right hand side direction. So, this is
where is the horizontal component.
The vertical component will be going down, but from this side now if you see the
horizontal component is also in the right side which is shown over here. And the vertical
component will be in the opposite direction of this one here. So, if we look at a broad
side direction, since these 2 are in the opposite phase they cancel in the broad side. The
only addition comes is from these 2 things which are in the same direction. So, this
whole thing can be thought about as that there is a one radiating slot there is another
radiating slot, and now we need to find out what is the radiation pattern so. In fact, we
can apply the array theory. So, we can actually see that there is a one radiating slot on
one edge another radiating slot is on the other edge and the distance between them is
approximately /2. Why? because that is what is half wavelength corresponding to which
is resonance frequency is there.
So, now if we look into here then, in order to find the radiation pattern what do we do?
We already know how to calculate the radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. Compliment
of a dipole antenna is slot antenna. And then we apply the array theory to find out the
overall radiation pattern in this plane and then these can be integrated along this axis to
give the H-plane pattern. Now the simplified way of the analysis is also that we can think
of this whole patch as a transmission line and since the field is uniform, we can neglect
that particular part there. So, we assume that this is a simple transmission line, fringing
fields are represented by capacitance on both sides. And the radiation resistance is
modeled over here.
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Now, how do we calculate radiation resistance? Well, we know that there will be electric
field here. So, from the electric we can find out what is the power radiated and then
V2
power radiated is equal to . So, from that we can find out the radiation resistance.
2R
And as I had mentioned earlier this radiation resistance is not the physical quantity it is
just a representation of radiated power. So, now, we can actually look at how to design
the antenna.
So, first of all for the design, what we need we need to calculate what is the effective
dielectric constant. Why effective dielectric constant let just go back and see the
distribution. So, we can see that most of the field is confined in the substrate, but part of
the field is going up in the air. So, because of that the effective dielectric constant is not
really only εr, but is slightly less than εr because part of the fringing field is in the air. So,
we can use this particular formula to calculate what is εe.
Now, again for this there are so many different expressions are given. This we found out
is reasonably good expression which can be used for rectangular patch antenna. So, one
can actually see that if W is going towards infinity; that means, patch is very long and if
W is infinity this term will be equal to 0 then this whole term becomes 1, and if you look
into here then this entire term becomes εr. So, which is expected if the patch is spread to
the infinity εe will be equivalent εr; however, if the width is very small if it is tending
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ϵ r +1
towards 0 if you put this expression εe will be nothing but equal to . Why?
2
Because εr is below the patch and one is the above the patch, we need to take effective
dielectric constant, but majority of the time for a rectangular patch we take a larger
width. So, εe is given by
and where we can also say εe is slightly less than εr.
Now, we can see that there is a W here, and we need to calculate the value of W. Now
here again a starting point has been given and this starting point can be used to calculate
W, and where is the starting point coming into picture? Well just think about c/f0 is
nothing, but 0. 0/2 which is approximately half wave length. And then, this is being
divided by the effective dielectric constant between the dielectric layer down below and
one above there. Now again this is just a starting point. It does not mean always that you
have to choose this value of W, you can take a larger value than this W or smaller value
of W, It all depends upon; just to tell you right now, that if you take a larger value of W,
then what will happen aperture area will increase. So, aperture area increases; that
means, gain will increase. So, if you require a larger gain you can take larger W.
Also, if W increases fringing fields will increase and if fringing fields increase, that
means, there will be more radiation. From circuit point of view; that means, there will
more losses and more lossy means Q will be low and if Q is low, bandwidth will be high.
So, one actually choose and, but sometimes we may have to take a smaller than this W
because we need to fit the antenna into a certain area. Suppose let us say you want to
design an antenna for a mobile phone you can’t use a very large W, because of the size of
the mobile phone is small. So, you may end up taking a small W which will then
compromise on the bandwidth as well as on the gain. And once we know W and ε then
we can actually find out the value of Le which is effective length. Let us say Le should be
equal to this here. What is this here? That is /2, and what is ?  is nothing but,
❑0
¿
√ϵ e
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So, then this basically is nothing, but /2 and that is what we had seen for fundamental
mode 1 0, the length should be equal to /2 and Le is nothing but
Le =L+2 ∆ L
and what is 0 ?
c
❑0=
f0
So, now let us say we want to do the design. So, design we need to use this equation. So,
let us say frequency is given to us. So, for a given frequency we can choose first W. So,
W will be used, f 0 is known, εr is known because we have chosen a substrate we can
calculate W. For this given value of W substitute over here find out the value of εe, then
this value of εe we can put over here and find out what is the effective length and then
from that we can calculate the physical length. We will take a design example; however,
we also need another thing, where should we feed? So, in order to feed, I have given a
general guideline: the feed point can be between L/6 to L/4. So, if it is a narrow band
antenna start with L/6 if it is a wide band antenna start with L/4. So, let just take a design
example.
So, will start with a design of a rectangular microstrip antenna for Wi-Fi application. You
know that Wi-Fi works around 2.45 GHz, but the exact frequency ranges from 2.42 to
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2.483. Now till now we have not really looked into what controls the bandwidth what
controls the gain and other thing. So, what we will do will just take one of the standard
substrate. So, this is a substrate whose parameters are εr = 2.32, h is 0.16 cm which is
really equal to 1 by 16 inches and tan delta is 0.001 which is a low loss substrate. Now,
we know the frequency, take the center frequency of this as 2.4415 which is in between
center value.
So, our first task is to calculate W. So, we know the parameter c, c is nothing, but 3 into
10 to the power 8 meter per second, but here we have represented in terms of centimeter.
So, 3 into 10 to the power 10 centimeter per second, here is the 2 which is coming here f
0 is 2.4415 into 10 to the power 9 GHz. And 2.32 plus 1, 3.32, divided by 2 is 1.66. So,
we do the calculation it turns out to be 4.77 centimeters. Now as I mentioned it is not
necessary that you take this value of W, you can take any different value. So, I have just
taken a value which is 4.7. You can take 4 take also, you can take 5 also, you can take 3
also depending upon the requirement. For this value of W, now, we substitute the value
of εr which is 2.32, h is known 0.16, put W here, do the calculation, εe is 2.23, you can
see that this 2.23 is slightly less than 2.32. So, that tells that you are on the right path. If
this is more than this, you know definitely it is not correct.
So, from here now once we know this we can find out L e. We know c, we know f0 now
we know εe; substitute the value we got 4.11 centimeter. And then the next part is to
calculate L which is a physical length. So, we use this expression now delta L as I
h
mentioned this is . This is an approximate value and that comes out to be 3.9
√ϵ e
centimeter, but one thing I can assure you, if you just use these simple 3, 4 lines I can
assure you that majority of the time your antenna will be designed within 1 to 2 percent
of the accuracy. Absolute maximum error you take any case will not be more than 5
percent. In fact, most of the time we have found out the error is less than one percent. So,
let’s just take an example here.
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So, what we did, the same design now, we have simulated using a commercially
available software which is IE3D, earlier it was available from Zeland, now it is
available from Mentor Graphics. So, what we have done here we took 3.9 centimeter, W
4 as we calculated, x as 0.7. Now just recall I said starting point can be L/6 now 3.9
divided by 6 is 0.65. I have taken slightly more than that. And there is a reason also here
W is more than length and if W is larger; that means, bandwidth will be larger; that
means, impedance variation will be small will see the parametric study also. So, because
bandwidth is large impedance variation will be relatively less. So, we have taken slightly
more than 0.65. So, this is 0.7. εr, h, tan you have to specify these things in the
simulation. And in the beginning we have done the simulation for infinite ground plane.
Now these are the results this is the Smith chart plot and that is the S11 plot.
So, we can see here that, what we have got here is a center frequency as 2.414
impedance is 50 ohms. So, this 50 ohm is reasonably close to 50 ohm. So, we can leave
that here and if you at the S 11 that is the S11 plot, but if you look for bandwidth for S 11 less
than minus 10 dB you can actually just go through and draw a line at minus 10 dB and
one can see that the bandwidth obtained is about 40 MHz. Now this is really not our
objective. Our objective was from 2.4 up to 2.483 we require 83 megahertz, but we have
got only 40 megahertz.
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Do not be disappointed, because this is just the starting point. We just took some
arbitrary substrate which has an εr and this h is given by this value. We will see how to
design a real antenna, but this is good starting point, but what we would like to show you
here that our designed frequency was 2.4415, which we took that. And simulated came
out to be 2.414. So, if you calculate the percentage error it is only about 1.1 percent
which is a very good thing. You do not have to solve Maxwell’s equations, you do not
have write boundary conditions, you do not have to do E field, H field double integral
and so on. Just by using simple calculator you can do the design and how much time it
took, may be less than 10 minutes.
So, now the question comes then what do we do next. So, we got the value which has a
percentage error of 1.1 percent. So, what we simulated is 2.414, what was desired was
this here. So, if we reduce the value of length L. So, what will happen frequency will
increase. And to increase the bandwidth what we need to do we need to increase h. So,
that band width will increase. So, let us remember this starting point.
And now what we will do we will study the parametric study. So, will take a case one by
one will see the performance of each and every parameter and see what really happenes.
So, as a starting, different design example we have taken L equal to 3 centimeter and W
equal to 4 centimeters. And these are the substrate parameters. And for the simulation we
have taken probe diameter as 0.12 centimeter, this is the diameter for SMA connector,
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there are 2 most popular connectors actually: one is SMA connector, another one is an N
type connector. We will show you the results one by one. Again all these antennas have
been analyzed using IE3D software.
So, let’s see one by one effect of these. To start with, we have given effect of feed point
location. So, what we have done, kept the L, W constant, εr, h are also constant; all we
are doing it is changing the value of x, and what we have taken x as 0.55, 0.6 and 0.65.
These are the 3 values. And we can actually see the plot for x equal to 0.5. This is the
impedance plot and then this is for 0.6 and then this for 0.65. So, what we are effectively
doing by increasing the value of x, we are moving towards the edge of the rectangular
microstrip antenna. And we know that at the center impedance is 0 towards the edge
impedance is maximum.
So, that is why when you are shifting the feed point towards the edge impedance is
increasing. Now by changing the feed point location resonance frequency does not
change much. So, that is why you do not see much difference in the VSWR plot as far as
the resonance frequency is concerned; however, one can see that the bandwidth is
slightly different, if we draw a horizontal line for VSWR 2 here then we can see that the
bandwidth for the solid line is slightly more than this here.
So, how that can be explained? Again let just look at here. So, what we have we have
these 3 impedance plots. So, what you need to do, you need to draw a line from this edge
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to this one, cut here and that is chord and then we see that the line which is going
through the 50-ohm line again that is a chord, but for this particular feed point if you
look at, then we can see that it is almost passing through the diameter of the VSWR
equal to 2 circuit. And that is where it is more important. And that is where this one gives
a better bandwidth. In fact, I would like to tell my audience that it is not always
important that you design antenna for exactly 50 ohms. In fact, most of the time when I
design antenna I design antenna for 55 ohm or 60-ohm impedance which will be
something like this plot here and that will give me a slightly larger bandwidth. And here
also let us look at the radiation pattern.
Now, since it is simulated for infinite ground plane. So, there is a no radiation in the
backside, but what we have here. We have 2 things which are co-polar. This is an E-plane
pattern and this is an H-plane pattern. So, you can see that this E-plane pattern, how does
that E-plane pattern comes into picture? So, you look at the slot antenna. So, slot antenna
will have an omnidirectional pattern. So, let us say we have a 2 slots here, there is an
omnidirectional pattern here, omnidirectional pattern here, but below there is a ground
plane. So, it will not radiate in the downside. So, the pattern will something like this,
pattern will be radiating in the upper hemisphere. Now we apply the array theory and the
separation between the 2 is /2. This is not 0/2 which we studied in array theory.
❑0
So, compared to /2 this is actually . So, this length is still small. So, the
2 √ ϵe
radiation will be in the broad side direction and that is why when we look at the pattern
here you can see that it is not exactly 0, because of the array factor it is coming slightly
less than that, but the main is in the broad side direction. What about this plane H-plane?
So, for H-plane again you have to think about the slot antenna radiation. So, let say this
is the slot here radiation is maximum around this. So, this is giving me E field, but H
field is perpendicular to the E field. So, this side here if you look at the slot we see the
maximum, but if you look from here the radiation is actually equal to 0. So, that is why
for H-plane the radiation is starting from maxima it is going towards 0 here. So, what is
this component coming here? This is actually a cross-polar component.
Ideally we would like there should be no cross polar component. A perfect linearly
polarized antenna should not have any cross polarization, but; however, as one can see
the cross polar component is this is 0 minus 10 minus 20 minus 30 that is about 27-28 dB
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down compared to the maximum radiation in this direction. So, we can almost say cross
polar is very less, but; however, from where this cross polar is coming, actually this cross
polar is coming if you look at the patch. There is this probe here, from the bottom when
you are feeding the patch. So, what we see here there is a ground plane and this probe is
coming out and then there is a patch so. In fact, this probe can be thought about as a top
loaded monopole antenna. So, basically this is a more like monopole antenna, what is the
radiation pattern of the monopole well it will be 0 in this direction maximum in this
direction.
So, if you actually look at this radiation pattern. So, the cross polar is really speaking
coming because of that monopole antenna or because of that probe which is radiating.
So, if the probe length is more the radiation will be more. In fact, we will see that the
cross polar level component increases. So, this is the effect of the feed point location.
And then we can also look at the next one, which is effect of the width. So, we can see
here that results are given for different values of the width 2, 3, 4 and 5 cm. So, this is the
case for the width equal to 2, this is for 3, this is for 4 and that is for 5. So, also there is a
VSWR plot this is for 2, 3, 4, 5. So, why we are this kind of things? Just think about, if
the width is increasing, we saw the expression for εe: larger is the width, εe will keep on
increasing. So, if εe increases resonance frequency will decrease.
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Also if the width is large fringing fields will also increase and now coming to this here.
So, this can be explained as the width increases there will be more and more fringing
fields; that means, there will be more radiation. So, more radiation means more losses
and that is radiation losses. From antenna point of view, it is very good, but from circuit
point of view we think it is losses, but that is not correct from antenna; more radiation is
actually a desired quantity. So, when there is a more radiation. So, what will happen Q
will reduce and that increases bandwidth and if the bandwidth is increases; that means,
that the impedance variation will reduce.
So, impedance variation reduces means impedance will reduce. So, that is why when we
shift from W equal to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5, we can actually see that the impedance is changing.
And one can choose a proper feed point for doing the impedance matching for any these
cases here. So, we can actually note that bandwidth is proportional to W. So, as you keep
on increasing the value of W, we will see that the bandwidth increases and gain is
directly proportional to W, because W increases, aperture area increases, hence gain
increases.
So, will continue from here in the next lecture, today we just looked into how to design a
simple rectangular microstrip antenna, for a different given frequency range, but in the
next lecture will first study what are the parameter effect of different components also for
substrate parameter and then will see what determines the bandwidth of the antenna.
Then we take a real example to meet the exact requirement.
Thank you very much and will see you soon.
309
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 05
Lecture – 21
MSA Parametric Analysis – I
Hello and welcome. So, in the last lecture we looked into rectangular microstrip antenna
and how to design a rectangular microstrip antenna by using some very simple equation
and we also saw that that those simple design equations are fairly accurate we get an
accuracy of roughly about one percent or so. And then we started looking into the effect
of the parameters on the performance of the antenna. So, let us continue.
So, in the last lecture we started with the rectangular patch with the 3 centimeter length
and 4 centimeters as a width, and these were the subset parameters we took and probe
diameter was taken as a starting point, and then we looked at or what is the effect of the
feed point and we actually notice that as x increases what happens input impedance plot
shifts right towards higher impedance.
310
So, this is x 0.55, 0.6, 0.65. Then we looked into what is the effect of the W and it has a
lot of effect on the impedance. So, you can see that this is for W equal to 2, then W equal
to 3, W equal to 4, W equal to 5. So, we can see that as width increases input impedance
is decreasing and whole curve shift towards lower impedance value. We also noticed that
as W increases resonance frequency slightly decreases and the reason for that is as W
increases epsilon effective increases, which reduce the resonance frequency.
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Now, let just look at the effect of the other parameters. So, if we increase the effect of the
thickness; that means, if we increase the thickness of the substrate. So, what happens if
we increase the substrate thickness? Now there are several things which happen. First
thing is that if you increase the substrate thickness fringing fields will increase. And if
the fringing fields increase; that means, the total length will increase because
Le =L+2 ∆ L
So, the total length increases resonance frequency decreases.
So, that is effect one. There is a second effect that when we increase the thickness of the
substrate. What happens? Then the probe which is feeding from the ground plane to the
stop patch, the length of the probe increases and the probe induction is nothing, but
proportional to the diameter. So, if the diameter is more probe induction will be less and
if the height of the probe is more; that means, it is inductance will increase. So, that is
why we can see here that this is for h equal to 0.159 and here the thickness is doubled.
So, we can see that when it is doubled one can actually see that the whole curve is shifted
towards inductance.
Now, if we look from the bandwidth point of view if you draw a line along VSWR equal
to 2 here, if you see here this one has a relatively less bandwidth compared to this one
here which has a larger bandwidth. So, in general we can say bandwidth is proportional
to h/0. So, why I have added 0 because h is not the absolute value everything is related
to the wavelength. So, it is not that if we just take h equal to 0.159, 0.318, but if you look
at a different frequency, it is the normalizing effect which comes into picture. So, we
know that if you keep on increasing h, we can the bandwidth or for the same h if we
change the frequency; that means, if we keep on increasing the frequency 0 will reduce
bandwidth will increase, but there is a limit. We cannot keep on increasing the value of h
forever. So, there is a limit that
and that is to reduce surface wave. How is this surface wave coming into picture?
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So, think about a gain, we have a patch and below the patch we have a ground plane. So,
there will be fringing field from the edges. Now this is the dielectric substrate. So, this
fringing field from the ground plane it will reflect. Now this reflection part of that will go
in the free space part of that will get partly reflected. And there will be an angle where
there can be a total internal reflection. So, what happens then this radiation is towards the
surface. And that is not the desired direction, because we are designing antenna right
now for broadside and here the propagation is towards the surface wave so that means,
energy is getting wasted. Also think about, if we are going to discuss about, then we start
doing it about arrays. So, we have a one patch here we have another patch here. So, what
happens? The surface wave from here, will go hit this particular patch surface wave
from, patch will go to this one here. So, that will also create impedance miss matches
also.
So, it is better to follow this particular criterion which will reduce surface wave. And
what this criterion really tells us. So, let just see typically suppose if ϵr is equal to 1
what is this number 0.3 divided by let us say approximately 2 into 3. So, that will be
about 0.05, and if ϵr is say 2 or 3 then this value should be smaller than that. So, this
puts the restriction to reduce the surface wave we need to reduce the height h; however,
to increase bandwidth we need to increase height. So, somewhere there is a conflict and
that is why we always say bandwidth of microstrip antenna is limited, to 1 to 5 percent.
We will see several techniques in the next few lectures how to increase the bandwidth.
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But now let just look at some other parameter also. So, here this is an effect of probe
diameter. What we have done here is we have 2 standard probe connectors one is a SMA
and another one is N-type connector, the difference between the 2 connectors is: SMA
probe has diameter of 0.12 centimeter n type has a diameter of 0.3 centimeter. So, here
we can see the 2 plots. This is for N-type plot and this is for SMA plot. So, we can see
that this curve is shifted up, basically why? Because for N-type, diameter is more; for
SMA diameter is less. So, less diameter will have more inductance. So, more inductance
means that the whole curve is shifted up; you can see that there is an inductive shift to
this particular curve here. Also there is a small change in the resonance frequency; why?
Because if inductance is increased then the resonance frequency will decrease slightly
1
again, why? Because ω0 is given by , so if L increases; that means, resonance
√ LC
frequency will decrease.
Let just see now the effect of the loss tangent. We have taken 3 different cases of loss
tangent one is 0.001.
Now, this is the case for very good quality substrate. And that is the plot shown over
here. And then there is a substrate which has a slightly more loss compared to this. And
then this is the lossy substrate. Now, typically FR4 substrate or glass epoxy substrate has
a tan 0.02. So, if we now see the 3 curves here. So, this is for 0.001, then this for 0.01
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and this is for 0.02. So, what we can say that as loss tangent increases the whole
configuration becomes more lossy. More lossy means bandwidth will increase, but this is
not a good bandwidth, please remember that because even the bandwidth increases, but
effectively efficiency decrease and gain also decrease. So, it is not a good idea to use a
lossy substrate, because both efficiency and gain of the antenna will reduce; however, if
it is coming to a low cost antenna application, we sometimes tend to use this low cost
substrate, but which has a tan will see some of the techniques how this low cost
substrate can be used to get a very good performance. So, we will see that after studying
the parametric study.
Now, let just see what is the effect of the dielectric constant. So, here almost everything
changes. Will see why everything changes. What we have done is we have taken a center
frequency as roughly 3 GHz. You can see that it is approximately 3 Ghz. Corresponding
to 3 GHz we have designed the antenna separately, for different values of ϵr = 1,
2.55, 4.3, 9.8. These are the commonly available substrate with small variation. So, what
we have done? We have already studied the case for 2.55, L was 3, W was 4. We have
used the same thing. So, just the scaling if their surface ϵr equal to 1, length will
increase. Correspondingly W will increase. Similarly, here if ϵr increases length will
decrease, correspondingly W will decrease.
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Now, for all these cases then we have found out the value of x. Again you can see that we
see this one here for smaller bandwidth, x will be starting will be L/4 and if the larger
bandwidth it will be something close to L/6. And for all these feed point value we have
given what is the input impedance, as you can see that we have not optimized exactly for
50 ohms; anything 50 to 60 ohm or 65 ohms is acceptable. And when can see bandwidth
also here. So, for ϵr equal to 1 bandwidth is 74 megahertz. And for as we keep on
increasing ϵr we can see that the bandwidth is decreasing.
Now, there is an interesting thing that for ϵr equal to 1 gain is around 10 dB, for 2.55
gain is around 6.8 dB. Now think this way if you have to design an antenna, 2.55 is a
very expensive substrate, whereas ϵr 1 that corresponds to air. So, if you design an
antenna for air you can get very good gain, you can also get very good bandwidth. Now
the only problem is how do you have a metallic plate suspended in air? So, we will see
the techniques how to make the metallic plates suspended. In fact, we use many a times
metallic post to support that particular antenna, but just to see here that with general
decrease in ϵr , both L and W increase. And because both L and W are increasing,
that increases the fringing field as well as aperture area. You can see that the aperture
area is L multiplied by W which is much larger. So, because of the larger aperture area
we get more gain. And because of more fringing field we get better bandwidth.
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So, now let just see radiation pattern for different mode. So, here is a simple patch
slightly dimensions are different. So, here length is actually much larger than W, L is
about 1.5 W, but what is shown over here radiation pattern for 2 different value of ϵr
. Now the 2 different values are 2.32 and this for ϵr 9.8. So, before we think about
how these things are coming why this pattern has a relatively narrow bandwidth this is
more spread out or it has a higher half power beamwidth, we have to actually think about
that if ϵr is small; that means, it is aperture will be large if ϵr is higher; that
means, aperture area will be small. So, if the aperture area is small; that means, gain will
be small and if the gain is small half power beamwidth will be large and that is why this
one we see as a larger half power beam width, and for this here because the aperture area
has increased compared to 9.8. So, half power beam width is reduced.
Now, this is the pattern for Eθ , this is pattern for E∅ . And now suddenly you might
start thinking about we were talking about E-plane and we were talking about H-plane
from where Eθ and E∅ they have come and what is this ∅ is equal to 0 and 90.
So, just want to tell you when we do the simulation many times the software actually
tells/ gives us Eθ E∅ and then we have to visualize which is a E-plane and which is
H-plane.
So, just to tell you now, this is ∅ equal to 0 and we are feeding here. So, this is the
radiating edge here. Voltage is maximum here. And voltage is of from plus maxima, this
is a minus maxima or minima you can say. So, from here this determines the E-plane So,
that is the E-plane So, this E theta n phi equal to 0-degree plane and that is E-plane.
Perpendicular to this will be ∅ equal to 90 degrees. So, ∅ equal to 90 degrees now
is nothing but the H-plane pattern, but over it shows E phi why again E theta is
perpendicular to E phi. So, it is a notation Eθ , E ∅ , but in reality it is a E-plane and
∅ equal to 0 degree and this is H-plane pattern and ∅ equal to 90 degree. Let us
also look at the different mode now. This is a TM 30 mode.
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So, what is TM 30 mode? TM 30 mode will come when the length of the patch here will
❑0
actually become equal to 3/2. So, is . So, 3/2; that means, along this length
√ϵ e
the variation will be 3 half wavelength, if you think about this is plus. So, then from plus
it will go to 0 here, then it will go to minus, then it will go to 0 and then it will go to
other minus here. So, that is how 3 half wavelengths are completed here. Now for this if
you see the radiation pattern it kind of looks very different. So, what we have here again
2 substrate parameter ϵr =¿ 2.32 and that is the pattern for this here and for ϵr =
9.8, this is the pattern. Now the 2 pattern looks very different whereas, if you look at the
previous case 2.32, 9.8 for fundamental mode they look almost similar, except that half
power beam width was slightly different, but here they look drastically different. So,
what is the reason? Well let just look at the reason now.
Now, for the 3 0 mode this is 3/2. Now ϵr = 2.32, if we put here epsilon effective is
roughly we had seen about 2.23 and for that let say square root of that will be roughly
1.5. So, 1.5 multiplied by 2 will be 3. 30 will be 0. So, what we have here, we have a
one radiating slot here another radiating slot and the separation between them is 0. And
from array theory we had seen that if the separation between the 2 antennas is 0 then
there will be grating lobe. So, what we see here, this is the maximum radiation, it comes
to 0, and then we have another radiation. So, that is nothing, but grating lobe in this
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direction and the grating lobe is in this direction. Whereas for ϵr 9.8 if I just
approximately assume 9.8 is ϵr then ϵe is approximately 9 square root of 9 will
be 3. So, 30/2 into 3 will be 0/2. So, array factor will not have any grating lobe, and
that is why we do not see any grating lobe here.
Now, the similar thing you can see here, but here we see that there is no grating lobe
coming into picture. And the reason why grating lobe is not coming in picture here, we
have to actually visualize along the H-plane for the slot element pattern actually has a 0
value. So, this 0 value if that 0 value gets multiplied by the larger array factor value, 0
multiplied by any number is 0. So, that number is coming close to 0 here. So, that is why
you do not see the grating lobe, but we do see a side lobe. Whereas, the pattern for ϵr
9.8 is similar to that of the earlier case it is starting from maxima here going to 0 of
course, the beam width of this will be relatively small, compared to fundamental mode
the reason for that is because aperture size is again large.
So, let just take another case. We can actually realize a dual polarization. This is now
fundamental mode 1 0 and 0 1 mode here. So, here a case we have taken which is a
rectangular patch here. So, this is length L which is 10.1 centimeter, W which is about
7.9 centimeter. So, what we are trying to show here is that, if we have a feed point over
here which is x. So, for this feed point just for a moment think that y is not there. This
feed point is not there. So, if this is only x then what will happen, it will excite a
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fundamental mode which is 1 0. So, 1 0 means this will be plus v going to 0 and this will
be minus v which is the maximum.
So, since this is 0 this entire thing is 0. So, 0 means almost equivalent to short circuit
also. And that short circuit you put any load, whether you out 10 ohms 50 ohm or
inductance or capacitance it does not make any difference. So, that is why if you feed
here this feed does not load this feed at all.
Now, just think about this feed points. So, fourth is feed point along this here. Now width
will be resonant length and that width resonant length corresponds to this 7.9 here and
that will correspond to 0 1 mode, for the 0 1 more. So, when we feed here now the field
will be 0 along this line. So, if I feed anything here it does not matter. So, for this feed
point it does not matter what you put along this axis, and for feed at this point it does not
matter what you put over here because this is a 0 axis for this particular feed. And that is
why if you look at the isolation between the 2, which is very good. So, what it shows
here it is the; if we say this is the 1 and 2. So, S12 or which is same as S21 you can see that
this is the plot from frequency 0.5 to 1.1.
So, we see the 2 dips over here these are theoretical and measured value. You can see
that predicted value is much better here slightly less here, but what one can see here that
isolation between the 2 is less than 20 dB across the band, but along the resonances if
you see that is close to 30 dB so; that means, if we feed at these 2 points there is a
roughly isolation of above 30 dB. Few other things I want to mention that when we
design this antenna what we need to do it is consider this length. So, calculate what is the
resonance frequency for this here. And for this length this is the width here. So, since this
is width is smaller in this case, feed point will be relatively closer to L/6. So, for this feed
point now, this will be actually length and this will be width since width is large. So,
now, the feed point will be slightly towards the higher or towards the edge here. So, these
are the substrate parameters. You can see that a lossy substrate has been used just for the
study performance. So, corresponding to 10 centimeter resonance frequency is around
712, corresponding to 7.9 resonance frequency is 913. You can do this quick calculation
by using the design equations which we have given earlier.
So, by using this technique you can get a very good isolation between the 2 frequencies,
but remember one thing, this one will give E field in this direction this will give E field
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in this direction. So, this is nothing, but dual polarization or orthogonal polarization of
course, just to mention here this can be also applied to square patch also. So, where L
will be equal to W and then the 2 resonance will merge into single resonance and that
would be something like a square patch with 2 orthogonal polarizations at exactly the
same frequency. In fact, many of the mimo antenna which is nothing but multiple input
multiple output, they use horizontal and vertical polarization. In fact, many a times for
channel capacity enhancement what we do? We try to use both horizontal as well as
vertical polarization. So, if you want to use both the polarization, then we get signal from
both the side. And what is important it isolation between the 2. So, generally a 30 dB
isolation is considered pretty good.
Now, till now we have studied the effect of the infinite ground plane. Now in reality we
will never ever take an infinite ground plane, we will always take a finite ground plane.
So, then the question comes what should be the finite ground plane. So, we studied that
the effect of the various ground plane and here is a result which we have shown. So,
what we realize that if the ground plane size is more than length, and that is 6 h on one
side 6 h on the other side. Similarly, for width of the ground plane 6 h on one side 6 h on
other side.
Or in reality you can think about if L and W are the patch dimension you have 6 times
the substrate thickness all around. If you do that then let us see what happens here. So,
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this is the impedance plot for infinite ground plane and finite ground plane. You can see
that the 2 results are pretty close to each other. Even for VSWR, for resonance frequency
also the effect is almost negligible if you do infinite or you take finite ground plane.
However, there is a difference in the radiation pattern. For infinite ground plane there
will be 0 radiations, but for finite ground plane we are taken this size over here, in that
case you can see the scale is 0 minus 10 minus 20, so 0 minus 10 minus 20. So, that is
about minus 18 dB. So, front to back ratio is 18 dB now many a times 18 dB is
acceptable, but sometimes 15 dB is also acceptable sometimes 30 dB is also acceptable.
So, here just to tell, if you want a front to back ratio to be high instead of 18 dB what we
got let us say we want 20 dB or 30 dB all you need to do it is take a larger ground plane
size, or sometimes the ground plane can be in the cavity form also to reduce the back
radiation. And here one additional thing I want to tell.
So, what happens if the ground plane is exactly same as length? So, if you take L is equal
to L g what you will actually notice that whatever is the front radiation back radiation is
almost same so. In fact, the pattern will be something like this here. And then it will
increase become maximum, and then it will come back here. In fact, so, this actually
becomes a bidirectional antenna.
So, just to tell you we were actually looking for an application where we wanted an
antenna along the corridor. So along the corridor you know that the corridor is long and
we wanted an antenna to be put in between. So, that it cover this side of the corridor as
well as the other side. In fact, in the beginning we thought of a solution that will have a
one rectangular microstrip antenna facing this side, there will be a ground plane and then
we will put another rectangular microstrip antenna, but then you have design a power
divider also. So, when we were studying these effects, we actually looked at what is
happening to the ground plane. And the moment we started reducing the ground plane
size, we could see that just single patch is radiating equally. So that means, if you take L
equal to L g you can design a very simple bidirectional antenna. Remember there is a
disadvantage of that because now it is radiating in the front as well as in the back the
overall gain reduces, but that is the property of the bidirectional antenna.
So, just to summarize today what we have seen, we have seen how to study the
parametric effect. So, what are the effects of the various parameter on the performance of
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the antenna. We change the feed point location we noted that the impedance curve is
shifting towards the edge, then we looked at the effect of the W. So, if you increase the
W bandwidth increases gain increases then we also looked at what is the effect of tan.
Now, we saw that if you use a lossy tan you get good bandwidth, but that is not a good
bandwidth. Because gain is reducing efficiency is reducing we also saw what is the effect
of the probe diameter. So, if the probe diameter increases; that means, it is inductance is
reduced. So, the curve will shift towards capacitor. We also saw what is the effect of the
substrate thickness. So, if you keep on increasing the substrate thickness bandwidth
increases, but there is a limit to up to how much you can increase the substrate thickness.
And also if you increase the substrate thickness the probe inductance increases. So, the
whole curve shifts towards inductive region. So, in the lecture we will see what are the
bandwidth criteria. How do we choose for a given specification of bandwidth what kind
of a substrate we should choose? And then we will look at some practical
implementation and see how to design antenna. And after rectangular microstrip antenna
will also look into how to design circular microstrip antenna triangular microstrip
antenna and so on.
Thank you very much, will see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 05
Lecture – 22
MSA Parametric Analysis – II
Hello and welcome. Now in the last few lectures we have been talking about microstrip
antenna and also we talked about rectangular microstrip antenna. We actually saw what
are effects of various parameters on the performance of rectangular microstrip antenna.
We studied what are the effects of the variation of feed point location, we studied what is
the effect of W, what is the effect of h, ϵr , tan, probe diameter and so on. We also
looked at the different modes of the rectangular antenna.
We looked into fundamental mode as well as third order mode. Now you might wonder
why I did not discuss about second order mode, because second order mode actually has
a broad side radiation pattern going to null because the broad side pattern actually
cancels it gives raise to the conical pattern. So, majority of the time second order mode is
not used. In fact, I also want to mention try to avoid even third order mode also. So, even
the third order may give us a little higher gain, but instead of using 3/2 lengths what
you can do is, you can use 2 rectangular patches of /2 length used in the array form you
will still get about the same type of a gain. So, generally speaking these antennas are
used for their fundamental mode operation only.
Now, today we will look into how to choose a proper substrate to meet the design
guideline to see what should be the bandwidth of the antenna for a given thing and for
given frequency range given bandwidth, how to choose the value of the substrate
parameter.
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So, let just see there are 2 curves here let just first look at the one of curve over here.
What is this curve here it actually shows bandwidth variation with substrate thickness
right here and with frequency which is shown over here. Now here we just want to tell
you what we have. So, we have substrate thickness shown along this side and this is a
normalized substrate thickness. I have been always telling absolute value should not be
considered always a normalized value. So, what we can see here h/0 varies from 0 to up
to 0.1 here and we have 2 things here for vertical this side shows here efficiency this side
shows here percentage bandwidth.
So, now first just look into this axis here which is a percentage bandwidth and
corresponding to these bandwidths here, these are the 2 curve one is for ϵr =¿ 10 and
other one is for ϵr =¿ 2.2. So, we are actually showing for 2 different values of ϵr
what is the effect on the percentage bandwidth, as we increase the substrate thickness.
So, let just see one by one. So, this is the case for ϵr =¿ 10. So, we can see that as
substrate thickness increases one can see that the percentage bandwidth is increasing; we
can even get about 5 percent bandwidth over here. Let us take a case of ϵr =¿ 2.2; one
can see the bandwidth is increasing like this here. So, we can see from here that if ϵr
is reduced from 10 to 2.2 my percentage bandwidth is increasing.
Then comes the next part which is the efficiency part, here are the 2 curves for ϵr
again the solid line that is same here. So, one can see that this is the efficiency for
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ϵr =¿ 2.2 and efficiency decreases drastically for ϵr =¿ 10. So, for example, now
let us say we want to design an antenna for say for example, 5 percent. So, if we take as a
5 percent then we can see from here. So, the if we draw horizontal line somewhere here;
that means, for ϵr =¿ 10, I should take 0.09 lambda as a substrate thickness; however,
corresponding to this you can see that efficiency plot is not even given. And if we try to
extend this here it will go follow if I do the linear extension somewhere around here 0.09
efficiency will be even less than 20 percent. So, it is not a good substrate at all to design
for 5 percent bandwidth.
Let just look at ϵr =¿ 2.2 corresponding to 5 percent here, let us say again from here
we draw the horizontal line come slowly here come somewhere here. So, corresponding
to this that is about substrate thickness and corresponding to this if you look up of here
you can see that efficiency is about 90 percent. So, this is still a good choice to use 2.2
and correspondingly we can use this value here for the substrate thickness, but let just
think and imagine that if this is ϵr =¿ 10 and if this is curve for ϵr =¿ 2.2 where
will be the curve for ϵr =¿ 1.
So, if we just imagine this is 10 this is 2.2 that ϵr =¿ 1 equal to 1 curve will go
probably like this. So, that will have a better bandwidth. Similarly, from efficiency point
of view, if we again imagine if this is ϵr =¿ 10 efficiency and this is for ϵr =¿ 2.2
efficiency for ϵr =¿ 1 it is almost close to 100 percent. So, ϵr =¿ 1 is a very good
substrate. What is ϵr =¿ 1? It is air. So, all we need to have is a air as a substrate, and
will see how to suspend a metallic plate in an air in the next slide.
But now let just look at another thing also that is a variation of percentage bandwidth
with respect to frequency and here 3 different hs are taken 0.079, 0.159, 0.318. In a
reality if you see this curve is actually similar to this here. Why I say so?, see this is h/0.
And here is a frequency variation which is nothing but frequency is c/ and this is for
different h, this is for different h by lambda zero, but; however, many a times you know
when you want to design an antenna let say we want design antenna 3 gigahertz. So,
what you normally do you use this curve here at 3 gigahertzes this is the point and you
draw the vertical line from here and if you draw the vertical line let say point 0.318 you
look at here that is about 4 percent bandwidth. Of course, this curve is for ϵr =¿ 2.32.
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So, please remember that again this curve ϵr =¿ 2.32. If I take ϵr =¿ 1 my
bandwidth will be much more compared to this one here.
So, now based on this particular information in fact, I strongly encourage that when you
need to design an antenna please look at this curve and see what should be the substrate
parameter. In fact, it is the substrate which is a good starting point to design the antenna
what should be the bandwidth, and then what is the given bandwidth what should be the
substrate parameters.
So, here we have designed an antenna and given the result here. I am not included what
is the length and width that is an exercise for you people to do it. So, what we have done
here it is a square microstrip antenna in air. So, for simulation we have used ϵr =¿ 1.
So, what we have taken is square microstrip antenna on a finite ground plane. So, what is
done here a low cost metallic plate is suspended in air and fed by a coaxial feed and here
are the results. So, you can see that the resonance frequency is designed to be 1.8
gigahertz and this is the VSWR less than 2, bandwidths can be obtained from here which
is roughly about 95 megahertz, approximately 5 percent.
So, now this is the result which we have given you or this you can think about as a
problem which is given to you that design and antenna at 1.8 gigahertz with 5 percent
bandwidth. So, we chose ϵr =¿ 1. So, you look at the previous particular slide where
we have set that 5 percent bandwidth and you imagine where can be ϵr =¿ 1. And
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from that approximately you can try what should be the value of h, ϵr is already
known which is equal to 1, and then you can find out what is L. So, we already know
that L effective is nothing but
c
Le =
2 f 0 √ϵ e
ϵe =¿ 1, because ϵr =¿ 1 so; that means, L effective is nothing but
c ❑0
Le = =
2f0 2
So, f0 is known which is 1.8 gigahertz, you can find the value of L e and then Le is equal
to
Le =L+2 ∆ L
What is ∆L?
h
∆ L=
√ ϵe
Now that would give us equal to h; now here I want to add another thing. So, that
h
fringing field will never be equal to the substrate thickness. So, this formula of
√ϵ e
has to be modified for the air substrate. For air substrate take maximum ∆L as 0.9 h.
So, now, you know the L effective, h you can get an idea from the bandwidth. So, find
out the value of L and since it is a square patch now you can find out W is equal to L.
And then we have taken a metallic plate. So, you add 6 h on all 4 side and that will give
you the value of the ground plane. So, please do that and you can do the simulation also
using some of the commercial software.
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So, now let just see the radiation pattern. So, we have done the simulation. So, this is the
radiation pattern at 1.8 gigahertz. And one can see that there are E plane and H plane. So,
this is the E plane pattern, and this is the H plane pattern. We know that H plane pattern
will tend towards 0 or; this is a 0 dB minus 10 minus 20 minus 30. So, you can see that it
is less than minus 25 dB. Of course, there is a back radiation. So, that is giving us what is
the value of front to back. So, that is about roughly about 20 dB. You can see this yellow
curve here which is actually nothing but cross polar here. So, the cross polar level here is
approximately 20 dB.
Now if you recall we showed you the simulation for a thin substrate also and there the
cross polar level was about 27-28 dB. Here cross polar level is more the only reason
because for this is because now the substrate height is more because we realized a larger
bandwidth. And for larger bandwidth substrate height is more and that would mean probe
length is more and if the probe length is more; that means, the it is a better monopole
radiation and there will be a little larger component of the cross polar.
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So, now let us see how we can design an antenna using a low cost glass epoxy substrate
also. So, we have actually shown you different configurations of microstrip antenna,
which is known as a suspended configuration. Now that 2 configurations we have shown
let just first look into the first one here. So, what we have here we have a substrate here
or you can just take about any ground plate also just a metallic plate you need not have a
any substrate as such just the metallic plate will do the job here. And that metallic plate
again the question is what type of a metallic plate? well you can take a aluminum metal
plate or you can take copper or brass or you can get a gold plated aluminum plated, if
you have lot of money to spare or a very difficult application is required where the
tolerances are high, extreme temperature variations and other things are required, may be
you need to do or you need to reduce the conductor losses.
So, over here then we have a substrate and on the substrate what we have there is a
substrate over here and a patches printed on the other side and a probe is fed. In this case
here patches printed underneath the substrate and then the probe is connected to this one
here. So, first let just analyze this and then I will come to this. So, in order to analyze this
here, what we need to find out what is the epsilon equivalent of this particular patch seen
see this is air. So, ϵr =¿ 1. So, this is the substrate we have taken 2 substrates here one
is expensive substrate which has a 2.3 ϵr another one is a lossy substrate which we
have taken as ϵr =¿ 4.3 will see what are the results. So, over here this can be any
ϵr .
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So, now we would like to find out what is the epsilon equivalent of this particular now
combination of the 2. We can actually find out the first effective capacitance. So, the
effective capacitance between this plate and this plate will be given by
Total height will be h which is the substrate thickness plus ∆ which is air cap. So, that
is the total effective capacitance. And this can be now equated to there is a capacitance
between this one and this here and there is a capacitance from here to here. So, we can
actually imagine now calculate capacitance between this and this layer, and that will be
the capacitance given over here and then capacitance between this and this layer and in
this case ϵr =¿ 1.
So, now, these are the 2 series capacitance. And for series capacitance we use parallel
C1C2
formula of the resistance which is nothing but and this expression is
C 1 +C2
modified or simplified by cancelling many of these W, L term which are appearing. And
this is the expression for epsilon equivalent.
In fact, you can try to put different value of ϵr for h and ∆ we have given an example
here; taken ∆ as 2 centimeter h as 0 0.1 5 9 which is over here. You substitute the value
for these cases here and you can find out epsilon equivalent and what you will find
epsilon equivalent is almost of the order of 1.1 for both of these substrates.
So, epsilon equivalent to 1.1 means epsilon is less; that means, bandwidth will be more.
So, here we have case here a first let just look into the suspended case. So, here to start
with we have a case of ϵr =¿ 1. ϵr =¿ 1 means that we have just in simulation we
have taken this also 1 this also 1 and then ϵr =¿ 2.3 with tan = 0.001 and this is 4.3
with tan = 0.02 and here there are result. So, let just see what results we are getting. For
ϵr =¿ 1 we are getting 9.5 dB. Now you just recall earlier I had shown you for
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ϵr =¿ 1 in the previous lecture were we had taken ϵr =¿ 1, ϵr =¿ 2.5 then
ϵr =¿ 4.3, ϵr =¿ 10 and we had seen there the gain was 10 dB, but here it is 9.5 dB
which is less. The reason for that is here we have taken a square patch. So, L is equal to
W, there we had taken W larger than L and since W was larger than L gain was larger in
the previous case.
Now, coming back over here this is a ϵr =¿ 1. Now you can see that if you use 2.3, 4.3
my gain is just about 9.3, 9.2. So, if I take a very lossy substrate, which is very low cost.
You can see that the gain change is hardly significant; that means, this configuration can
be used with the low cost substrate, without losing much of a gain. Let just look at the
bandwidth you can see that the bandwidth changes also relatively small. In fact,
bandwidth in megahertz may look difference by 5 megahertz, but in reality if you see the
resonance frequency, let just look at that. So, the lowest frequency was 935 for ϵr =¿
1 when we took ϵr =¿ 2.3 it reduced to 889. Why because epsilon equivalent instead
of one it has now become roughly close to let say 1.1 that is why this frequency is
reduced for ϵr =¿ 4.3, one can calculate epsilon equivalent and then you can see that
for larger value ϵr epsilon equivalent will be slightly high. So, hence resonance
frequency is slightly low. So, if take the percentage bandwidth the change will be very
small.
Now, let just look the other configuration which is a inverted configuration. Now this
inverted configuration, in this particular case the patch sees the height of the substrate as
∆ and this one acts as a there is a term known as superstrate also. One is a substrate
this is a superstrate because substrate is above the radiating patch that is why the name is.
In fact, this can also be thought of as a radome. So, we have a patch and this substrate
acts as a radome. So, one can actually use this antenna as it is. In fact, if we look at the
performance of this. So, one can see that the gain is 9.5, 9.4 you can see that this gain is
almost same as this gain here, but even with the lossy substrate the reduction in gain is
very small so; that means, we can use a low cost substrate compared to expensive.
Now, you might wonder what is that cost difference. So, just to tell you compare to the
cost of FR4 or glass epoxy substrate, these substrate here (low loss) can be 30 to 50
times more than this substrate here. So, overall cost of the antenna increases, generally
for commercial application one uses FR4 substrate. And commercial applications can be
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let say if you want to design GPS antenna or you want to use for cellular communication,
cell tower radiation and all that, but for defense and satellite communication generally
performance is much more important and also thermal variation and other things are
important. So, for those kind of applications generally one uses high cost substrate, but
nevertheless cost is always a good thing. So, if one can design an antenna with low cost
without effecting the performance significantly, and we did not notice that the gain just
reduces slightly by about 0.1 to 0.2 dB. So in fact, this is a very good way to design an
antenna by using this here.
So, now comes the next part: how do we support these antennas? And what if this has a
good thing then why use this one here? So, first of all the major problem with this is let
us say we put a ground plane here and we have put an antenna there, and need to solder
here. So, sometimes it becomes very difficult I have to bring this solder either from the
side here and all that. So, soldering becomes a big issue to this one here whereas over
gear you drill a hole put the probe will come out here one can solder over here. So,
sometimes manufacturing part this is relatively easier to do it, but if one can do soldering
over here or find an alternate way then this has a better performance and also substrate
acts as a radome.
Now, comes the next part what if it was a metal plate only. We have shown the
configuration with ϵr =¿ 1. So, for metal plate one of the common mis-approach is
that you put a shorting post right at the center. Now by putting a shorting post here at the
center we can provide a support to the patch. Now by putting a shorting post we get
additional thing also that is that this short here can also provide DC ground to the
antenna which is sometimes required from protection from lightening. So, DC grounding
is good, and that will also act as a support also.
Now may be sometimes you can put one shot at the center or sometimes you can put
multiple shots at the center and the putting a shot at the center it does not difference to
the performance because field at the center is anyway 0. So, at 0 if you put a short circuit
it is not going to make any change. So, that is the one way to do it of course, in many a
times what people also do they take metallic plate and they put 4 dielectric screws at the
4 edges and these 4 dielectric screws will provide support.
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Now, in this, just want to tell you, these dielectric screws also provide loading. So, when
you are doing the analysis, you must design and calculate what should be the diameter of
that dielectric screw which you are putting what is it is tan what is it is ϵr and then
put it. If you do not do that calculation and you design antenna and then just put a plastic
screw the loading effect will come and that will reduce the resonance frequency. So, for
the substrate suspended or inverted there are additional things can be done also. We can
actually provide a metallic cavity like this here.
So, on this metallic cavity you can just put the substrates. So, that cavity all around the
metal plate can provide support and if we do not have this metallic plate we can even use
a dielectric screw here and dielectric screws here and that can provide the support or
many a times people also use foam substrates right over here. So, you put a foam
substrate then put a dielectric substrate and you can realize the antenna using this
particular fashion to provide the support.
So, we will now go to next configurations. So, we have so far discussed only about
rectangular microstrip antenna or square microstrip antenna. Here is a now a circular
microstrip antenna. See full form here is a circular microstrip antenna. And let us see
how we can calculate the resonance frequency. So, first of all here is a circle with the
radius and here is a feed point. So, we need to find the value of x, so that we can get a
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good impedance matching as before. Now the resonance frequency of the circular patch
can be obtained by
You can see some new term here which is Knm what is Knm, Knm is the mth root of the
derivative of the Bessel function of order n.
Now I just want to mention earlier when we had taken a rectangular microstrip antenna
or square. So, for rectangular dimension generally speaking the field variation is defined
by the sin or cosine, but over here we have to take sin of sin which is defined in terms of
Bessel function. And the whole thing then is governed by the Bessel function of the
different order. So, this is how need to do it. And here I have given the value of the K nm
which is again mth root of derivative. So, we have different mode 11, 21, 02, 12. These
are the different mode you can go to 03, 04 and so on. What we need to do most of the
time we are interested in the fundamental mode for that K nm value is 1.84118.
So, now I am going to give you some very simple way to do the design and that is that
put the value of K nm which is 1.84118 multiplied by c, c is nothing, but 3 x 10 10 cm/s
and 2πae. So, ae is nothing but effective radius just like earlier we had L e now we have ae
and then we have ϵe as before. So, the value of Knm is known here for the
fundamental mode. So, for fundamental mode you put the value here 1.84 x c/ 2π. If you
simplify this, it comes out to be 8.791, that factor of 10 to the power 9 is merged here.
So, this value will come out to be in gigahertz and here also it is there that a and h are in
centimeter. So, here we have used approximate formula for ae, ae is nothing but
h
ae =a+
√ϵ r
to the similar thing earlier we had taken L total
Le =L+2 ∆ L
and here since it is half of that which is radius here a. So, a plus ∆a which will be all
around. So, ∆a is given by this here and then we take ϵe . Now again ϵe can be
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calculated by using the earlier formula from W. We do not know W, but we can take
effective area of the circle we can calculate the effective area of the rectangle and then
from that one can calculate what will be the ϵe , but in general will take things little
simple in a way all we say is that ϵe should be slightly less than ϵr . So, based on
this equation this is an analysis equation where a is known h is known we can convert
this to design equation. So, we can find the value of a using just modification of this
here.
So, for a given value of f0 all we need to do for a given value of f0 can choose ϵr and h
once you have calculated ϵr and h. This is known, f0 is known, you can find the value
of a. So, that will simply give you the design parameter for this here. Now comes the
next part we need to choose the feed point. Again as before we modify to typically x is
0.382 about 0.58 by using this here you can get approximate match with 50 ohms.
So, we will continue from here in the next lecture. So, just to summarize today we
studied about rectangular microstrip antenna. We studied the effect of the substrate
parameter. So, how bandwidth and efficiency are related to the substrate parameter. So,
we saw that as h increases bandwidth increases, or as ϵr decreases bandwidth
increases; however, we cannot keep on increasing h or decreasing ϵr because both of

these things result into poor efficiency. Then we also looked at the curve for a given
frequency how to choose different value of h for a given ϵr to realize that desired
bandwidth.
Then we looked at the design example where we had designed the antenna for 1.8
gigahertz, we saw or what is the bandwidth and what is the radiation pattern then we
looked at the suspended configuration and inverted suspended configuration and we
actually notice that you can use a very low cost substrate without compromising on the
performance of the antenna significantly. There is a very small effect, but the cost
advantage is huge and then we just looked at the how to calculate the resonance
frequency of a circular microstrip antenna, will see in more detail in the next lecture,
how to design circular microstrip antenna what are the different modes how these modes
are excited an what are the typical radiation pattern of different modes and so on. And we
will also look into the triangular microstrip antenna. So, with that thank you very much
see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 05
Lecture – 23
Circular MSA
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture. In the last few lectures, we have been talking about
microstrip antennas, what are its advantages, disadvantages and applications. And because of
its several advantages, it is finding applications in many different areas. And then in the last
lecture we also talked about rectangular microstrip antenna; various feeding techniques and
what are the different modes of rectangular microstrip antenna, fundamental mode, higher
order modes. We also studied what are the parametric effect, what is the effect of the width,
height, substrate thickness, ϵr and so on, on the performance of the antenna. And then we
had just started talking about circular microstrip antenna. So, today we will continue our
discussion on circular microstrip Antenna.
A circular microstrip antenna is defined by its radius a. So, that is governing the parameter
and then it is printed on the substrate. So, it is as before for rectangular microstrip antenna,
the substrate parameters will be ϵr thickness of the substrate h and tan equal to 0.001.
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That will be for low loss substrate and the resonance frequency of the circular microstrip
antenna can be obtained by using this particular formula here.
Now here is a one new term compared to the rectangular microstrip antenna which is K nm.
Knm is nothing but it is the mth root of the derivative of the Bessel function of order n. Now
these derivations come into account because in case of a rectangular patch we had seen
Bessel function did not come into because a rectangular patch is defined by length L and
width W and along the length the variation was sinusoidal and over here also it is a variation
is sinusoidal along the circumference. And in this case where Bessel function come into
picture because the sin of sin or sin of cosine function has to be taken which gives rise to the
Bessel function.
However, we need not worry too much about it because roots of Bessel functions are
available and what we are interested to start with the fundamental mode, which is TM 11
mode. Then the next mode is TM21 mode. You can see that the K nm is little higher now. Then
next mode is 02 Knm is increasing. Next mode is TM12, which is given by 5.33. But we will
start our discussion with TM11 mode, which is the fundamental mode. This is the one which is
most commonly used and just to tell you what the first number implies.
So, first number here imply what is the variation along the circumference. This 1 implies that,
there is a one /2 variation along the circumference. The second number implies 1 /2
variation along the diameter. So, in case of a rectangle just to revive so, the first number was
the variation along length of the patch. Second number was along the width of the patch over
here the first number is along the circumference and the second number is along the diameter.
So, since we are feeding at this point here. So, let us say that if I feed here, if we denote this
as a positive voltage here, then this positive voltage will keep on decreasing and then it will
go to 0. It will go to negative voltage to maximum negative voltage.
So, if I denote this let us say double plus and then this will become plus, double plus means it
has more amplitude then plus then, it goes to 0 then, minus then, double minus and minus 0
plus and double plus. And since the voltage here is 0, impedance here is 0, impedance here
will be maximum because current is 0 here. So, V divided by I will be maximum again. So,
somewhere along this axis here, we can find a feed point location where, input impedance
will be 50 ohm.
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So, now for fundamental mode we have simplified this expression here. So, K nm is 1.84118, c
is nothing but 3 x 1010 cm/s and 2πae is a effective. So, this term here, these first two terms in
the numerator and two terms in the denominator, if we simplify it comes out to be 8.791 and
frequency is defined in terms of Gigahertz.
Now, we have used approximate formula for ae. So, ae has been written as
h
ae =a+∆ a=a+
√ ϵr
So, it is very similar to what we had done in the case of rectangular patch. In rectangular
patch we had said this is length let us say L. So, we had taken
Le =L+2 ∆ L
here we are taking only ae. So, this is a, ae will be all around. So, the ae will be
h
ae =a+∆ a=a+
√ ϵr
And ϵe comes as it is here and in general ϵe should be less than ϵr and a and h are
taken in centimeters. So, that is how this number comes.
Now this equation can be simplified to become a design equation; that means, if f 0 is given,
substrate parameters are given, then we can find out what is the value of a. So, just look into
h
this here; so a+ goes to this side, f0 comes on this and then plus term here comes to
√ ϵr
this side here. So, for given substrate parameter which will be ϵr , h and f0 then we can find
the value of a.
And the next thing which will be important is, where to choose the feed point. So as a starting
point, we are giving you a good guess, which is x can be 0.3a to about 0.5a. So, for a narrow
band CMSA, which is circular microstrip antenna you can start with 0.3a and generally for
broadband CMSA, we can choose this as a starting point. Now how do we decide broadband
or narrow band CMSA? If you recall in the last lecture I had shown you a curve, which
actually showed percentage bandwidth for different values of dielectric constant and substrate
thickness. So, those are the parameters will determine then the feed point location.
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So, let just see the next result. So, what we have done? We have done a simulation. So, we
have taken a as equal to 3 centimeter, h is 0.318 centimeter which is actually equal to 1 by 8
inches substrate, ϵr is 2.5, tan is 0.001. So, this is nothing, but a very low loss dielectric
substrate. So, as a starting point we have taken x as 0.3a, which comes out to be 0.9
centimeter. So, corresponding to a equal to 3 centimeter, we substitute various value. Over
here, now ϵe I have taken as 2.45. As I mentioned ϵe should be less than ϵr . So,
ϵr is 2.55 I have taken less than that which is 2.45.
Now, the other way to calculate is that we actually equate the area of the circle with area of
the rectangle, then find out the effective width. From the effective width you can calculate
what is the value of epsilon e, but here since we know it should be slightly less instead of
2.55 we have taken a point one less which is about 2.45. If we use this formula we get f0 equal
to 1.756 Gigahertz. So; however, we have done the simulation using IE3D. So, for this
particular feed point and these parameter, what we found? This is you can see is a 50 ohm
point here. It is very very close to the 50 ohm.
So, this impedance is roughly about 54 ohm also. And this is the resonance frequency curve.
So, we can actually see that the resonance frequency obtained is 1.75. So, that is the
simulated frequency. What we calculated using this approximate formula, is1.756. So, we get
a percentage error of 0.3 percent. As I mentioned earlier also these approximate formulas are
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good, you can get as a very good starting point and the frequency will be within 1 to 2
percent. So, this is a very good you know the value which we are getting.
In fact, now if you want to get let us say if we really want some different frequency. All we
can do it is we can actually use the concept from here. We can see that if I take ae on this side.
So, f0 ae will be a constant number for a given substrate parameter and for the given
fundamental mode.
So, we can actually say f1 a1 is equal to constant is equal to f2 a2. So, here if we know what is
the value of f1 which is what we have got here, we know what is the value of a a1 and if you
want any other frequency just use the new value of frequency f2. Find out the value of a2. So,
this way we can actually redesign the antenna very quickly. So, one can actually see that what
is the bandwidth over here. So, we have actually written simulated bandwidth and that
bandwidth is calculated corresponding to reflection coefficient equal to minus 10 dB which is
approximately equal to VSWR 2 and this bandwidth is approximately 2 percent and this can
be verified using the design curve, which I had given to you earlier.
So, how do we calculate radiation pattern? So, the radiation pattern is again very similar to
actually rectangular microstrip antenna. We can still find Eθ and we can still find E∅ ,
but over here the radiation pattern involves Bessel functions. So, J n+1 and Jn-1 are the Bessel
functions of order n+1 and n-1 respectively. And then these thing takes lot of time to do the
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computation, but I want to bring one additional point here. If u see Eθ here and E∅ ,
then E∅ , there is an additional term which is cos θ ,.
So, along the broadside direction θ is equal to 0, so cos 0 will be 1. So, this term will
become 1, but along theta equal to 90 degree, cos 90 will be 0. So, this particular component
will go precisely equal to 0. I also want to mention these derivations are valid only for infinite
ground plane not valid for finite ground plane. So, for the fundamental mode, I have shown
here the current distribution. So, we actually saw that the voltage is maximum here and then
the voltage goes to 0, then voltage goes to minus. So, current will be opposite. So, current
will be 0 here, current is maximum and then current goes to 0. So, just to tell here, the red
color here implies maximum radiation, a blue color implies minimum radiation or current
density here. So, current is 0, it is becoming maximum, it goes to 0.
And similarly so that actually shows the fundamental mode. One mode along the
circumference, along the diameter also we can see that the current is 0, green is little more
and yellow is even more slightly red here, which is higher and then it comes back to the zero
value. So, that is the current distribution which we have shown at 1.75 Gigahertz. And this is
the radiation pattern for circular microstrip antenna. If you actually see this pattern looks very
very similar to the radiation pattern of a rectangular microstrip antenna. Whereas, in
rectangular microstrip antenna we did not have any of these Bessel function.
Now just to first tell half power beam width here in E plane, which is shown by the black
here is 102 degree of power beam width in H plane is 81 degree and cross polar level is very
small, which is about 27 dB here. So, why the radiation pattern of circular microstrip antenna
is very similar to rectangular microstrip antenna? We can actually just look at this circle here
one more time. So, let us say we actually said the voltage here will be double plus then it
goes to plus, then it goes to 0, it goes minus, it goes to double minus.
So, now imagine a rectangular microstrip antenna. In case of a rectangular microstrip antenna
fundamental mode, we had a voltage distribution which was uniform along this axis and
along the width and for along the length, the variation was from plus to 0 to minus. Now this
you can think as an approximation. So, we have a double plus field here and the plus field
here, plus field here. So, one can use little bit of approximation assuming that this field is
roughly uniform and from plus here it goes to 0 it goes to minus. So, that is a variation along
the length in case of a rectangular patch over here along this.
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So, if you see if I do some approximation, we can say this is approximately uniform field
here and the field varies sinusoidally along this dimension. So, that is why the radiation
pattern of a circular microstrip antenna is very similar to that of a rectangular microstrip
antenna. And gain is also similar to the square microstrip antenna, I am not using the term
rectangle here because circle is to be equated to a square patch because a rectangular patch
with larger width will have a larger gain, rectangular patch with smaller width will have a
smaller gain. So, this we should compare with square patch.
Then the question comes, if the square patch and circular patch are almost same why should I
use a Circular? Or what are the advantages and disadvantages? So in reality as far as the
performance is concerned they are very similar, but there is a one additional difference here
and that you have to see that the modes of the circular microstrip antenna are given by this
here. Whereas, mode for a rectangular patch will be given as say 10 mode, 20 mode 30 mode
and. So, 10, 20, 30 mode actually imply; first order mode, second order mode, third order
mode. And these three modes will be corresponding to f0, 2f0, 3f0.
Now suppose this rectangular microstrip antenna has to be fed by a let us say oscillator,
oscillator followed by amplifier. Now invariably all the oscillators will have some harmonics
and harmonics will be at 2f0, 3f0, a patches also resonating at 2f0, 3f0. So, what really happens
in case of a rectangular patch whatever are the oscillator harmonics they also get amplified in
the same way, through the amplifier and then transmitted through the antenna but in case of
the circular microstrip antenna. If we now see Knm, which is 1.84118, the second mode is at
3.05. You can see that it is not the double the frequency.
Even the third mode is not really exactly the double frequency. The TM 12 mode is also not
exactly three times. So, what happens? These circular microstrip antennas will not radiate as
efficiently as rectangular microstrip antenna for this higher order harmonic. So, some times
circular microstrip antennas are preferable where we have that problem; however, in general
when we cut a ground plane we always cut a patch let us say as rectangular shape or a square
shape. So, circular shape will take much larger area. But recently we are doing one project
where we are putting antenna inside a circular cavity. So, in the beginning you know by
default we started with rectangular microstrip antenna, but when you put a rectangular
microstrip antenna inside a circular cavity along the diagonal, the spacing between the cavity
and the patch is different then along the length or the width.
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So, then later on we took circular patch inside a circular cavity. So, many a times it is not just
that what antenna you want to use, it is also where you want to use the antenna. This is very
very important and that is why many times I say; antenna design is not just science, not just
engineering or physics or math, but it is also to be placed where it has to be placed. So, there
is a lot of art involved into it. Sometimes you have to depending upon the where you have to
put it. Let us say if you have to put inside a mobile phone, then you would prefer to put a
rectangular patch because mobile phone has a shape of rectangular configuration.
If you want to put in the circular configuration, circular box it is better to put the antenna
which is of a circular shape or we will discuss some other configuration. For example, if the
box of the container has a triangular shape then, we may want to put a triangular antenna. So,
depending upon shape and the placement where you need to put it antenna is governed by
that also.
So, now let us just look at the circular microstrip antenna operating at a higher order mode,
which is TM21 mode. So, 2 here implies 2 half wavelength variation along the circumference
and 1 half wavelength variation along the diameter. So, let us see here, I have shown the
current distribution for a given case here. So, we will just look into that also. So, if you see
current is 0 here, then it goes to maxima, then it goes to 0, then again goes to maxima, goes to
0. So, that completes two half wavelength variation along this part and the same thing is
repeated here. Now let just see here in current you can see here it is going to 1, then goes to 0,
then goes to 0, then goes to 0. So, that is basically variation of the current along the center.
So, let us say we have taken an example here where a is same as 3 centimeter earlier one
0.318 at the same substrate, but here we have to use a different feed point to do the matching.
Now first let just see the calculation here. So, TM 21 mode, Knm value is now 3.054 again the
rest of the things are similar I have taken epsilon effective as point 2.45. So, if you use this
very simple formula, we get a frequency of 2.912. Whereas, what we stimulated is 2.94. So,
you can see that the error is about 28 Megahertz which is less than 1 percent. So, again this
simple formula is pretty good and in this particular case what we get? We actually get a
conical pattern.
So, for TM11 mode we were getting a broadside pattern, but now it is a conical pattern why?
Because let just see here. So, this is now plus voltage point of view. So, plus voltage then, 0
voltage, then minus, then 0, then plus, then 0, minus 0, plus.
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So, what really is happening? So, this plus field here will be in this particular direction. And
this plus will be in the opposite direction. Since the two fields are in the opposite direction,
they will cancel in broadside direction. And hence there is a null and one can see that the null
depth is almost more than 15 dB along the broadside direction and the maximum radiation is
in this particular fashion. See this kind of a pattern is also required many a times, when we
actually want to send the radiation in the conical direction. In that case this will be very
useful configuration.
Then let just look at another mode which is a TM 02 mode. Beforehand, only I want to tell you
this mode is generally not used for antenna application, but it has a very good application as a
N-way power divider, but we will come to that one by one. So, again the case is same a is 3, h
0.318, ϵr , tan same as before x is also very similar to the TM 11 mode. So, x is 0.9, now
since this is a 0 2 mode, we have to see what is the K nm value. So, Knm value is 3.83, we put it
over here, epsilon effective again I have taken as 2.45 and that gives me a resonance
frequency of 3.654. So, we simulated this here we got a good matching for x equal to 0.9. So,
that matching was at 3.63 Gigahertz. So, what is the error here? The error is about 24
megahertz again that is less than 1 percent error.
Now, how we can see the current distribution? Let us see over here. So, 0 means there is a no
variation along the circumference. So, you can see that the color of the current distribution
remains almost same and there is a 02 mode here; that means, two half wavelength variation.
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So, you can see that the current starts from the lower value goes to the maximum, goes to 0,
then goes to maximum, goes to 0. So, that is a two /2 variation, but now let us think from
the voltage point of view.
So, what it really means current 0 means voltage is maxima and since current is uniform;
voltage is uniform all along the circumference. And what is the voltage here? Again at this
point also voltage is maxima because it is plus, 0, minus 0, plus. So, minus or plus will only
imply a phase difference of 180 degree, but as far as amplitude is concerned both are showing
maxima. So, now, let us see an application were we want to use this particular configuration
as a N-way power divider. So, let us say if we feed here, now if I take the output let us say
from here and here. This actually becomes a two way power divider we feed here; you take
one output here and here.
Let us say you want a four way power divider. So you put one output here, one here, one
there and one here. So, that will become a four way power divider. In fact, we have used this
particular configuration even for 16 way power divider. So, you can put the things at different
places. So, in general you can design N-way power divider in a very simple way. All you do
it is you locate all those N-way at an angle of 360 by N. So, for example, four way 360 by N
will be by 360 by 4: 90 degree. So, 1, 2, 3, 4; if you want let us say 10 way power divider. So,
10 way will be every output port will be at 36 degree. So, it is a very nice simple power
divider.
In general otherwise suppose if I wanted to realize a 16 way a normal way to design is you
take a one way, then one way will become two way and then two way each of them will be
split again into 2. So, that will give 4 way power divider and then each 4 will be further
divided into 2. So, that will give 8 way power divider and then those are again further divided
we will get a 16 way power divider. But here by using this very very simple configuration,
we can actually design a very nice power divider and which will divide power equally to all
the ports and all the ports will be at the same phase also.
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So, now we can actually design a broadband circular microstrip antenna. So, that is nothing,
but realized by a metallic plate in air. So, here we have taken a equal to 3.2 centimeter, h
equal to 0.5, ϵr =¿ 1. In fact, this we have designed to cover the Wi-Fi frequency range.
We know that Wi-Fi is from 2.4 to 2.483. So, over here we have taken N type connector,
probe diameter is 0.3. We have taken x as 1.2, if you recall I gave a starting point as 0.3a to
0.5a. Since it is relatively broadband, 0.3a will not be a good solution, so 1.2 is roughly close
to 0.4. And for this here we can see the impedance plot 50 ohm matches somewhere here.
Instead of 1.21 could have taken a 1.15 also for a little better match, but this is still good
enough and over here the bandwidth what we are getting for VSWR less than 2, is 151
Megahertz. So, you can see that this covers the entire band from 2.4 to 2.483. We have a
margin on the left side; we have a margin on the right hand side. So, that if there are some
tolerances in the manufacturing that will be taken care of. Now of course, one additional
thing is you cannot float this metallic plate in air, you need some supporting structure also.
So, how we did that? And how we obtained the real performance? We will tell you in our next
lecture.
So, today we just looked at quickly how to find out the resonance frequency of circular
microstrip antenna? And then we looked at the current distribution for fundamental TM 11
mode and then higher order modes of TM21 mode as well as 02 mode and we also saw that for
fundamental mode radiation is in the broadside direction and for TM 21 mode radiation is in
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the conical direction. So, even though TM 02 radiates conical direction, but we never ever use,
but TM02 is very good and useful for power divider application. And then towards the end we
also looked at how to realize a broadband circular microstrip antenna. However, in the next
lecture we will see how to do the practical implementation of broadband circular microstrip
antenna.
Thank you very much. We will see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture - 24
Broadband MSA-I
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture. Today we are going to discuss about circular
microstrip antenna and triangular microstrip antenna. In the last lecture we had seen how
circular microstrip antennas work, and what are the different modes. So, we started with
the fundamental mode which is a TM11 mode then we looked at TM21 mode as well as
TM02 mode and we saw that for fundamental mode radiation is in the broadside direction,
and for TM21 mode and 02 mode radiation is in the conical direction; however, TM02
mode is not useful as an antenna, in fact most of the time we do not use that, but
however, TM02 mode is very good as a power divider. And then we started taking an
example of broad band circular microstrip antenna, which was suspended in air.
So, today we will see what are the practical implementations, and how we do suspend a
circular microstrip antenna in air. So, let just continue from the point where we left. So,
we had started discussion on the broad band circular microstrip antenna, where we had
used a metallic plate in air. So, the radius of the circle was taken as 3.2 cm, h was 0.5 cm,
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r1, we had taken a slightly higher thickness and r1 both of these will give us a broader
bandwidth. A probe diameter was taken as 0.3 which is nothing, but a N-type connector.
A many times the question also comes what type of a connector is to be used where? So,
generally speaking N-type connectors are good up to about 3 GHz, people do use at
higher frequency also, but that is a general thing. SMA connectors which have a probe
diameter of 0.12 cm, generally they are used up to about 18 GHz, and in mm waves we
use K connector the diameter of the K connector as 0.03 cm.
So, now since we know it is a broad band antenna, which you could verify from the
graphs which we had given for different values of h, so we can see that it will give us a
broad band. So, starting point for the feed point we had taken approximately 0.4, which
is about point 1.2. One can see the impedance plot here matching these fairly decent, and
this is the reflection coefficient plot and bandwidth for S 11 less than 10 dB is about 151
MHz. This antenna was specifically designed to cover the wi-fi region which is 2.4 GHz
to 2.483. So, you can see that from 2.4 GHz we have almost 22 MHz bandwidth margin
on this side, and compare to 2.483 we have almost 46 MHz margin on the other side.
Now, let just see how we use this metallic plate? This metallic plate cannot be suspended
in air on its own. So, what is actually done practically is that, one uses a shorting post
over here because we know that the voltage as 0. So, at 0 if you put any shorting post or
any load, it does not matter ok. So, this shorting post over here provides one support to
the this patch here, and this feed point also provides another support. Now many a times
one can also do, one can actually use a little larger diameter shorting post over here, but
then one has to be careful that if you just use a shorting post of let’s say very small
diameter, because field is actually 0 only at this point, field is not 0 here, field is not 0
here. However, we also know that field here will be plus, here it will be minus along this
is 0. So, we can still take a little bit of a diameter here, so one can take 2 to 5 mm
diameter shorting post here without affecting the performance and that is going to
provide a good support. Then there is another thing that is a metallic plate will have
some thickness, which let’s say defined as thickness t, we cannot have a metal plate of 0
thickness. Of course, we can think of taking a thickness of let us say 0.1 mm, but a 0.1
mm a circular disc will not remain stable, it will start warping and it will actually come
down.
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So, what we actually can do it is instead of using a 0.1 mm, we can use 1-mm-thick, or
may be 2-mm-thick or half mm thick. So, now, what happens? Since the substrate is
down below and then there is a patch. So fringing field will be from the patch to the
ground, but now it has a finite thickness. So, fringing field will be not only just from the
lower side, but fringing field will be also from the upper side of the thickness.
So, generally speaking what one can do it is this can be modeled in a very very simple
way, that instead of using ‘a’ in the expression all we need to do it is we use for ‘a e’. I’ll
just show you what you need to do it is you just add the term here a+ t + h /√r . So,
where t in this case can be 1 mm or 0.5 mm or 2 mm whatever is the thickness. So, that
is all you need to do the modification and then the results will come and you can
calculate accordingly. So, in fact if you add little bit of a thickness here, what will
happen? ae will increase, which will reduce this resonance frequency; as I mentioned I
had taken a larger margin on the higher side, so that will do the job. So, if you use this
particular dimension with a proper support it will easily cover the Wi-Fi.
Then comes the next part also and that is this one here in the beginning we simulated it
for infinite ground plane, but one cannot use infinite ground plane, one has to use a finite
ground plane. Now if you recall I had mention for rectangular patch that the ground
plane size should be at least 6 times h. So, here h is 0.5. So, if we take 6 times h which
will be 3 cm. So, if you take a 3 cm extra as a ground plane size, then the results for
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infinite ground plane will be exactly same as that of finite ground plane. However,
suppose you have to use a smaller ground plane then we need to re-simulate this whole
thing using a finite ground plane.
But now let’s see what is the radiation pattern. Now this simulation has been done for
infinite ground plane, now one can again see that the radiation is in the broad side
direction, and the beam width has reduced because of the reduction in the beam width,
we have a gain which is equal to 9.5 dB. If you see this gain is 3 dB more, then the gain
of a circular microstrip antenna on a duroid substrate. Now a Duroid substrate costs 30 to
50 times more than even FR4 substrate. So, this is actually a very low cost antenna,
require some mechanical work but you can get a very good gain. you can get good
bandwidth also.
Now, over here one thing I want to bring out. The cross polar level is about 17 dB,
whereas earlier it was 27 dB for thin substrate. So, what is happening over here? So, if
the substrate thickness is increased, so the probe which is feeding. Now the probe length
total is increased. So, what happens? This acts as a top loaded monopole antenna. So,
this becomes little bit more efficient monopole antenna. So, monopole antenna if you
think like this here, monopole antenna will radiate very little in the broad side direction,
it will radiate maximum like this here.
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So, if you see here this cross polar is nothing, but corresponding to the probe radiation.
So, since h is increased that means the probe is acting as a more efficient monopole
antenna and hence this component has increased, but other than that results are pretty
good.
So, now let just look at the next one here which is a semi-circular microstrip antenna. So,
a semi-circular microstrip antenna is somewhat similar to circle in a sense it is half of the
circle. So, we actually remove the bottom part here. So, semi circle is still defined by its
radius A. Now over here the feed point, if you notice here feed point is not exactly on
this horizontal line, it is shifted up here and we always advise that do not feed part of the
thing to the dielectric material, the feed should always be connected to the metallic patch
here.
So, just shift it slightly above there ok and for comparison now we have taken a = 3 cm,
r1. Here h = 0.65 cm, for this particular case here a bandwidth is from 2.5 to 2.64, which
is about 115 MHz. And gain is about 9 dB, we have done the comparison with this
circular microstrip antennas of same type, the feed point is slightly different compared to
the feed point for semi-circular microstrip antenna and the gain over here of course is
much larger. So, one can actually see that the gain of the circular patch is almost 9.5 dB
whereas the gain of the semi-circle is 9 dB.
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So, even the area of the of semi circle is reduced by 50%, gain has only reduced by half
dB. The reason for that is that now the radiation is not just taking place from the
circumference, but the radiation is also taking place from this particular edge also;
whereas, for a circle the radiation would be from this as well as from this particular
circumference here ok. So, this is the current distribution it is very similar to a circle. So,
this is also fundamental TM11 mode, you can see the current is 0 going to maximum
coming back to 0 here, and along the diameter current is 0 going to maximum and then
going back to 0 here.
So in fact actually speaking just to mention later on when we talk about broadband
technique, we will show you that were we had replaced a circle with 2 semicircles which
are gap coupled; and we got much better bandwidth in comparison with the circular
patch. So, for that you have to wait for some time ok.
Now, we will go to the next configuration which is an Equilateral Triangular Microstrip

antenna ETMSA. So, again here there are several modes are possible. So, we will look at
now only fundamental mode which is a TM10 mode, I will explain where is 1 and where
is 0.
But let just look at the equilateral triangular geometry first. So, equilateral triangle is
defined by its length S, and all the 3 lengths are equal. So, this is S, S and S ok. And the
angle over here for each of these angle will be equal to 60 degree. So, this is 60 degree,
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60 degree, 60 degree; and over here we have shown feed point along the center if you
recall every time we put feed point in the central axis for rectangular patch also for
circular, the reason is if you put in the center with respect to this feed point it becomes
symmetrical antenna; and if it is symmetrical then cross polar components get cancel.
Now, for the circle and for the rectangle the null was at the center of the circle or the
rectangle. In case of triangle also the null of the triangle is at the null, where there is a
centroid of the equilateral, and the centroid of the equilateral is formed somewhere here.
So, that will be the centroid point that will be the 0 field point. Now whereas for a
rectangle or a circle this null point was exactly symmetrical it was in the center, but in
case of equilateral this is the null point. So you can see that compare to this null, so field
will be distance is less here, so field variation will be less, and over here distance is more
so field variation will be more here.
So, now let me define what is 1 0 mode? So, 1 here actually imply that the field variation
is one half wavelength on this here, and one half wavelength on this side; and the 0 here
implies that the field variation along this axis is relatively not there. So, that is what 0
implies. So, now let just see how the field distribution varies and how things are. So,
over here now coming back here, so this is the null point here, so that null point is, you
can see here that is the null point here. So, with respect to this feed; so that is a
symmetrical. So, field will vary continuously, along this one will be continuously 0
whereas, for rectangle it was more like horizontal line, but here it is a curved line. So,
along this one here it will be plus, along this it will be double plus, and along this will be
triple plus.
Now, just to tell you a convention which we generally follow that if you show a feed
point, we show that as a plus; even though we know electromagnetic wave will vary
sinusoidally. So, if it is plus in the next half cycle it will be minus, then it will become
plus, but it is just a convention that to start with we show this as plus here. So, since this
is a plus here, this is 0 this will be minus and this will be double minus. I have shown
here as double minus here it is triple plus here. The reason is that this length is much
more compared to the length over here ok. So, that also determines then how to choose
the feed point. So, one can actually look at for this particular feed point these are the
distribution.
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Now, it does not really always mean that you have to feed here, you can also choose a let
us say axis like this. So, if you choose a axis like this, then null will be somewhere here
and then you need to feed point along this one here or you can think about rotating this
triangle by 60 degree, and that will change the null location. So, over here now we know
now the feed variation is that, now this I have shown in a slightly different way. So,
pluses here will show that the field is going outside and then it is reducing. So, it is
reducing it becomes close to 0 here and then minus sign means field will be coming from
the ground plane to the patch. So, it shows here.
Similarly, field is minus here. So, the field is coming from the ground to this, so the
component will be shown in this particular direction, and the same way it is shown over
here. So now if you look at it effectively; one additional thing I just want to mention this
is double minus. So, even though this is shown like this here, but in reality it is actually
this will be same potential ok. So, this potential is not really ideally equal to this one
here, this potential will be slightly larger than this value in terms of amplitude ok because
you can see that the length will be slightly more here.
So, now coming back here then how do we resolve the component? So, for this particular
field let us say this is we know, this is in this direction. Now we start resolving these
components and these components. So, this will be now resolve it into horizontal and
vertical component. So, this will be one, and the other component will be down below;
now this one here will be in the opposite direction compared to this here. So, these
opposite directions will cancel each other in this plane, but over here if you see this is in
this direction, this is also in this direction.
But however, these components are down below so, but since the amplitude of these is
relatively smaller than amplitude of these here. So, we can say that net result will be that
there will be more amplitude in this direction, and there is a another slot which is this
one has a larger amplitude. So, these 2 then effectively act as slots radiating in this
direction. So, the pattern of this one here will be again similar to that of circular or
rectangular pattern except that the way we have chosen the feed point, E Plane will be in
this direction here.
Now, how to calculate the resonance frequency? Well the resonance frequency is now
calculated using this expression here, you can see there is a small difference. In case of
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the rectangular patch it was c/2Le, over here the triangle it is 2/3S e and again as before
we can find out the Le, here it is Se. So, Se is now S + 4h/√r .Whereas, for Le it was only
2h. So, why over here we use 4. So, we have to actually start thinking, so if this is the
physical dimension, so, let’s say effective dimension will be like this here and then going
here and then completing. So, that will be effective triangular dimension.
Now, see ∆L is actually calculated as a perpendicular to this one here ok. So, that will be
perpendicular this direction, but in a reality Se is going up to this point. So, that point has
to be accounted for and that is why we use 4h. So, if we use this particular value for the
derivation let us see what do we get now.
So, here we have taken an example. So, this is a ETMSA design for the fundamental
mode, we have taken as 1 0 mode. We have taken f0 as a design frequency 3 GHz, which
has r 2.55, h is 0.159, tan has been taken as 0.001. So, if we calculate now Se which is
effective length. S is nothing but we can calculate using the expression will just go back
here.
So, Se from here will be 2c/3f0 √e . So, 2c, c I have written as just 30, which actually
takes care of that GHz which is 109/(3*3GHz). Now e I have taken smaller than 2.55,
but I have taken not like 2.45 we took for circle, but we have taken for 2.35 smaller than
that, there is a reason for that. See now this is the effective you can say propagation. So,
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corresponding to this now what we need to do it is if you look just along here, what is
width? Very very small. What is width here? Much larger.
So, one can use an approximation if you want to find out; because the feed is along this.
So, we find out what is the effective area of this triangle, we equate that with the
effective area of a rectangle of this length and calculate corresponding width. For that
width we need to calculate e, and since the effective width will be small e will be
relatively small. So, I just took 2.35, but you can always do a little longer method, but
this one generally works quite okay. So, from here S e is calculated to be 4.35, and then
we calculated S that comes out to be 3.95 cm. So, we just took an approximation for
simulation; the coincidence it just happened we got a very good result.
So, corresponding to 3.95, we took S = 4 cm. Now what will be H? H will be √3/2 * S
that comes out to be 3.46 cm. Now this is desired to draw the figure of the equilateral
triangular microstrip antenna. Now in this case we have taken a feed point as 1.52 cm,
and for this feed point we got a decent match and the calculated resonance frequency
came out to be 3 GHz as I said it just happened a coincidence, but fairly good one
because what we have calculated was 3.95.
We just took approximately 4, but one can see that even if I have taken this value the
error would have been very very small, and for this case bandwidth obtain is 40 MHz,
and gain is about 6.26 dB and let just look at the current distribution. So, since we are
feeding along this here, you can say that the current is going through the 0 value
maximum and then going to 0 here. So, we know that this is the null point,
corresponding to the null point current will be maximum. So, that is why you can see
that the current is maximum here, and then it goes to 0 and it also goes to the 0 here, and
you can also see that the current variation is very little along this one here implying
voltage variation is also very little here.
Now, one can also see the radiation pattern of the antenna. So, in this case here you have
to only remember that E Plane is in this side, earlier when I had shown you the pattern
for rectangle or circle we had always taken feed point in this side. So, when you take
feed point in this side for circle as well as rectangle this was E Plane, but here we have
taken the feed point on this side. So, this is the E Plane perpendicular to that will be H
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Plane. So, here if we say this is E , earlier for rectangular patch it was E  in  = 0 plane,
but now it will be E in  = 90 degree plane.
So, one can actually see here, but I also want to bring one additional point that this
function is also going to 0, this is actually happening because there is a small problem in
IE3D simulation, when we take a infinite ground plane with infinite dielectric, this
actually boundary condition does not get satisfied in their software that software always
gives a wrong value along  = 90 degree. So, in reality I just want to tell you that this
value goes over here. However, in IE3D if you use finite ground plane as well as you
take finite substrate, this error will not be there ok. So, for the orthogonal mode this is
going precisely to 0.
You can see here the cross polar level is slightly higher compared to the rectangular
patch and circular patch, because the patch itself is not 100% symmetrical, it is
symmetrical with respect to this axis here, but with respect to this it is not symmetrical
and hence cross polar levels are slightly high. So, that is why I generally do not prefer
equilateral triangular microstrip antenna until and unless the geometry is such that you
can do it. Now similar to ETMSA just to tell you which is in angle term we define 60
degree 60 degree 60 degree angle, half of that is also there which is 30 60 90 degree
triangle, the resonance frequency of that is also very similar to ETMSA.
But that also has a problem of a higher cross polar. So, just like circular microstrip
antenna and semicircular microstrip antenna are somewhat similar, gain is different;
similarly, ETMSA and half of ETMSA or 30 60 90. As far as the resonance frequency is
there it is almost similar, but the gain bandwidth would be less. Now similarly there are
many other types of triangular microstrip antennas are there like 45 45 90 degree angle
similarly there are different configurations like hexagonal antenna. Now I think
hexagonal antenna is nothing, but if you take a circle and you divided it into since it
becomes hexagonal. So, there is not really much advantage of using hexagonal
microstrip antenna. There are octagon microstrip antennas are there, but again that is
very similar to circular microstrip antenna.
In fact, at one-time pentagon microstrip antenna also came into picture, and the pentagon
microstrip antennas became popular because they gave circular polarization; however,
later on many new techniques came up where people modified the circular patch or
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triangular patch or rectangular patch to obtain circular polarization. So, now a days
pentagon patch is not so popular. So, in general a most popular configurations are
rectangular and circular; sometimes one can use triangular depending upon where you
need to fit the antenna.
Then there are lot of other variations are there for example, circular ring antenna,
triangular ring antenna or rectangular ring antenna, but when I discuss about compact to
microstrip antenna I will cover those things.
Now, in the next lecture what we are going to do? We are going to talk about broadband
techniques, and why we need to talk broadband techniques the reason is that when we
look at this curve here, we actually notice that one can get absolute maximum as a 15%
bandwidth for a given simple patch. In fact, most of the time 5 to 10% is only achieved.
Now, suppose we require bandwidth of 20%, 30% or more. So, the technique is to use
multiple patches, so that they excite close to each other. Now just think about let’s say a
filter theory or filter concept. So, suppose if I have a one filter which is resonating at f 1
and if the other filter is also resonating exactly at f1 and cascaded, then the 2 filter will
coincide frequency will coincide that gives a narrow band filter. But is frequency is f 1
and there is another filter which is designed at f 2 frequency then the overall response
becomes a broadband filter.
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So, in case of antennas we generally do not try to get narrow bandwidth as it is
microstrip antennas are narrow band. So, what we do? We will actually speaking use
multiple antennas or resonator. So, one of them will resonate at let’s say f 1 frequency,
another can resonate at f2 frequency and thereby if we design them properly, feed them
properly we can get broadband antenna. Of course, one can use f 1, f2 f3 also, but in the
next lecture we will start with the concept of 2 resonators and how to get the broad
bandwidth and there are various configurations are there to obtain large bandwidth. So,
in the next lecture it will be all broadband microstrip antenna.
Thank you very much bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture - 25
Broadband MSA-II
Hello everyone and welcome to today’s lecture on broadband microstrip antennas. In the
last few lectures we have talked about microstrip antennas its advantages disadvantages
and applications, then we talked about rectangular microstrip antenna and the parametric
effect. For example, effect of the feed point location, effect of the width of the patch,
effect of the substrate parameter for example, r, h, tan. Then we talked about circular
microstrip antenna and triangular microstrip antenna.
We also looked at the curve which give us the substrate parameter versus bandwidth and
efficiency, and we saw that the bandwidth is proportional to the substrate thickness as
well as it is inversely proportional to 1/√r. So, we have also noticed that the bandwidth
increased to level only of about 5 to 10%, and if we try to increase beyond that efficiency
reduces. So, today we will look into various technique how to get bandwidth of 10%,
20%, 30% or more ok.
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So, let’s start with the formal introduction of broadband microstrip antenna that is the
today’s topic; now in the last lecture we had seen this particular curve. So, just for a
quick brush up, so here is a curve which shows percentage bandwidth and efficiency on
these axis vertical axis versus substrate thickness which is h/0. Now we can see that the
percentage bandwidth can be as high as 15% for r 2.2, but corresponding to this case
here efficiency is going to be poor. So, even if you want let us say a 10% bandwidth, so
10% bandwidth can be achieved here, but again efficiency is slightly lower, but if you
want more than 20% or 30% we can see that it is not easy to achieve using a single
microstrip antenna. So, the concept of multi resonator is used to obtain broad bandwidth.
So, for example, let us say this is the VSWR curve for one of the antenna, which is
resonating at f1 if we now suppose excite another antenna which is resonating at
frequency f2, and if we do such a proper way of excitation and if we can now see that the
overall curve will be a much broader curve, and if we look at a VSWR <= 2 bandwidth,
it will be much more than a single patch.
So, in fact one can see that a single patch has a this much bandwidth, the another single
patch has this bandwidth over here, but the overall bandwidth is more than the bandwidth
of the individual patches. Now this curve here shows slightly different than this. So, here
one antenna has let us say lesser bandwidth, here antenna has a wider bandwidth. So, if
antenna has a wider bandwidth then the next antenna should be designed at a slightly
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larger separation between the two frequency, compare to this over here so that when we
have a slightly larger separation each individual antenna has a larger bandwidth. So, we
can get a much larger bandwidth by using the cascading of these two thing. So, let us see
how we can realize these configurations. So, there are many ways we can use the concept
of the multi resonator. So, let us see one by one. So, the first configuration which we are
going to look at is a gap coupled rectangular microstrip antenna.
So, what we have here. It is only one patch is fed, and this patch dimension we had taken
earlier. So, we have kept same as the earlier dimension. So, which was L = 3 cm, W = 4,
substrate parameters are also same as before.
Now, what we have done here that we have put another patch of length L 1, and width we
have kept same as this patch here. So, anyway it is going to have this much width. So,
might as well use the same width. So, then what happened the coupling to the second
patch is through the entire width of the patch. Now this second patch is not at all excited,
so it is actually known as parasitic patch. So, this patch is being fed and from here there
will be fringing fields, and there will be fringing fields on this side also, but these
fringing fields will get coupled to this particular patch here, and they will excite this
particular patch.
So now there will be two resonances we can actually see here this is the response for a
single patch. So, we can see there is a one resonance frequency, but because of the
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loading of the another patch here. So, the resonance frequency of this has slightly
reduced. So, which is over here and then we have another resonance coming over here.
So, just I had shown before that if we have a frequency f 1 and if we have a frequency f2
we can try to get broader bandwidth, but of course, this one here does not show that
proper bandwidth. So, we have to see now what is happening to the impedance plot.
So, this one here is the impedance plot for rectangular microstrip antenna for a feed point
of x = 0.7 cm, this is the same as we had discussed earlier for rectangular microstrip
antenna. Now we have used the same feed point for this particular also. So, what we see
here that if we use the same feed point the curve is given over here, one can see that
there is a loop in the impedance plot, this loop is because of the resonance of the another
patch over here. We can also see that this impedance is much lower compare to the
impedance over here. So, let us see what is the reason for this impedance to get lower.
So, what we have here this is the fed patch, earlier it was seeing the radiation resistance
over here and here, but now what is happening this patch is also going to radiate. So,
there will be some radiation resistance here, now this length is approximately equal to
/2.
So, what happens? this is the property of a transmission line of length /2, that if there is
load resistances here that load resistance also becomes the input resistance over here, so
/2 actually only transforms the same impedance at this particular point. So now what
happens for this patch? there was a radiation resistance of this patch and the radiation
resistance of this patch is coming in parallel, so the two resistance will give us a less
impedance and if impedance is reduced, so naturally if this is 0 Ω impedance, and this
impedance is reduce by close to let us say half then the impedance variation will reduce.
So, what we need to do? We need to shift these feed point towards this edge here, so that
we can get a impedance plot shifted from here to here. Now just to mention here we have
kept gap as a s = 0.1 cm, will see what is the effect of the gap in the next few slides.
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So, let us first look at the effect of the feed point. So, here is the plot which we saw
earlier that is for x = 0.7 cm, we simply shifted the feed point towards the edge, and by
shifting the impedance towards the edge, so we increase the value of x from 0.7 cm to
1.1 cm. And now we can see that the entire loop is within the VSWR = 2 circle. Now just
to tell you generally this VSWR 2 circle is not shown on the smith chart, so that can be
plotted on the smith chart, so on smith chart we know that this is 0, this will be one, this
is infinity, somewhere here there will be 2. So, this 1 here and 2 with that particular
radius you draw the circle. So, the idea is to put this VSWR, within the VSWR 2 circle
we should try to bring this loop over here and if that is the case now we can see that the
VSWR less than 2 response is this here.
So, from here we can see VSWR less than 2 bandwidth will be starting from this point to
this point here and it actually gives us a bandwidth of about 207 MHz that is about 7%.
Now this bandwidth is more than 3 times the bandwidth of a single RMSA, and we can
actually see from here the previous one if you just see. You can see that this is the
individual bandwidth of RMSA, this is the bandwidth of another RMSA, over all
bandwidth is much larger. Here I also want to mention that L 1 is taken slightly less than
L, because if L1 is less that means, its resonance frequency will be more. So, if we say
that this resonance frequency corresponds to f 1 then this will be f2 which is slightly
higher, and we can see that we are getting a larger bandwidth.
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Let us see the effect of the other parameters also. So, just to show the effect of the L 1, so
we have plotted here for 3 different values of L1- 2.8, 2.9, 3 cm. Now if you look into
here what we are having here, they are corresponding to these 3 length, we are getting 3
different impedance plot and one can see that the loop position is getting changed. You
can see that it is almost rotating like in the clockwise direction. So, what is really
happening? So, as L1 is higher, so its resonance frequency will be small, so the loop is
formed at the lower frequency value. Now just to remind you for a normal rectangular
microstrip antenna, this is a lower frequency and frequency increases in this particular
fashion. So, if L1 is 3 cm, its corresponding frequency will be lower so the loop is formed
at the lower frequency. Then length is reduced frequency increases. So now the loop is
formed at a higher frequency; when length is further reduced its resonance frequency
increases. So now the loop is shifted to the higher frequency, we can see that for L 1 = 2.9
cm, the loop is within the VSWR 2 circle.
Now, I just want to tell also that if suppose length was 2.92 or 93 then what would have
happened? Corresponding to this frequency would have reduced. So, this loop which is
over here it will be now somewhere like this here. Now that is not a very good thing to
do, generally try to optimize the loop position which is centered around the central point
we also call it a bulls-eye. So, we would always like to be close to the bulls-eye ok. So,
then we have a VSWR or you can say loop here circling the central point here.
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Now had we seen this same thing only using this VSWR versus frequency, you cannot
really make out what is happening where the loop is shifting and how it is shifting; but it
is very clear from here how the loop position is shifting. So, I always recommend that
when you want to become a good antenna designer try to master the smith chart so that
you really know how the impedance plots are moving, from here you cannot really get
too much of a information.
So, just to summarize then that as L1 decreases from 3 to 2.8, corresponding resonance
frequency from here to here it increases so the loop is moving in the clockwise direction.
Now, let us see the effect of the gap. So, earlier I had shown you the graph for 0.1 cm,
here we have taken three values of the gap 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 cm. So now if the gap is
small, what will happen? The coupling between the two patches will increase, and if the
coupling increases then the loop size will be larger; as we increase the gap to 0.1 the
coupling will reduce slightly, loop size will reduce slightly. If the gap is increased to
0.15, now the coupling is further reduced one can see that the loop size is further
reduced. Now if we increase beyond let us say 0.2, 0.3 cms, this loop will disappear and
in fact the response will look very similar to that of a rectangular microstrip antenna.
Now, in this particular case here we can see that the loop is within VSWR 2 circle, for
both 0.1 as well as 0.15 cm. Now definitely since the loop size is larger here bandwidth
will be larger, which we can see here for 0.15 this is the VSWR curve so that will be the
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bandwidth; for 0.1 this is the VSWR curve; so you can see that this bandwidth is larger
than the bandwidth corresponding to 0.15 cm. So, it is really important to optimize
different parameters.
So, we saw till now that we can get a very good bandwidth, and one can be very happy
that you got a better bandwidth, but bandwidth of just defining from VSWR is not a good
idea, we should also see what is the radiation pattern. Is radiation pattern stable over the
bandwidth or not, or is the pattern changing over the bandwidth, is gain stable over the
VSWR less than 2 bandwidth or not. So, all these things are important, the study is
incomplete if we do not look at the radiation pattern and gain performance. So, let’s see
here what is the radiation pattern. So, over here now we can see that this the same
patches the optimized one. So, s is 0.1, x 1.1 for which we had seen that the bandwidth
was roughly about 207 MHz.
So, this is the frequency range 2.895 to 3.102. So, here we have shown the plot at 3
different frequencies, one is roughly at the center of these two which is around 3, this 2.9
is close to the band edge here, and 3.1 is close to the higher band edge. Now let’s see
how is the radiation pattern. So, at the lower frequency one can see that the radiation
pattern is in the broad side direction, the reason is that at lower frequency this patch is
only resonating and this is the dominant resonance. Now as we increase the frequency,
this patch is now getting little bit resonant and if this is higher frequency because this
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length is smaller, so the resonance of this patch is more dominant. So, now, what is
happening? At the lower frequency since this patch is resonant, this is resonating and this
is what is more effective radiator, so the radiation is in the broad side direction. At in
between frequency this is radiating, this is also radiating little bit and you can see that
there is a very small shift in the beam.
But when we go to the higher frequency, now this patch is more dominant. So, this is
what is resonating. Now if you recall array theory if there are two patches; patch 1 and
patch 2 and if there is a phase difference between one patch and the second patch, what
will happen? The beam will be shifted towards this particular direction here. So, this is
what is happening, so with reference to this patch this one is seeing a phase delay from
here to here, we can actually take the central distance from here to here. And because of
the phase there the maximum has shifted to the direction of around almost 45 degree. So,
even though this antenna is very good from VSWR bandwidth, but it is not so good from
the radiation pattern point of view.
So, now, what is the remedy? So, we got one solution we have not got the other solution
of the pattern. So now we need to think about, so what is really happening; when this
patch was getting resonant, so the beam shifted towards this side. So, suppose now we
put another patch which is same as this over here on the other side of the patch here, then
what will happen? This patch will try to shift the beam in the right direction, but this
patch on this side will try to shift the beam in the left side direction; so we can hope that
this one will try to shift on this side other patch will try to shift on this side, and in reality
the radiation pattern may be in the broadside direction.
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So, let’s see what happens if we put another patch on the other side. So, what we have
here? So, we have a one patch here exactly the same patch has been put on the left side
here, and now we have also shown the curve for three different gaps here, so, 0.1, 0.15
and 0.2. The gap has to be slightly optimized in this particular case. So, one can see that
for three different gap for 0.1 the loop size is bigger because coupling is strong, for 0.15
that is the loop size is within VSWR 2 circle and if we increase the gap further, now the
loop size is relatively smaller over here. So, one can actually see corresponding to this
impedance plot we can see the VSWR plot over here. So, this one here, the solid line is
the plot corresponding to this one here which is for 0.2 cm. So, we can see that this is the
plot here.
For s = 0.15, we can see that the plot here is this one here, you can see that the bandwidth
for this is about 209, bandwidth of this is 171 MHz, so this bandwidth is slightly lesser.
But now we should not always rule out that this is a lower bandwidth. In fact, one can
actually see that this particular curve is going to be within VSWR = 1.5, and there are
many requirements that where people may require not just VSWR less than 2, because
VSWR less than 2 actually imply about 11% reflected power and many a times the
requirement is stringent, they actually put that VSWR should be less than 1.5, and
VSWR 1.5 corresponds to reflection coefficient = 0.2 and that means, reflected power is
only 4%. So, many a times requirement are stringent, so this particular response may be
more preferred if VSWR less than 1.5 bandwidth is required.
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So, let’s see what happens to the radiation pattern. So, here I have shown radiation
pattern at two frequencies; one on the lower band edge and another one on the higher
band edge. So, one can actually see at the lower band edge radiation pattern is in the
broad side direction, which was expected as in the case of the two gap coupled. For three
gap coupled what we can see that the radiation maxima is in the broad side direction. So,
what one patch try to do, then one patch try to shift the radiation in this side another
patch tries to shift the radiation on this side. So, hence the resultant still remains within
in the broad side direction. However, we do have some radiation in the side over here. In
fact, this radiation one can actually correlate with another factor, let us see now at the
lower frequency this patch is more resonant so we have the two slots over here. At higher
frequency when these patches are dominant, then we have a one slot over here and one
slot over here and of course, there are two slots here which are also radiating. But these
are now little more dominant radiating thing and if you look at the distance between
them, the distance between them is now quite large which can give rise to somewhat
grating lobe, but that is getting multiplied with the pattern, and hence we see that there is
a little bit higher radiation.
But yet we can say that the maximum radiation is in the broad side direction for both the
frequency ranges here. So, this is a better thing we can actually see the gain of the
antenna, now the gain of the antenna here is 9.4 dB, whereas the gain of the RMSA was
around 6.7 dB. So, we also get a better gain which is about 2.7 dB more than the other
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pattern. One can also notice that there is not much change in the radiation pattern of H
Plane, the reason for that is the patches are not put in the H Plane, the patches are put
along the E Plane ok. And we also know that this is known as a radiating edge, and this is
where the E Plane is. So, these E Plane pattern will only change H Plane pattern will not
get effected. So now, then the next concept is that instead of putting patches along the
radiating edges, can we put the patches along non-radiating edges ok.
So, here the patches have been put along the non-radiating edges ok and one can now see
that here we have a feed point and the patches are put on the other side over here.
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So, now we have shown two different cases here, one is for 0.159 cm, another one is for
0.318 cm. So, what has been done? Substrate thickness has been doubled. So, the
substrate thickness is doubled; that means, the bandwidth of individual patches will
increase, and if the bandwidth of individual patches increase that means, we should have
larger difference between f1 and f2. We can actually look at earlier curve which I had
shown you that if individual bandwidth is more separation between the two frequency
should be also more. So, one can see that over here for two different thicknesses we have
actually given here, and I have also mentioned here this is L 1 this is L2. First I will
discuss about what happened if L1 = L2, and then I will tell you what happens if L 1 is not
equal to L2.
So, here it is 2.9 cm, and since the thickness is now doubled. So, the separation between
the two frequency should be larger. So, hence you can see that L 1, L2 we have taken as
2.7 cm. Now the resonance frequency still will be closer, because you can think about the
extension in the length. See always physical length is not important what is more
important is the effective length. So, effective length here will be 3+∆L and ∆L on this
side. So, that will be 3+2∆L. So, by doubling the edge ∆L also gets roughly doubled. So,
that is why here the curve is for 2.9, now for this particular non-radiating edges coupled
the gap has been reduced significantly. The reason for that is that for radiating edge the
field is uniform along this here. So, when you put the patch on this side, uniform field
will get coupled to uniformly to the other patch.
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But along the non radiating edge field is plus here it goes to 0, it goes to minus. So, field
is varying sinusoidally along this edge here, and since field is plus 0 minus coupling to
this one will be relatively less. So, hence we need to have a smaller gap to increase the
coupling between the two patches. So, here we can see the curves here for 0.05, this is
the curve you can see here this is the curve for the 0.159 cm, and this is the response for
the doubled one which is 0.318 cm. One can still see that the loop size is relatively small
for both the cases; so one has to reduce the gap even more to get a larger loop, but
nevertheless there is an advantage one can even define a nice bandwidth even for VSWR
less than 1.5 also, but let us see what is the bandwidth we are getting. So, we are getting
about 5.3 percent bandwidth for smaller thickness substrate and almost 12.7% for larger
thickness substrate ok.
So, one can optimize the bandwidth, now in this particular case what will happen the
radiation pattern will now vary in this direction. So, H Plane radiation pattern will vary,
but E Plane pattern will remain same ok. Now by the way just to tell you see this double
thickness example is also there for 3 gap coupled also. So, for 3 gap coupled now this is
double the thickness, now earlier we had seen for h 0.159, we have taken 29 mm or 2.9
cm, but for double the thickness if we take 2.9 it would not be proper. So, one can see
that this is the curve for 29 mm.
Now since this is the curve here which is on the frequency side, so in order to bring the
loop within VSWR 2 circle, what we need to do? We need to reduce the length and if we
reduce the length you can see that 29 mm has been reduced to 27.5. If we reduce the
length frequency will increase, so the loop will be formed in the higher frequency range,
and one can see that this loop is encompassing the central point here and giving rise to a
larger bandwidth. So, we can see that the bandwidth obtained here is about close to 11.3
percent.
So, one can actually see that the bandwidth can be improved by putting the patches along
the radiating edges, but the pattern will change along the E Plane and not change in the H
Plane, and we can see that by putting the patches along non- radiating edges now
bandwidth can be increased further, but the pattern variation will be now along the H
Plane and not in the E Plane. Now just to mention if we take the 2 dimensions equal L 1
and L2, it is not a very good idea I do not recommend see what happens then? If these 2
lengths are different then what will happen that at one frequency pattern will try to shift
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on this side, another frequency pattern will try to shift on this side. So, what we will
really see that the pattern is not stable over the bandwidth. So, yes by choosing L 1 and L2
different one can get larger bandwidth, but the pattern variation will be more, but by
choosing L1 = L2 we will get slightly lesser bandwidth, but pattern variation over the
bandwidth will be relatively less.
So, in the next lecture we will see that we can now put the patches on the both radiating
edges as well as along the non-radiating edges. So, we’ll see that bandwidth even gets
further increased, if you put the patches along the radiating as well as non-radiating
edges. So, in the next lecture we’ll also see other configurations of gap coupled and
directly coupled configuration and many more things in time to come.
Thank you very much see you next time bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Department of Electric Engineering
Module - 06
Lecture - 26
Broadband MSA-III
Hello and welcome. In the last lecture we had seen how we can increase the bandwidth
of the antenna. So, we had actually noticed that the bandwidth of the antenna can be
increased by increasing the substrate thickness or by reducing the dielectric constant.
Then we also looked at the multiple resonator techniques, where we had put one patch on
the one side of the rectangular patch antenna and this was the parasitic antenna not fed
only one patch was fed and we actually noticed that the bandwidth of the antenna can be
increased. We also saw the parametric effect what is the effect of the gap; that means, if
the gap is increased coupling is reduced and thereby loop size is reduced. We also saw
what is the effect of the feed point. That means, if we shift the feed point towards the
edge, the whole impedance shifts towards the higher impedance value.
We also saw what is the effect of the length of the parasitic patch. So, as the parasitic
patch length increases, its resonance frequency will decrease, so the loop will shift in the
anti-clockwise direction. Of course in the last lecture I had mentioned if the patch
dimension is decreased from 3 cm to 2.8 cm, its resonance frequency increase hence the
loop moved in the clockwise direction. So, you should understand that what happens if
the length changes. So, then what we had seen instead of 2 gap coupled, we have put
three gap coupled antenna because by putting three gap coupled antenna the pattern
variation was relatively less over the bandwidth and the radiation pattern was in the
broad side direction.
Then we talked about non-radiating edges, so where we had put the patches along the
non-radiating edges and again we saw that the bandwidth can be improved. So now,
today we will see that how we can put patches on all the four sides to get the better
bandwidth compared to the earlier 2 things.
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So, let us see the configurations now. So, we had actually looked at radiating edges
coupled, where we had put the antenna along the radiating edges and what we had also
noticed that the radiation pattern varies in E-Plane, but there is no change in the radiation
pattern in the H-Plane. Then we had put parasitic patches along the non-radiating edges
and again in this case we had mentioned that this case now the pattern variation in E-
Plane will be not there, but pattern variation in the H-Plane will be there because
parasitic patches are placed along the non-radiating edges.
So, here we have now four edges coupled rectangular micro strip antenna, where
antennas have been put on both the sides here. So, here now again we can choose patch
length here let us say L1, L1 so that this will be symmetrical. We can take these two
patches as L2, L2. So, what that would really result into? At L 1 these patch will be
resonant and it will be symmetrical. At a slightly frequency then these patches will be
resonant and since it is still symmetrical, pattern variation will not be there over the
bandwidth. And by choosing the two lengths different L 1 and L2, we will see that two
different loops can be obtained in the smith chart plots.
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So, let us take one of the examples now. So, we will take similar example as before
which is a substrate parameters are same,  2.5. We have taken thicker substrate as an
example so that we can get a larger bandwidth. But compared to the previous case width
has been reduced. The reason why we reduce the width, actually we were not able to get
the impedance matching by using a simple coaxial feed point, so that is why we reduced
the width here. And now L1 which is along the radiating edges is 27.5 mm and the gap is
2.5 mm.
So, I had mentioned that along the radiating edges, gap can be little larger. Whereas
along the non-radiating edges we have kept this dimensions smaller than this here so that
it will have the slightly higher frequency, along the non-radiating edges gap has to be
small then that is reduced to 0.5 mm. Just to mention again earlier we were taking in cm,
here we have mentioned the dimension in mm. Now the feed point is 14 mm, you can see
that L is 30. So, half of L will be 15 mm. So, this is almost at the edge of the patch ok. So
now, we can see there are 2 loops in smith chart, so let us see this is the loop response
over here.
So, this loop is corresponding to length L1 and then that is appearing at the lower
frequency and then while it is completing another loop is formed because of this length
here and hence we see 2 different loops here. And one can see that both the loops are
within VSWR equal to 2 circle and that gives us a larger bandwidth. So, this is the
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VSWR plot versus frequency. So, if we draw a line from here, you can see what will be
the VSWR less than 2 bandwidth, which we can see here that the bandwidth is about 569
MHz that is close to 18% and this is much larger bandwidth, in fact in case of radiating
edges we had got a bandwidth of roughly around 12%% and again for non-radiating
edges we got around 12%, now we are getting about 18% bandwidth ok.
Now, of course, here it requires slot of optimization techniques to bring both the loops
inside the VSWR equal to 2 circle. So, these lengths can be optimized. So, just to give
little bit of a concept here. So, if this length is taken let us say larger than this, if it is
large what will happen? Its resonance frequency will reduce. So, the loop will be formed
somewhere here and the gap over here controls the size of the loop here; so one can
actually reduce or increase the gap.
Similarly, over here now this loop dimension if we take let us say slightly larger, then
what will happen? If this is larger this loop instead of coming over here it will actually
form right over here also ok. But if we take less dimension than this, then the loop will
go outside that VSWR equal to 2 circle. So, it is really important to optimize the gap, the
width of the patch also plays an important role because by reducing the width we can
actually try to optimize the feed point location. So, no external impedance matching is
required then.
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So, let us see the radiation pattern. So, here we have shown the radiation pattern at 3
different frequencies. One is near the center and this is on the lower band edge and this
towards the higher band edge. So, at the lowest frequency it is central patch which is
resonant, so the radiation pattern is in the broad side direction. Now at in between
frequency now just to recall, this is the patch dimension along the radiating edges. So,
this will be the intermediate frequency and this will be the highest frequency. So, you can
see that that H-Plane pattern is not changed much, but E-Plane pattern has changed, but it
is still in the broad side direction ok. Because the patches long the radiating edges are
more dominant over here, at the higher frequency patches along the non-radiating edges
are more dominant.
Now, one can see that E-Plane pattern has not much changed here you can see somewhat
similar; but now H-Plane pattern has changed ok. So, one can see that this is the H-Plane
pattern. Now you can actually notice one additional thing, that for the H-Plane pattern
this one has a much higher value compare to the H-Plane pattern. Now see this can be
explained in a simple way, along the E-Plane we have a pattern which is relatively has a
higher value. But along the H-Plane the element pattern is relatively going towards 0. So,
it is this value here which is getting multiplied to the array of the elements and that is
what is bringing it back to close to 0 here. Otherwise it would have also followed the
similar trend going out, but since the pattern of element itself is going towards 0. So, 0
getting multiplied with this array factor point here, it tries to bring to 0 here.
So, hence the H-Plane pattern looks relatively better compared to the E-Plane pattern. So
now, because of these multiple patches gain also slightly more than the single patch ok.
So that means, by using the four gap coupled antennas what we can achieve? We have
achieved a much larger bandwidth and we have also achieved higher gain. I also want to
mention here if we had taken this length L1, L1, L1, L1 all of these are taken as L 1 then
what would have been happened, there would have been only 1 loop in the smith chart
plot, but then all the patches will be resonating simultaneously.
So, it actually gives rise to higher gain. So, there is a trade-off between the gain
bandwidth, you know that in general gain bandwidth product is relatively constant in the
case of an amplifier. Well it is not always applicable 100% to antennas, but somewhat
applicable here. So, over here just to repeat if this is L 1, L1 and if this is L2, L2 we will get
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a broader bandwidth, but slightly less gain. But if we take this L 1, L1, L1, L1 then
bandwidth will be slightly less, but gain will be slightly more.
So, instead of using these gap coupled, one can go to the next configuration and which is
known as directly coupled RMSA. So, here just to show, so this is a radiating edge
coupled, this is non-radiating edge coupled and this is all four edges coupled. Let us just
look one by one now. For the radiating edge coupled you can see that a line strip is
connected over here. So, here the coupling is controlled of course the gap s. What we
have tried to do here? We have taken this gap as now greater than 2h where h is the
substrate thickness. Because see, recall absolute maximum fringing field can be extended
to about s and this can be extended to s.
So, if we take greater than 2h, gap coupling will not be there. So, direct coupled where
the gap is generally taken as larger. However, we can also use the hybrid coupling where
s will be smaller than 2h, then there will be gap coupling also and there will be direct
coupling also ok. And here the coupling depends upon the width of the this connecting
strip over here and by optimizing now this gap and this width of the thing one can
actually optimize the coupling between the patches and hence one can optimize the
bandwidth in a very similar way as that in the case of the gap coupled.
Now, in non-radiating edge there is one additional parameter, which controls the
coupling between the patches. So, over here it was generally the width of the strip here
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which was controlling the coupling. But over here the location of the strip also controls
the coupling. The reason for that is over here the radiation is uniform along the width,
but along this length here the field variation is sinusoidal. That means, this is plus here, 0
here, minus here. So, it varies sinusoidally, plus, 0 and going to minus here. So, if we
connect right at the center here ok and center here, actually speaking there will be
absolutely no coupling to this particular patch because the field is 0 here. So that means,
now if we move this strip here along this side, since the field is increasing so as we move
this connecting strip along this direction coupling will increase.
So, here coupling to this patch or this patch here will increase, if we shift the coupling
strip location along this edge and also what will be the width of the strip over here. So
now, we have many more parameter which can be optimized to get a broader bandwidth.
Now over here now the same concept is extended, so the edges are coupled along this
here and the edges are coupled along this one here. Now I want to mention here that this
concept is different than the array, infact I just want mention. So, we had written a paper
on directly couple RMSA almost more than 30 years back in 1984 or so and I also want
to mention that what we have covered about the directly coupled and as well as gap
coupled rectangular micro strip antenna, all these were part of my PhD thesis, which I
stared working in 1979 and submitted the PhD thesis in 1982. And I just want to mention
that see micro strip antenna practical part came only in about 1974, when Manson had
proposed micro strip antenna. From 74 to 79 hardly 5 years had passed and very little
literature work was available. So, in the beginning it was really a lot of struggle, so we
really had to do lot of optimization, we had to do lot of programming also; and those
days I had written program on FORTRAN and it did PhD from IIT Kanpur. So, when I
started working on this, so we did not have these fancy terminals and we could work on
that and those day we had to punch each and every line on a separate card and we will
have a stack of these card, we will go to the computer center give it over there and then if
there is even a small mistake it will just give the errors, then you get the print out of error
you go through that, you correct the thing and you again submit it and then even if the
order changes again you will get all the error messages. So, it used to take lot of time
those days when we were working on these things and of course, while I was doing PhD
then these terminals came and then we started having you know enjoying luxury of using
the terminals.
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But the computers were really really slow and during the day it was really a difficult
thing, computers were so slow, the terminals were fully crowded, students were working.
So, just to tell you I always used to be a morning person, used to get up early 4.30 A.M
would study for 2 hours then do my class work and other thing, but then during the PhD
program then I actually became a night person because I realized that computer center
was relatively free because lesser students were going during the night time, I am talking
about 1980 or so. So, then I developed the habit of going after dinner and then work
almost whole night and then come back to hostel, take breakfast and then start the day.
So, from those days now we have the luxury of all the computers, desktop right on our
rooms here and we can actually use the power of the computer. But nevertheless when
we submitted this paper here, so the reviewers had asked us one questions. How this
particular thing is different than arrays of antennas because in an array what we do? We
also feed all the elements, it also looks like it is not really a parasitic element we are
feeding this one here and this one.
So, I actually gave the explanation that this is different than the array. See in the case of
array what we do? We have all the patches of equal dimension and then all the patches
are fed with let us say if you want a broad side radiation, then all the patches are fed with
equal amplitude and equal phase and that would mean that the phase difference between
this and this should be, if I connect here it should be 180 degree phase shift to be given,
or if I feed here and here then this should be 360 degree phase difference, so that that
will amount to 0 degree phase difference.
So, over here we have optimized for the bandwidth, not for the gain. In the case of array
we do not optimize for the bandwidth, but we optimize for the gain here. So, it is not
same as array antenna. So, here we have chosen the patch dimensions slightly different,
so that we can get the broader bandwidth. So, these details now you can also see in my
book “Broadband Microstrip Antennas” and in fact that book is freely available now
through the internet. So, you can download also and you can purchase it or it is available
from the “Artech house”. So it is your choice.
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Let just move to now the next configuration, which is gap coupled circular micro strip
antenna. So, here we have a circular patch here and the 2 patches are put on the left and
right side, just like a radiating edge here. Now here I just want to mention here that
during my PhD thing I had worked on mainly on the rectangular micro strip antenna and
we had proposed some broad band configurations using triangular micro strip antenna or
circular micro strip antenna.
Fortunately for us nobody really had work on this configuration and I revived this
configuration almost you can say 15 years later than my PhD. So, it was much later we
started working on this here and I now just want to tell you, so those days I did not have
these fancy commercial softwares like IE3D or CST microwave studio, ADS, HFSS and
so on. So, we thought okay, why not we do one experiment. So, we put a patch over here
and we put the patch on this side and in fact when we did the first experiment we
actually made this patch let us say radius a 1, this we made as a 2, this we made as a 3 so
that the 2 patches are resonating at the different frequency to obtain larger bandwidth.
However, when we made the first experiment and we fed over here actually speaking we
did not get any loop ok. We only got the response of this particular thing, these 2 actually
did not do any contribution because they were not getting coupled properly. So, then we
did an another experiment were we reduced the gap significantly and now we could see a
very small kink instead of a loop in the smith chart plot. So, then we started thinking
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what is happening. So, at that time I used the concept of the direct coupling. So, what we
did? We put a copper strip and we put those copper strips along the gaps. So, we put
copper strip one by one. So, we put one copper strip on the right side, then we put
another copper strip on the left hand side and we could see that the coupling is
increasing.
So, by using that concept then we could increase the coupling on this side, or we could
increase the coupling here and then we started thinking why this is not happening. So,
just to tell you what is really happening here? Compare to the rectangular patch, in case
of a rectangular patch this is the entire width is there and for the parasitic patch also there
is an entire width. So, coupling is there along full width of the rectangular patch, but over
here because of this curved surface here, coupling is mainly due to these closer points
here. The moment we see over here the coupling almost is reduced to negligible value.
So, hence gap has to be reduced very significantly.
I also want to mention gap is also related with the thickness of the substrate, it is always
s by h which is important and not s alone. So, what we did later on when we optimized
this particular thing, we took a little thicker substrate and of course, by that time we
procured the IE3D software, we did the simulation, using IE3D and then what we did?
We kept this patch and this patch same radius, so that we get a similar radiation pattern
which is in the broad side direction and pattern variation will be less. So, that is how we
did the optimization for this case here, the results are very similar to the radiating edge
gap coupled, we could get a broader bandwidth as well as higher gain.
Now, for the non-radiating edges one has to do little more thinking, one should not just
put over here the patch along the non-radiating edge, because see field is 0 here which
goes to plus right. So, if you put here the another patch in this side right here and here,
coupling to that patch will be close to 0. So, we found an alternate way by knowing the
field distribution. So, we know that this is let us say 0, if I say this is plus, it is double
plus and then this will be say 0, minus, double minus. So, double plus means higher
amplitude then the lesser amplitude and the 0 amplitude.
So, here now the patches are put along 45 degree from this axis here and these are placed
symmetrical and by placing this symmetrical and what we also have done? We took all
the four patches of equal radius and then this is a slightly different radius here. So, all
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these patches then resonate simultaneously. Now, then we also came out with a slightly
different configuration over here. You can actually think about this configuration as kind
of combination of this, but you can actually think that this is the radiating edge that was
the term which we had used for the rectangular patch; this is of course not the edge here,
so we can say that it is put along the E-Plane, instead of calling it a radiating edge
coupled.
Now, what we have done here? We have put two patches over here and so the coupling is
through this side, through this side and they are also getting coupled with each other. So,
these results we have optimized, these results are very similar to that of the rectangular
patch and for more details you can see the broad band micro strip antenna book ok.
Then we actually came out with another idea, when we discuss about a circular micro
strip antenna as well as semi-circular micro strip antenna. So, what we had seen that the
resonance frequency of circular micro strip antenna is same as that of a resonance
frequency of semi-circular micro strip antenna ok.
So, here what we have done here? This is of the same radius as this here. So now, you
might wonder if this radius is same as this then their resonance frequency will be same.
Actually not really this patch is being fed. So, it is fed with a coaxial probe, a coaxial
probe will have some inductance. So, because of that inductance resonance frequency of
the fed patch is slightly less than the resonance frequency of the non-fed patch. So, one
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can actually see that these two are getting coupled and one can see that there is a loop in
the smith chart and this one here gives a bandwidth of about 143 MHz which is about
twice the bandwidth of circular micro strip antenna on same substrate.
However, I want to mention here that in this particular case gain is not uniform over the
bandwidth. So, yes we are getting more bandwidth by using two gap coupled semi-
circular micro strip antenna, but gain varies over the bandwidth, if that is acceptable then
only one can use this particular configuration. So, similar to that we have also reported
something like which I mentioned about equilateral triangle in the last lecture. So, in the
equilateral triangle and the 30, 60, 90 degree triangle also they both have a same
resonance frequency. So, they can be get coupled also and one can get a broader
resonance frequency.
Now, similar to rectangle or circle, one can also put triangular patches which are gap
coupled and you can still get a larger bandwidth or gain. So, their effects are very very
similar. So now, let me show another configuration. This configuration was reported long
time back, where what was done is that this is the rectangular patch here and over here
the resonant length is 12.45, width is very large which is you can say close to 22 here.
Now what has been done here, a slot has been cut over here.
Now, by cutting this slot here one additional resonance has been obtained. So, the
resonance frequency of this slot should be close to the resonance frequency of the patch
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here and then one can get a much broader bandwidth. In fact, this configuration became
very very popular at one time, the reason for that is that this particular configuration
achieved wider bandwidth without increasing the volume. So, if you recall the bandwidth
can be increased by increasing the substrate thickness, so that means, volume is
increased or bandwidth can be increased by reducing the epsilon r, that will increase the
aperture area that means again volume is increased or we looked at the gap coupled
configuration or directly coupled configuration, again the overall patch dimensions are
increasing that means volume is increasing. So, this became a very very famous
configuration, where volume was not increased, exactly the same volume was there and
in that volume itself the slot was cut over here to increase the bandwidth. So, we also got
carried away the lot of things have been done here. So, instead of using a U-slot, we also
used V-slot, instead of using a one U-slot, two U-slots were used to get even better
bandwidth and lot of slots were cut in between, the tooth brush slot and many other
things had been reported. But I want to mention here again the major problem with this
configuration is that the gain is not uniform over the bandwidth.
So, yes within the same volume one can get a larger bandwidth, infact the same thing
was, also you can say here the volume is same here as that of a circular patch, bandwidth
is increased, but gain is not uniform over the bandwidth. So, please remember that when
you are designing the antenna, it is not VSWR bandwidth is important, but it is also the
gain bandwidth is important, pattern variation over the bandwidth is also important.
So, today we have discussed about how to increase the bandwidth, by using gap coupled
configuration along radiating edges, along non-radiating edges, along four edges. We
also looked at the directly coupled configuration, but in all these cases we saw that the
dimensions were increasing in horizontal or you can say in planar dimension.
In the next lecture we will now see how the bandwidth can be improved by increasing
the thickness, overall thickness of the antenna, where we will have a one bottom patch,
we will put another patch on the top and these two patches will be resonant at a similar
frequency to get wider bandwidth. And after that we will also see how to use
combination of this. So, where we will go in the planar dimension, either in this plane or
that plane or we will go in the vertical direction. So, by using combination of that we can
get even larger bandwidth. So, we will see lot of more broadband configurations in time
to come.
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Thank you, bye and we will see you a next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Department of Electric Engineering
Module - 06
Lecture - 27
Base Band MSA-IV
Hello; and welcome to today’s lecture on broadband microstrip antenna. In the last few
lectures we have been talking about broadband microstrip antennas, and we saw there are
certain techniques to increase the bandwidth of the antenna. So, you can increase the
bandwidth of the antenna by increasing the substrate thickness or by reducing the
dielectric constant of the substrate or we can use multiple resonator techniques. In the
last lecture we had seen how we can increase the bandwidth by putting the multiple
resonators in the same plane.
So, for example, if you have a one patch here, you put another patch here and we put
another patch over there. So, there were 3 patches which were coupled to the radiating
edges of rectangular patch, or we put 3 patches which were coupled along the non-
radiating edges, then we looked into 5 patches which were coupled along all the 4 edges
of the rectangular microstrip antenna, and we saw that bandwidth can be increased from
10% to about 18 to 20%.
Then we also saw that gap coupled circular microstrip antennas can be also used,
similarly you can use other shapes also. You can use triangular, you can use hexagonal
and other shapes also and then we also saw that a U-slot can be cut inside a rectangular
patch. So, idea is that resonance of U-slot should be similar to that of the rectangular
patch. So, if the 2 frequencies are close to each other, we can get broad bandwidth. Now
today we will look into the situation, where instead of increasing the patch dimension in
this thing by adding another patches. So, total dimensions are in increased in the planar
way, but now what we will do? We will put a patch here, then we will put another patch
on top of that. So, this will be stacking of the patches. So, by increasing the total
thickness of the substrate or you can call it antenna we can increase the bandwidth.
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So, let us just look at various configurations how we can increase the bandwidth by
stacking the antennas. So, to start with we will look at electromagnetically coupled
configuration in the top. So, over here you can see these are microstrip line fed
microstrip antenna, which are rectangular or circular shaped. So, here is a one substrate
on that substrate there is microstrip line is connected, generally this microstrip line width
is chosen in such a way that it corresponds to characteristic impedance of 50 Ω, then we
have a patch on the substrate. Now there is no ground plane over here, ground plane is
only at the bottom side here ok. So, we have a ground plane then microstrip feed line and
then a patch.
Now, instead of rectangular patch or a square patch we can take circular patch, elliptical
patch, triangular patch and so on and so forth. Now over here there are 2 possibilities are
there, that is that this substrate can be directly sitting on this here or there can be an air
gap in between. So, if there is an air gap in between that would mean that effective
dielectric constant seen by this patch will be relatively less, and that leads to the larger
bandwidth. Now there is also option that instead of printing the substrate on the top side,
we can print the substrate on the underneath also.
Now, this kind of a configuration is actually very popular in a sense, that we can have on
this substrate amplifiers or oscillators or mixers or power divider, couplers and so on and
so forth, and we can optimize this substrate parameter according to the microstrip line.
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See for the micro step line what we really want? The radiation from the microstrip line
should be as low as possible. So, what we generally do it is, we use generally a higher r
substrate, and a thin substrate so that the fringing fields are relatively less and here if we
have air gap, we can also use another substrate of a low dielectric constant, so that the
effective dielectric constant seen by the patch will be relatively small, and the total
height will be more that would lead to a larger bandwidth.
Now, there is an another possibility is there, that is instead of having a microstrip feed
line, we can also have a one microstrip antenna here and that is being fed using let us say
coaxial feed in this case, and we can have an another patch on the substrate. Now patch
can be printed on the upper side or it can be printed on the underside also. So, basic idea
here is that now the bottom patch will be resonant at one frequency, and the top patch
will resonant at some other frequency, so there will be 2 patches which will be excited;
only one patch is being fed other patch is getting excited through the electromagnetically
coupling and that why the name is electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna or in
short ECMSA.
So, now again the patch shape can be anything, it can be rectangular, square, circle,
triangle and so on and so forth. So, let us just see an example. So, here is a example of a
2 square patches, which are put on top of each other. So, there is one patch over here
which has the length L1, there is another patch which is put on the top substrate here
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which has a length L2. Now many a times the option can be whether we put the patch on
the top side or we put the patch on the underneath. So, I can just tell you some pluses and
minuses. So, if you put the patch on the top, then what it actually sees? It sees a larger
thickness and we know that larger thickness is good for the bandwidth, but then it sees
relatively lesser dielectric constant compared to if the patch is over here because now
this patch will see one dielectric layer than air and then dielectric layer.
So, one needs to calculate what is the e seen by this particular patch. But if this patch is
printed underneath over here, then what happens? The top substrate acts as a radome
also. So, one can simply you know use this top substrate as a radome. So, we do not need
an external radome and simply pack this antenna in some box which can be metallic
from the side or can be plastic box. So, this is the one of the advantage of using the patch
underneath it ok. So now, what we need to do it is, let us say now we want to design a
broadband antenna. So, generally speaking for a given bandwidth, which we need to do;
so divide that bandwidth roughly into about say 3 different part. So, at the low part you
design the lower patch here, and for the upper one third part you design this patch over
here ok.
So, generally resonance frequency of the top patch should be slightly more than the
bottom batch, and gap between the substrate controls the coupling between the patches.
Let us see an example. So, here is an example of the different values we have taken, So
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we have taken a gap ∆ which is 0.1 cm, 0.3 cm and 0.4 cm. So, this is the gap between
the 2 substrate, and we have taken the 2 substance as same which has dielectric constant
r equal to 2.22 and individual substrate thickness is 0.159 and tan for this case is 0.001.
Now, for air tan is equal to 0, and here are the examples where we have taken L 1 equal
to 2.5, L2 is also 2.5. Now x is very close to the edge, you can see that 2.5 is the length,
so half of that will be 1.25 cm. So, one can see that 1.1 is very close to the edge there.
So, let us see what is the result and response for 3 different gaps. So, we can see here
there are 3 different curves are given. So, one curve which has a smaller loop then a little
larger loop and then this is a much larger loop in the smith chart. So, much larger loop
corresponds the lowest air gap, which actually mean that the coupling between the
bottom patch and top patch is very strong.
So, if there is a stronger coupling then the loop size will be much larger; and as the gap
increases we can see that the loop size is reduced; as the gap increase further the loop
size is reduced further. Corresponding to this now, one can see now the VSWR plot here.
So, one can see for the larger loop VSWR is less than 2 here and less than 2 here. You
can even thing about that this antenna also acts as a dual band antenna. So, we have one
resonance here, another resonance over here; but for broadband we can actually see that
both these loops are within VSWR equal to 2 circle.
Now, since this loop is relatively smaller, so, number of frequency points within VSWR
2 circle will be relatively small, and for here number of frequency points within VSWR 2
circle will large. So, we can see that this is for that smaller loop which is for ∆ equal to
0.4, and this is for larger loop for which ∆ is 0.3 and we can see that this is a larger
bandwidth. So, for this particular case here we can see that the bandwidth is about 816
MHz, which is 20.6% bandwidth. So, we can see that it is a much larger bandwidth and
can be used for design of various antenna, this is the case for 0.3 cm. And
correspondingly here one of the nice thing with this configuration is gain is relatively flat
over the bandwidth, and the gain is about 8.3 dB at 3.95 GHz which is approximately the
center frequency.
Now, even this smaller loop size is sometimes useful. One can actually see that this is the
response here. So, this loop here which is the peak at this, is actually slightly below 1.5.
So, many a times antenna are required not to have just VSWR less than 2 bandwidth. But
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sometimes it is required that we need VSWR less than 1.5, and I will tell you the reason.
VSWR less than 2 implies 11% reflected power; VSWR less than 1.5 requires about 4%
reflected power and 96% transmitted power. So, many stringent applications do require
where we want VSWR to be less than 1.5. So, this can be optimized even further if one
requires, because you can see that this loop is slightly outside the 50 Ω point. So, slightly
this can be shifted this side and that can be done by slightly shifting the feed point
towards the edge. So, the whole curve will shift from here to this side.
So, little bit optimization can be done also if VSWR less than 1.5 is required. So now let
us just see one practical application, this antenna we have designed it for GSM 900 band
ok. So, GSM 900 band is form 890 MHz to 960 MHz. Now for this particular application
we did not choose any dielectric material, because the requirement was for the low cost
antenna, this is actually especially for cellular band and for cellular application generally
telecom industry prefers a very low cost antenna to save overall cost and yet they want a
rugged antenna also. So, we actually chose metallic plate instead of using dielectric
thing, and metallic plate can also handle much larger power, so power requirement was
not much. We had a major challenge was how to suspend the metallic plate in the air.
So, what we did that instead of suspending in the air, see if it is a dielectric substrate it is
not a problem, you just take a dielectric substrate you have a ground; and if you have
another dielectric substrate you can put 4 screws at the end and we can support that, but
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here we have a metallic plate. So, what we decided? We supported this 2 metallic plates
here by using a shorting post at the center, you can see over here. So, let us just go step
by step here. So, L1 is 15.2 cm, and corresponding to L1 this height is ∆1, which is equal
to 1.1 cm that is an air gap and this metallic plate is chosen of a thickness of 2 mm ok, so
that it becomes very rugged and also it can handle a very large power also.
The top patch’s length is L2 is 12.8 cm and the air gap between the 2 is now 1.3 cm
basically this gap has been chosen such a way so that the loop size is optimized and feed
point is again very close to the edge which is at 6.5 cm. So, you can see that the this is
the feed point over here ok and the ground plane size is taken as 24 cm. So, it is basically
everything is square, so all top, middle and the bottom, ground plane they all are square.
So, these are the dimensions which we had chosen now just to tell you, so in order to do
the design what we need to do it is. So, we know frequency 890 to 960. So,
corresponding to the lower band, this length was decided and we chose the gap here so
that we can realize the larger bandwidth to meet the requirement.
So, that is how we do the design here and since air has r equal to 1. So, effective
dielectric constant is equal to one for this case; and just to tell you how to take care of the
thickness 2 mm. So, this is the thickness is 2 mm here and what you can do that you can
account for the thickness by adding to this length additional 2 mm on this side, and
additional 2 mm one this side. So, L1 will be nothing, but instead of 15.2 to account for
this finite thickness of the plate we can actually say 2 mm is equal to 0.2 cm, and 0.2 cm
on this, so effectively you can think this is 15.6 and then to account for the fringing field,
we have actually told you that fringing field can be accounted or approximated as ∆L =
h/√r.
But I had also mentioned that the maximum value of ∆L should not taken more than
0.9*h. So, we know h here, multiply that with 0.9, and effectively take the length which
accounts for the thickness of the plate and that will then determine the resonance
frequency, and this ∆2 basically controls the loop size in the impedance plot. So, this
antenna has been fabricated, this is the photograph of the fabricated antenna, and these
are the measured results. So, one can actually see that the measured bandwidth is from
872 to 1000 MHz, in fact this is the general thing which I generally do, the bandwidth
requirement for this is 890 and the lower is 872. So, we have margin of about 18 MHz
that is about 2%.
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The upper one for this is 960 we have margin of roughly about 40 MHz here. So, idea is
that there can be tolerances in the fabrication of these patches. So, if there are some error,
the resonance frequency will drift this way or that way. So, we have decided to design
the antenna which has the little more bandwidth as compared to the desired bandwidth.
But we can also see that the gain is almost flat over the desired bandwidth and that is
close to about 9 dB. So, you can see that these patches are really good nice because in
this particular case unlike in the case of planar configuration, where what actually
happens that there is a one patch in the planar, another one here and another one here. So,
there is a some phase shift happening because the phase center is at this point.
So, compared to this, this patch experiences certain phase delay. But in this case stack
configuration, phase center remains same and that is why the radiation pattern variation
over the bandwidth is very small, gain variation over the bandwidth is also very small,
one can see that is almost flat. And this is the radiation pattern, so one can see that E
Plane H Plane are there, cross polar is slightly less than about 17 to 18 dB, back radiation
we can say is about 15 dB below the front. So, we can say that the front to back ratio is
approximately 15 dB, and this front to back ratio can be controlled by changing the
ground plane size.
So, instead of 24 cm suppose if we take 30 cm, that front to back ratio will be
approximately 20 dB; or the another way is instead of using a flat plate, one can use a
cavity or you can think about a box. So, if you take a cavity like this then that means the
metal plate is really extended in this particular fashion. So, back radiation can also be
reduced by using that configuration, but for our requirement 15 dB front to back ratio
was sufficient. But if you want a more, take larger ground plane or cavity back thing over
here.
Now, this particular antenna had been supplied to the telecom operator, and they used
this particular thing in fact this can handle even 1 KW of the power. So, generally when
people say microstrip antennas cannot handle too much power, which is true because if
we use a thin dielectric substrate then that cannot handle too much power, but to take
care of the power handling problem, what we did we used two thick metallic plate to do
the job ok. Of course 2 mm is not necessary, one can use even 1 mm also and we used a
central support which had almost a diameter of 1 cm, so that could support the entire
configuration.
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Instead of that one can even use 2 different support also or one can use support at the 4
edges also that can also be done, but we chose because I just want to mention many a
time these antennas which are mounted on the top of the tower, they are also required to
have a DC ground, so that it provide a path in case there is a lightening. So, center short
does that job also. Now when you do a center short, so what happens? Remember for a
rectangular patch field is precisely 0 at the center, so you can put a short over there, but
since we put a larger diameter to give a support. So, some changes in the resonance
frequency does occur, so you need to do that in the simulation itself so that you can
account for those slight different changes.
One additional thing I want to mention about the plate. Now in the beginning we thought
we will use a copper plate or brass plate, because then when you are putting a connector
from the bottom, that connector center pin can be connected to the top over here, but the
brass or copper plate, cost is much more, their weight is also more; so we decided to use
the aluminum plate. Now if you use aluminum plate there is actually a problem, you
soldering of this coaxial probe which is of copper with the aluminum is not really a very
good idea, you cannot really solder properly. So, what we decided to do it is, we actually
used a brass rivet on top of that, so, that rivet was actually put on the top and this one
went over there and we solder that ok.
So, that is the difference how you can make it a low cost antenna ok. So, just by using
little simple gimmicks here and there, one can do the thing and also use the oxidation
here. So, you can see that we chose a green color its more to do that environment looks
little green, green is always pleasing to more to the eyes, but you can always put any
other color also, and also we designed this antenna to have a little higher side frequency
also, that in case we need to put that inside a let us a say plastic box, or we need to
provide a cover to protect from the environment. So, whenever we put a cover,
invariably that will reduce the resonance frequency.
So, even if the resonance frequency is reduced slightly, it will still cover 890 to 960
MHz. So, the way we designed the antenna, so whether you put a cover or you do not put
a cover, it will work in either of the situations. Now similar thing can be done I just
showed examples of square patches, but you can use a circular patches here, circular
patch here, circular ground plane and other thing depending upon the space or depending
upon the place where we need to install these antennas.
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Now, we will look at an another configuration which is aperture coupled microstrip

antenna. So, let us see what it really is. So, here we have a one ground plane, and in that
ground plane in this particular case here, you can say that a rectangular slot is cut over
here ok. And other side of the substrate, so there is a dielectric substrate here, so this is
the ground plane, you can think about ground plane of this side of the substrate. So, that
can be a substrate, metallic portion can still remain there and one can cut a slot over here.
And on the other side this is the microstrip line feed. Generally, this microstrip feed is
again taken for 50 Ω characteristic impedance and the length of this one here is very
critical to decide the coupling between the microstrip line and the above patch. I will just
come that one by one. So, there is a microstrip line here. So, this microstrip line there is
an open end over here. So, that open end would mean current will be close to 0. So,
somewhere at a distance of /4 from the open, current will be maximum so it will have a
maximum magnetic field; that magnetic field will go through the center, and then it will
interact with the patch which is printed on the other substrate, so for this substrate now
there is no ground plane ok.
So, patch can be again fabricated on the upper side or it can be fabricated on the lower
side, and there can be a gap between the, you can say between the ground plane and this
substrate here, and that can be utilized to increase the bandwidth of the antenna. Again
this patch can be printed on the top side or underneath the substrate also, so then this
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substrate will act as a radome for that. So, now, let us see what is really happening one
more time. So, this is the microstrip line, and generally speaking this one here if you look
from this side, so, this one will be roughly /4 extended so that the maximum coupling
can be done through the slot.
Now, it is not always necessary that you take that always /4, sometimes if the coupling
is too strong to the top patch here, you can either reduce the slot dimension or you can
change the length of the microstrip line also. But majority of the time in order to get
better bandwidth, we generally what we do; we use a higher gap over here, so that the
patch sees a larger substrate thickness, in this case it will be dielectric constant and air
also, so that fringing fields will be more and that would give rise to larger bandwidth.
Many a times one more substrate is put on top of that, one more patch is put on top of
that so that will give even more bandwidth.
So, here slot dimensions play a very very important role not only the dimension, but its
shape also. So, in the earlier stages people had used circular slot here, we also use
rectangular slot and then there were cases where by changing the width of the slot you
can actually change the coupling. So, coupling is more to the top patch if the width is
more, in fact sometimes people had also used this length as a resonant length, but there
are disadvantages of that, I will tell you.
So, if you use a resonant length of the slot then that give a one another resonance which
gets coupled to the other resonances of the patches, it will give over all much larger
bandwidth. However, if we choose a resonant length here, then since it is becoming
resonant it also radiates in the backside. So, in fact one of the major disadvantage of the
aperture coupled microstrip antenna is that there is a back radiation, and that is why
majority of the aperture coupled microstrip antenna they have a very poor front to back
ratio, and to increase the coupling many other configurations have been used. So, for
example, rectangular shape or H shaped or even you can think about H shape will be
something like this here, you can cut put a slot over here and cut a slot over here.
So, if you look from this side it will look like a I shaped, but if you look from this side
here it will look like a H shaped; then people had also used a bow-tie shaped slot also,
dog-bone shaped slot also and then we had studied all these different different
configurations, and we studied one by one and then we proposed an another
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configuration which was an hour-glass shape configuration, and this actually speaking
used the advantages of both H shape, dog-bone shape, bow-tie shape and this particular
configuration of the slot aperture gave the maximum coupling to the top patches here,
and by using that we could get even a much larger bandwidth.
So, here the advantages of aperture coupled is it gives very large bandwidth, and there is
a design flexibility is there. There are so many design parameters are there, sometimes it
is good, sometimes it is not too good. So, people do not know which one to do and which
configuration to use. But design flexibility is that you can optimize this substrate for the
best performance of microstrip line, you can use different shapes or the dimension of the
aperture. So there are lot of design parameters are there to do the optimization, but the
disadvantages are back radiation. So, front to back ratio as I mentioned is always going
to be poor. It also uses the multilayer substrate. So, there are so many layers of substrate
are there and alignment is also an issue.
So, these are the problems which are associated with aperture coupled microstrip
antenna, and also this substrate here does radiate in the other side because that microstrip
line. So, in fact they have actually found different solutions also, sometimes instead of
using a microstrip configuration, a strip line configuration is also used so that the back
radiation is reduced significantly; but then that adds one more substrate layer. So, the
overall cost of the antenna increases, overall thickness of the antenna increases. So,
depending upon the application to application, so one can use an electromagnetically
coupled or one can use aperture coupled.
Today we talked about antennas which are stacked on each other. So, in the next lecture
we will talk about the antenna configuration which uses combination of planar as well as
stacked. Because we saw in the previous lecture bandwidth can be increased by putting
multiple antennas in the same plane. So, we have a one patch, put another patch, put
another patch and so on and today we saw that you can increase the bandwidth by
putting one patch on top of the another patch.
So, in the next lecture we will see, we use combination of that. So, we go horizontally as
well as we go vertically. So, we will see in the next lecture how to get even more
bandwidth and also little more gain and yet the performance remains very stable. So, will
see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture – 28
Broadband MSA-V
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on broadband microstrip antennas. In the last few
lectures we had looked at several techniques to increase the bandwidth of the microstrip
antenna and these are you can actually increase the thickness of the substrate or reduce
the dielectric constant of the substrate or we can actually use multiple patches. So, there
is a one patch here and we put patches on one side or another side or on all the 4 side or
we can use circular patches. So, these were the configurations where we added multiple
resonators in the horizontal plane.
Then in the previous lecture, we saw that you can put antennas in the vertical direction
also to increase the bandwidth of the antenna and for the vertical direction, we saw 2
different configurations. So, one was electromagnetically coupled and then another one
was aperture coupled. So, today we will look at some other configurations where we use
antennas in the horizontal as well as in the vertical and thereby we can obtain much
larger bandwidth then by individually using those configurations.
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Let us start with the stacked planar microstrip antenna. So, what really it implies that
patches are stacked also and the patches are planar also and this symbol I just want to
tell, so what this symbol means that is a 1B is for one bottom patch and 3 top patches.
So here you can actually see this is the dotted configuration here; this one and that is a
patch at the bottom substrate and then we have taken 3 patches on the top substrate and
we have taken the 3 patches to be identical. So, the top patches lengths are same L 1, L1,
L1 so that they resonate at the same frequency. So, again here just to mention now, so
length of the bottom patch is taken as 4 cm, the top patches have a length equal to 3.6
cm, the gap is taken as 0.25 cm, feed point is very close to the edge; you can see that this
is a 4 cm, this is actually very close to the edge. So, we have used that and r for the
bottom substrate is taken as 2.22, 0.159 and these 3 patches are in the air and for that the
height is taken as 0.4 cm.
Now, these things have been optimized, so the optimized, you can see that the response
is that for this particular configuration, the loop is right within the VSWR equal to 2
circle and one can see that the response here, so we have this particular portion which is
within VSWR equal to 2 line and we get a bandwidth of about 782 MHz which is 26.1%.
Now this bandwidth is much larger than we got the bandwidth by using only planar
configuration or by using only stacked configuration and since now the total aperture
size has increased, so gain has also increased and in this case we are getting a gain of
approximately 10 dB and the beauty of this is that the gain variation over the bandwidth
is relatively very small and just to tell you, so we already have seen what are the effects
of the various dimension, but just refresh those things. So, suppose if we change the
length L1, so if the length L1 is increased, so what will happen? Its resonance frequency
will decrease. So, this loop would have shifted to this location.
Suppose if these lengths were reduced then its frequency will increase then the loop will
be not forming here, but it will be forming somewhere else over here. Similarly, if we
change the value of h1, suppose we increase h1 further, what will happen? If h1 is
increased further, coupling between the bottom patch and the top patch will reduce and
then the loop size can be reduced. So in fact, that may be desired sometimes, suppose we
need a VSWR less than 1.5 over the bandwidth. So, what we can do? We can increase h 1
and if we increase h1 coupling will reduce and if coupling is reduced, this loop size will
reduce and then this variation will be within the VSWR less than 1.5.
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Let us just now, look at the another configuration which is 1B2T; that means there is a 1
patch at the bottom and there are 2 patches on the top. This configuration we proposed
for the first time. In fact, while I was writing this book on microstrip antenna, we thought
of this configuration and we worked on this. So, here just to tell you, what we have done,
so there is a 1 patch at the bottom which is shown as a dotted line here and the length of
this patch is taken as 5 cm, we have taken a slightly lesser W, the only reason why we
took slightly lesser W so that we can get a proper impedance matching because now this
configuration gives very large bandwidth. In fact, by increasing W, we can still get more
larger bandwidth, but there was a problem was that we could not do a proper impedance
matching for larger W, hence smaller W has been taken here.
You can see that the feed point is almost close to the edge because length is 5 cm; half of
length will be 2.5. So, this is up to here is 2.5 and the feed point is at 2.4 cm. So, if we
had increased the width more than this impedance matching with 50 Ω was not possible,
of course that matching can also be done by using external quarter wave transformer or
maybe a multiple stage transformer to do the impedance matching, but here we do not
need any external device or the network to do the impedance matching.
Now, the 2 top patches are here, we have taken these 2 top patches identical which is
given by this length over here and then the separation between the 2 patches is given by
2 ox, but from the centre of the bottom patch, this separation will be about ox. Now what
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we had done here? Let us see. So, the bottom patch is at h equal to 0.5 cm. Now to
realise broad bandwidth, we have taken everything in the air ok, so that r will be equal
to 1 which gives us larger bandwidth.
Now, what we have shown here? We actually ran several cases where the height of the
top patch h1 is changed. So, this height h1 is from the bottom patch. So, the bottom patch
is at height 0.5 and now the top patches are at additional height of h 1. So, you can say
that the total height of this entire antenna will be 0.5 + h 1. So, now, what we are showing
here? So, different values of h1 are taken. So, which vary from 0.4 to 1.1, now you can
see that correspondingly, L1 has to be reduced, why because as h1 increases, so fringing
field will also increase and if the fringing fields increase, the total length will increase.
So, to maintain the resonance frequency of the top patches close to the bottom patch
resonance frequency, so what we need to do? If h is increasing; that means, fringing
fields will increase that will increase the total effective length, so L 1 is reduced slightly
so that the total effective length gives us a resonance frequency which is relatively closer
to the resonance frequency of the bottom patch. Now ox had to be also varied, why we
had to change ox because when you increase the height; that means, what happens if we
increase the height? Coupling will reduce. So, to increase the coupling, these patches on
the top were brought closer to the central patch which is fed in the bottom.
Bottom patch is radiating and coupling will happen through the fringing field. So, if the
patches are far away, coupling will be less. So, we had to bring these top patches closer
to each other. So, that the separation is reduced. Now one can see the bandwidth. So,
since h1 is 0.4, 0.5; we are increasing the top patches, thickness is getting increased. So,
we can see that the bandwidth is increasing from 650 and we crossed the barrier of 1
GHz also, but after that the bandwidth starts reducing, the reason for that is that the
coupling is very weak with this particular height. So, the loop size becomes very very
small and that is why bandwidth obtained is not so good. So, this is not the value which
to be used effectively in the application.
Now, let us see what happens to the gain. So, one can see that the gain is about 11.3 dB
which is actually decreasing. So, why gain is reducing? The reason why gain is reducing,
because this ox is reducing and ox means the separation, so you think about the top 2
patches like array of 2 elements and since these 2 are identical, we can apply the array
theory. So, we know that. So, there will be bottom patch radiating, the top 2 patches are
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radiating and these 2 top patches, this is the separation between the array of these 2
elements and if the separation is reduced; that means, the total aperture will reduce and
that is why gain will reduce. So, I do not recommend that you use this particular height
here because here gain is also much lesser. So, depending upon the requirement, how
much bandwidth is required? 650 to 1 and correspondingly you can see the gain is
reducing slightly, but the reduction is not very significant.
So depending upon the application, one can use any of these configurations. So, this is
really a very nice interesting configuration where we can get a larger gain also and we
can get a very large bandwidth and there are only one small thing is there, here
everything has been taken in the air ok. So, we need to provide the supporting structure.
So, that precaution one has to do it. So, do not take these results as it is, you need to
modify these things because you need to provide proper supporting structure; then only it
will be a real practical antenna.
The next, we will look into the configuration which is again stacked planar MSA, but
now this configuration is 1B4T that means there is a 1 patch at the bottom and there are 4
patches on the top. Now as in the previous case, we took L equal to 5 cm, W equal to 3
cm and for the bottom patch, we took as before h equal to 0.5 cm, again the feed point is
very close to 24 cm.
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Now, here what we have done for the top patches? All the top patches are identical, but
we have taken a much smaller W for the top patches and I will tell you the reason also.
See now, the top patch is being fed along the diagonal. So, if this width is comparable to
this length here then what will happen? Orthogonal modes will start getting excited. We
could have taken slightly larger W also which will give us slightly larger gain also, but
we chose slightly smaller again, so that, because see this configuration gives us very
large bandwidth and since the configuration has a very large bandwidth. So, we had to
take a much smaller W so that in the entire bandwidth of the antenna, this never ever
becomes a resonant configuration so that orthogonal modes do not get excited.
So, again as in the previous case we took multiple heights. So, h 1 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 then
correspondingly as the height is increasing, the patch dimensions had to be reduced
slightly so that it accounts for the increased fringing field because of the increase in h.
Again concept is so that the resonance frequency of the top patches remains close to the
resonance frequency of the bottom patch. Now in this case, we had to change the offset
both in x direction and y direction.
What are these offsets here? So, we can see that if we just look at the point here, this is
ox, oy. So, that is the origin. So, ox, oy. So if ox, oy is large that means there is a larger
offset and if ox, oy is less, you can see here, that means these offsets are reduced. So,
basically now for smaller h1, we needed a larger offset, but as we increase the value of h,
coupling from the bottom patch to the top patch reduce. So, to increase the coupling,
these patches were brought closer to the central patch here. So, this is the values of ox
and oy. Now correspondingly, we try to keep the resonance frequency which is close to 3
GHz or here 2 .93 to 2.95 or 2.915. So, it is between 2.923 that was the idea. So, that we
can compare properly that what is the effect of all these things and over here, we can see
that the bandwidth is 800 MHz to almost close to 1000 MHz or 1 GHz.
Now, one can see the gain. So, gain here is about 12.7 and that is reducing to value of
11.5, again why gain is reducing because gain is reducing because the offset is reduced,
offset is reduced means you can now think about 1, 2, 3, 4. So, it is acting like a 2 x 2
antenna array. So, if the ox is farther away; that means, the total aperture will be large, if
the total aperture is large, gain will be more and if the offset is reduced; that means, all
the patches are coming closer to the central patch; that means, the total aperture size will
reduce. So, gain is reduced. So, you can see that except for this one here, for all these
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cases gain is more than 12 dB and one can get a fairly large bandwidth, you can see that
this bandwidth let us say this is approximately 3 and that is about 930, so, that is about
30% bandwidth roughly, we can get by using this particular configuration.
Again a word of caution; we have taken in the simulation air for bottom patch and air for
the top batches; we cannot have these patches suspended in air. So, when we do a proper
practical implementation of this, the bottom patch has to be supported, all the top 4
patches have to be supported, there are practical issues in simulating and realizing this
antenna. So, you please take care of that when you are doing a real practical design, but
it does give very large bandwidth and also gives us a decent gain of around 12 dB.
Let just now look at the another configuration. Now, this configuration may look familiar
to you when we discussed about broadband monopole antenna, I had shown you this
particular configuration and we had also shown you that it gives a very large bandwidth.
So, now, you might wonder why I am showing this particular configuration one more
time and we are talking about microstrip antenna, why did I bring the picture of a
monopole antenna here? The reason I want to tell you that we explained this particular
thing using the concept of microstrip antenna.
So, I just want to go almost nearly 2 decades back, this configuration was reported in one
of the conference paper and it actually reported a very large bandwidth. Now we did not
really understand what is going on. So, what we did? We actually did lot of experimental
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work. So, we took the circular patch of different dimension and we actually found out
that it gives larger bandwidth. Then instead of circular, we used elliptical monopole
which was of 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 ellipticity ratio. So, we studied, what is the bandwidth of those
antenna, then we used square patches, we used rectangular patches, we used hexagonal
patches, we used triangular patches and so on.
It was very difficult still to understand and explain why we are getting this large
bandwidth? So, then we thought of an alternate thing. So, we actually thought about is
that see this antenna; think from a microstrip antenna point of view. So, if we look this
antenna from a microstrip point of view. So, think about this is a monopole antenna with
a ground plane, but now we will explain this entire thing from a microstrip antenna point
of view. So, let us say, we have a circular patch and there is a ground plane. So, for this
circular patch if I want to increase the bandwidth, what we need to do? Instead of using a
substrate of finite r, we used air. So, if r is equal to 1 that will give us larger bandwidth.
Now if we use thick air substrate or you can say that if it is, height is increased. So, what
will happen? Bandwidth will increase, but we have noticed that if we have a ground
plane here and we have a patch here then we use a coaxial feed. So, what happens as you
keep on increasing this thickness from here to here? The probe inductance starts
increasing and that probe inductance then gives inductive effect and the entire loop
shifting towards the inductive region. So, then we thought of another way that there is a
circular patch here, we have a ground plane. So, why not we add another ground plane
on this side? So, like a L shaped ground plane and now if we feed from the side. So, if
we feed from the side then the probe length will be relatively small and now we have a 1
ground plane like this, another ground plane. So, now, you think about increasing this
spacing here so, if we increase this spacing, but the probe is being fed from this side, so
probe inductance is not increasing significantly, but this height is increasing. So, it keeps
on giving larger bandwidth and now if you remove it so what will happen? It will give a
very broad bandwidth. Now why circular patch gives better bandwidth compared to the
rectangular patches? The reason for that is rectangular patch will have the next higher
mode which will be given by let us say 1, 0 then 2, 0, 3, 0. So, 2, 0 will happen at double
the frequency whereas, in case of circular microstrip antenna, the modes are given by
Knm and Knm for the fundamental mode is 1.84118 which is for TM 11 mode and then the
next mode which is actually equal to given by 3.054.
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If you take the ratio between 3.054 and 1.844, it is approximately equal to 1.6. So, now,
think about that multiple modes are getting excited. So, now, if we have a 1 mode which
is exciting at a lower frequency and that will be corresponding to 1.84 then we have
another mode which is coming and that is exciting corresponding to K nm equal to 3.054,
but now if we start increasing the bandwidth of the individual mode and that will happen
if we take r equal to 1 and a larger h. So, what happens? Then after some time, the band
of this and the band of this they start overlapping. So, really speaking what happened?
So, corresponding to 1.8411 Knm value there is a one resonance curve then the other
mode comes, so, then again another response, then another response, then another higher
mode and then we get a larger bandwidth. So, that is the simple explanation for this
circular monopole antenna.
So, basically what happens? You can explain it using the concept of microstrip antenna
that multiple modes are getting excited and because multiple modes are getting excited,
radiation pattern is not uniform over the bandwidth. In fact, we did many other
experiments also. So, we had this monopole antenna, we even put a reflector here also
just as I said. So, there is a ground plane and a reflector we kept on changing the
dimension and we could get the more gain in this particular direction also. So, many
different things were studied at that time. So, one can see that this circular monopole
antenna is really nothing, but can be explained very conveniently using the concept of
the microstrip antenna. So, just to repeat quickly, so what we really have here? Think
about this patch, there is a ground plane on the backside that will look like a microstrip
antenna and then we feed it from the side and if you remove this particular backside
thing that microstrip antenna then becomes a monopole antenna.
So, in this particular case, we had used a metallic circular plate which is fed by the
coaxial probe and we really got a very large bandwidth, right from 1.17 to 12 GHz and
this is the bandwidth ratio which we obtained. Now the disadvantage of this is that there
is a pattern variation over the bandwidth. So however, several other configurations have
been reported based on this particular configuration. In fact, we published this paper in
IEEE and this paper has been used very widely by several researchers and then this
particular geometry which is more like a 3-dimensional configuration you can think
about this is a planar disk, but then this is a ground plane which is perpendicular to it. So,
later on, lot of configurations came where they actually replaced this 3-D dimension into
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a 2-dimensional planar configuration. So, let me show you just one variation of that. So,
you can actually see even though I am showing a triangular configuration here.
Now, here people used a circular configuration. So, circular patch was printed on one
side of the substrate and ground plane was printed on the other side of the substrate. So,
you can see that now ground plane is not perpendicular to the radiating patch, but it is
actually in the plane. So, in this case you can just imagine that this is a let us say
triangular patch and there will be fringing fields which are getting to the back to the
ground plane over here.
So, now, in this particular case, again lots of variations have taken place. So, people have
used circular patches, people have used semi-circle, people have used triangular even a
parabolic shape has been used here and another shape is used here. There are lots of
papers are there which are instead of using a rectangular ground plane they have used a
curve ground plane also. So, there are several configurations which have been reported
using this simplified monopole concept and again you will think why I am teaching
monopole in the topic of microstrip antenna. I will give you that reason also, but let just
complete this part here.
So, in this case also, one can actually get a fairly broad bandwidth depending upon the
configuration. We chose this one here because the pattern variation of this configuration
over the desired bandwidth which in fact, this particular configuration, we had designed
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it for RF harvesting. So, you can see that there is a mobile phone over here which makes
a call, this is the RF harvesting circuit, this is an antenna and this is the configuration
which is nothing but a rectifier circuit and output of this is connected to the multimeter.
This is in the open circuit configuration. So, you can actually see that when a phone
rings, you can actually generate 6.74 volt and in fact, we have also put the load across
these 2 point also. So, depending upon the load value, suppose let us say if you put a load
of say 4.3 k, this voltage drops to approximately about 4 to 4.5 volt. So, you can see that
typically 5 to 7 mW power can be generated through this particular RF harvesting thing.
In fact, we have used array of this also to get the larger voltage.
Now this configuration, now recently we have used for ultra-broadband microstrip
antenna configuration, what we did it is we put a ground plane behind this ok. So, by
putting a ground plane, so this is one ground plane, now you think about another ground
plane or in fact, let me call that as a another metallic reflector was placed behind this
here. Now the general concept is that you put that metallic reflector behind at a spacing
of /4, but I would just like to mention that should be a /4 spacing at the maximum
desired frequency. So, corresponding to maximum desired frequency, the spacing
between the radiating monopole you put this metallic plate over here. So, now, what
happens? because of this metallic plate the radiation will go back, it will reflect back to
this. So, this becomes now unidirectional antenna. So, it is not really strictly microstrip
antenna you can think about this as a monopole antenna with a reflector which gives a
unidirectional thing, but again we can still explain in the form of the microstrip antenna
concept also and here just to mention, so, when you design this kind of an antenna, you
can simulate the entire configuration with the metallic plate and the spacing at lower
frequency will not be /4, it will be much lesser than /4.
So, these antennas we could optimize to give broad bandwidth right from nine hundred
MHz to eighteen hundred MHz. So, that is a very large bandwidth using the concept of
the monopole with reflector or you can say it is somewhat similar to microstrip antenna
as far as the pattern is concerned, it is radiating pattern in the broadside direction ok. So,
today we have looked into various broadband configurations. So, we can increase the
bandwidth by going horizontally or we can go vertically or we can use combination of
both of these.
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In fact, I would sometimes like to say in a very simple way broad bandwidth is required
for higher data rate. Now think in different way. So, we have a one patch here, another
patch, another. Think about this for a population point of view or for people living point
of view. So, if you want to accommodate more people, what we need? We need more
area. So, you can have building spread in this fashion or you can have a building which
is spread in this fashion or you can have this as well as this. So, by using the concept of
growing horizontally or growing vertically you can accommodate more people similar
concept can be used you can get better bandwidth or you can accommodate more data
rate.
So, with that we will conclude today’s lecture, in the next lecture will talk about another
very important topic and that is compact microstrip antenna because the size of the
microstrip antenna is large for some application and specially in cases where we want to
fit in a small area, we need compact microstrip antenna, but compact microstrip antennas
have disadvantage of smaller bandwidth. So, we need to use all these broadband
techniques which we have discussed and will apply those broadband techniques to
compact microstrip antenna to realize compact broadband microstrip antenna.
So, with that see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 07
Lecture – 29
Compact MSA-I
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on Compact Microstrip Antenna. In the last few
lectures we have been talking about microstrip antenna then we talked about broadband
microstrip antenna. Now compact microstrip antennas are required where space is a big
limitation and we know that in general let us say if we are using a rectangular microstrip
antenna then its length should be /2. Now that /2 may be very large at lower frequency
which we cannot fit in a let us say given size, let us say for a mobile phone. If we take a
frequency of say GSM900, which is from 890 to 960. Trying to fit that antenna of /2
length is going to be very difficult inside a mobile phone.
So, what we need to do? We need to come out with techniques which actually realize
compact microstrip antenna. So, welcome to today’s lecture on compact microstrip
antenna. So we are going to discuss about various techniques, how to make the antenna
compact?
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So, let us first look at the need. So, size of the microstrip antenna is large at lower
frequency. For example, for RMSA, the effective length should be equal to /2. So, if
you take an example of 900 MHz which fall under the category of GSM 900, when /2 is
equal to 16.6 cm and if we have to design an antenna at let us say 300 MHz then /2 is
50 cm.
Now, of course, this is /2. Now whereas if r is high then the size will be reduced. So,
what we need to do it is? We need to do some changes so that we can make the size
compact. So, the size of the microstrip antenna can be reduced by using substrate with
higher r. So, suppose if we use r of say approximately 9.8 or 10. Now e may be let us
say 9. So, square root of e will be 3. So, this dimension will be reduced by three times.
But problem is that bandwidth and efficiency reduce and these are the things we had seen
when we discussed about a basic rectangular microstrip configuration. So, now, we need
to discuss about some other configuration. So, one of the very popular configuration is
using shorting post at appropriate location. So, we will see that where shorting post
should be put so that we can reduce the size of antenna. Another approach is to cut slot
within the Rectangular or circular or triangular patch at appropriate location so that we
can increase the path length and hence reduce the size of the antenna. And the another
possibility is that use combination of all the above techniques ok.
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So, let us see one by one. So, we will start with Compact shorted rectangular microstrip
antenna. So, here is a configuration which is a rectangular microstrip antenna and for the
fundamental TM10 mode, you know that for 10 mode there will be half wavelength
variation along the length and 0 means that there is a no variation along the width. Now
for this particular mode, if we look at the field distributions, it is going to plus, then it
goes to 0, then it goes to minus. Now along this central axis field is equal to 0, now
voltage 0 really means that this is nothing but a short circuit. We can actually replace this
entire configuration to this simple configuration here where the total length L equal to
/2 is now reduced to L equal to approximately /4 where all these things are shorted.
So, how do we achieve shorting? So, in a microstrip antenna achieving shorting is very
very simple. So, all we do it is either we can use a PTH technology which is a plated
through hole. So, you have a multiple platted through hole here along this axis and that
will be connected to the ground plane or PTH facility is not there then drill hole and put
the wire, solder at the bottom side as well as on the top side. Or instead of putting
multiple hole one can also put a full shorting plate over here, a metallic plate can be put
from here to the ground and solder all around. And now here is the feed point location.
So, how will be the voltage distribution? Well now the voltage distribution will be 0
along this axis and it will go from 0 to if I say plus it will be double plus, 0, plus, double
plus and this will be uniform along the width.
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So, now let us see what are the different possibilities we have? So, now, the possibilities
what we have either one can do it is we short the entire width. If we short the entire
width then this length will be equal to /4. However, we can do partial shorting of the
width also. So, instead of connecting the full width doing a plated through hole, we can
just have a smaller number of plated through hole, let us say near the centre. Then what
happens now? Now the field is 0 here, which will go to plus then it will go to double
plus. Similarly, along this, field is 0, it will go to plus, it will go to double plus and field
will be uniform over here.
So, now for this particular case, since the field is starting from here to 0 to going this to
double plus; that means, this length will be approximately equal to /4. And if this length
is equal to /4, we can find out the frequency. So, this is c. So, c is nothing but 3 x 10 10
cm/sec. So, that has been converted to GHz and here we have written L e and We are the
effective length and width in cm. So, this configuration is nothing but corresponding to
/4. So, 4 is coming here and what is the total length now, L e will be the effective length
corresponding to this and plus We minus ws that is coming. So, this total W minus this w s
and divided by 2 because we are taking only this portion. So, that length has to be added
to this length Le and the rest is same as before, where it will be √e.
So, one can actually see that effectively now for the same frequency length will be less.
If this particular portion is higher and if w s is equal to We then Le will be the maximum
value and if ws is reduced then Le will have a lower value. So, let just see what we have.
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So, here I have shown a particular case here, there length is equal to W equal to 3.3 cm.
So, we have just taken a square patch and r is 2.33, h 0.159, tan and we have actually
kept fixed x equal to 0.4 and we have not tried to optimize for different values of this
ratio here. This is just to give you an idea what really happens if the feed point is fixed.
So, what we have done here? We have given a several cases here; shorting ratio which is
ws/W. So, that varies from 0.1 all the way to 1, 1 would mean entire width is shorted and
0.1 would mean very small portion of the width is shorted. So, now, let us see if we short
the entire width then this corresponds to L equal to approximately /4. So, that gives me
a resonance frequency of 1.447. So, now, if we use lesser number of shorting one can see
that the frequency is reducing ok.
Now, these are the experimental results and these are the theoretical results which we
have found by using the previous equation which is over here. So, we know over here
what is W, then from W we can find We. We know what is ws. So, putting these values
since these values are fixed here f is going to change. So, we can see over here frequency
is changing and if you look at the experimental frequency over here and if you look at
the theoretical they are fairly close to each other. In fact, we have calculated percentage
error in f0. So, if you see except for this case here, for all the other case percentage error
is actually less than 1%. So, that means this formula is really good and can be used to
design an antenna.
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So, now let just see what happens to the impedance. So, x = 0.4. For this value of x =
0.4, we can see that for fully shorted width we can get approximately matching with the
50 Ω, 52, 53, even 59 are reasonably good as far as the matching is concerned. But then
we can see that the impedance is increasing very significantly. Now this does not mean
that we cannot do impedance matching for these particular cases here. All we need to do
it is since impedance is higher, what we need to do? We need to shift x towards the
shorted point because along the shorted edge impedance is 0. So, instead of 0.4, suppose
we take 0.3 then these things will be matched. If we take that as 0.2 then these things will
get matched and if we take close to 0.1 then we can obtain matching for these cases here.
So, just by changing the feed point location we can obtain matching for any of these
shorting ratio. So, one can see that this is the case here, which gives rise to the lowest
frequency or for a desired frequency you can say this will give rise to the lowest length.
So, then what we have done here? Since we know that ws is small, will give us the
compact size. So, here we have used single shorting post. So, single shorting post has
been used at the centre. So, then what will happen now? Now this length will be equal to
/4. How will the field vary? It will be 0 here, plus here, double plus here, this will be 0,
plus, double plus.
So, basically now if you think from the radiation point of view. See earlier just recall for
a rectangular patch we had a one slot here which was radiating and there was an another
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slot over here which was radiating, assuming if this was the full length. So, there were
two slots which were radiating and we could find the total radiation pattern for a RMSA
without any shorting that will give rise to a slot radiation pattern multiplied by the array
factor. So, now, there is only one slot which is effectively radiating and I just want to
mention here also. So, this is double plus, so, field will be going outside ok.
Now, here the field is going out, but this is also going out. So, along these edges will
cancel each other. Now over here now this is going from 0 to plus. This is also going to 0
to plus. Plus would mean it is radiating in this particular direction, whereas this is also
radiating in this, so since this field is relatively small compared to the field over here. So,
what we will see that, this actually will result in cancelling the field due to this particular
component here and that is why single shorting post generally have a poor efficiency.
But will tell you some techniques where we can improve the efficiency, but first let just
find out how we can calculate the resonance frequency.
So, in this case we know that this is the length which is equal to /4. So, then f0 will be
30/4. Again 30 corresponds to c which is 3 x 10 10 cm/sec, 109 term has been removed put
here in GHz and Le and We will be in cm. So, now, let us see what will be the /4 length.
So, /4 length will be this length here and along with that fringing field. So, we take L e
from here and this will be nothing but half of We. So, that is a half of We. So, this will be
now the total length which should be really nothing but /4. √e comes as before and
again e has to be calculated corresponding to this particular width here.
So, there is an another way to do it also. Instead of putting a shorting post over here,
suppose we put a shorting post over here. So, now how the field variation takes place? It
is actually now 0 here, plus here and double plus here. It is 0 here, plus here, double plus
here. So, now, effectively the length is actually this length is equal to /4. So, if this
length is equal to /4. So, now, this expression will get modified. So, now, the length will
be Le + We. So, you can see that this will be the expression. So, suppose now you want to
design an antenna for a given frequency. So, frequency is known, sometimes it is easier
that you take L = W here or here depending upon whether you want to use this
configuration or this one.
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So, let us say suppose we want to use this one. So, you take L = W. So, this whole thing
will be 3Le/2, f0 is known, r will be known for a given substrate. So, we can calculate
what should be the length and that will complete the design. Now based on this concept
only there is an another concept which is known as PIFA. PIFA is nothing but its stands
for Planar Inverted F Antenna. In fact, this whole concept came from that, it actually
came from the concept that if we have let us say a monopole antenna. So, this is the
monopole antenna. Now monopole antenna will have larger length. So, people came out
with the normal mode helical antenna, which has a normally small height. Then the
another option is that instead of using a monopole antenna of this height, we use a
monopole antenna which is bent like this here ok.
So, the height is reduced, but if we feed at this particular point here then what actually
has been seen that the input impedance is not very good; it is very low. So, in order to get
an impedance matching. So, what is normally done? So, this is shorted with the ground
plane which is down below. So, from the ground plane it goes up and then this total
length is approximately equal to /4.
So, now since this point is shorted, so impedance will be very small. And this is an open
circuit, impedance will be very high. So, somewhere from here to here we can find out a
50 Ω impedance and that is what had been done. So, you put a feed point like this. So,
this whole configuration looks like not I won’t say it is an inverted F antenna, it is like F
antenna rotated by 90o, but that terminology which has been used is inverted F antenna.
So, now, this is a normal monopole antenna but inverted F configuration for impedance
matching.
Now, instead of inverted F monopole, if we make this whole thing as planar. So, if this is
planar and then we are still feeding it like this here. So, that is why it is known as planar
inverted F antenna. So, now, let us just go back, see the configuration here. So, really
speaking if this width is reduced significantly this whole configuration will look like a
planar inverted F antenna, but if we increase the width here. In fact, what happens if we
increase the width, there will be more fringing fields here and that will also give rise to a
little better bandwidth also. So, we can use either this configuration or this particular
configuration to realize broader bandwidth.
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But now I mention to you about the efficiency. So, to improve the efficiency the concept
of PIFA is that we actually do not use a dielectric substrate we just use air. So, for air e
will be equal to 1. So, just think about there is metallic plate which is hanging in the air.
So, one support is provided by this shorting post with respect to the ground and another
support is provided by this feed point.
If some additional support is required, one can put some supporting things over here,
may be by using foam or very low dielectric material screw or otherwise if we still use
some dielectric, then we need to do simulation of that. But we can put a small these two
screws over here and do the simulation. So, that we can note down the effect, but in
general just to tell you if you put a dielectric screw here and here to support the antenna
then resonance frequency will slightly reduce because now effective dielectric constant
because of these dielectric screw will increase. So, it is better to use screw with very low
dielectric constant or support can be provided just underneath this, one can use foam
substrate which can provide the support.
Now, foam has a dielectric constant of the order of 1.05, which will not make too much
of a difference, but even that can be simulated and optimized. So, this is a very popular
configuration. So, of course, now there is a only one effective slot which is radiating. So,
gain of this antenna will be much lesser than the gain of the rectangular microstrip
antenna. But one should look from different point of view; smaller gain also means it
will have a very wide beam so. In fact, let us say for a mobile phone we do want an
antenna which has a very wide coverage ok. So, we do not want a narrow beam which
will have a high gain. So, since lower gain also imply wider beam. So, it will have
coverage. So, suppose if you want to use a mobile phone like this.
So, what you can really do it is that this will be shorted, but we want a mobile phone to
have a much wider coverage. So, shorting configurations have been used in the
applications where compact antennas are required and where wider beam coverage is
required. So, that we can have coverage all around, but of course, gain is relatively less
and by using air and suspended metal what we actually achieve? efficiency is very good.
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So, now let just look at the alternate configuration also. So, here is a configuration
instead of using a rectangle, we can actually use a circular microstrip antenna. So, here is
a circular microstrip antenna. So, for a circular microstrip antenna we generally feed
somewhere over here and for the fundamental TM 11 mode. So, we know for
fundamental TM 11 mode, how is the field variation? It will be plus here, 0 here, minus
here. You can see that this is the field distribution and also field distribution will be plus
here, 0 here, minus here, 0 here, plus then ok. So that means, along this particular axis
field is nothing but equal to 0 and if the field is 0 over here then we can replace this
configuration by half of this configuration; that means, this is a shorted semi-circle and
along this then we can put the shorting post.
So that means, now size is reduced precisely by half and here also one can do one
another thing that instead of shorting the entire edge, one can only use single shorting
post or one can have a smaller w s like this much here or increase that. So, one can realize
a compact, circular or semi-circular microstrip antenna which is shorted either fully
shorted or partially shorted.
The alternate way to do it is also is that we can use a semi-circular microstrip antenna.
We had seen that for semi-circular microstrip antenna the size is actually half of the
circular microstrip antenna. Now for this particular case again we can put a feed point
here. Again for the fundamental mode what will happen? So, this will be plus, it will be
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0, it will go to minus and along the circumference also it will be plus, 0, minus. So, that
means, along this axis field will be 0 and if the field is 0 along this axis, we can replace
this configuration by this one over here, where now this is one half of this one here
where we are putting all these shorting post along this here. So, this would have a one-
fourth of the size of this particular circular microstrip antenna. And again here instead of
using number of shorts here, we can actually even use a single short over here and by
using single short here we can make the configuration even more compact.
So, let just look at the comparison of various circular microstrip antenna configurations.
So, over here we can just see the case taken is ‘a’ as 3 cm, r, h are given and tan is
given over here. So, let us say circular microstrip antenna, Semi-circular microstrip
antenna then Shorted Semi-circular microstrip antenna, shorted 90 o sectoral microstrip
antenna. Now in this particular case we optimized the feed point for each of these cases,
but first let just see the area-wise. So, circular microstrip antenna we know what is ‘a’.
So, we can calculate what is the area which is given by pi ‘a’ square and for these two the
area is half of this here and for this configuration area is one-fourth of that.
So, now let us see for all these cases we had to optimize the feed point. So, one can see
that for circular microstrip antenna it was at 0.9 and for shorted it is almost at 0.3. Now
the resonance frequency for all these four configuration, you can say that there is a very
small variation in the frequency and yet the area is reduced to 25%. One can that the
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bandwidth in MHz has reduced and one can see also percentage bandwidth is reduced,
but if you really try to look at over here, this is 0.8 and this is 1.3. So, if you see that area
reduction is four times. However, bandwidth reduction is not even 50%.
If you see this configuration and this area is reduced by half. However, bandwidth
reduction is very very small. So, these are the nice compact microstrip antenna
configuration which can actually give rise to the better bandwidth, similarly instead of
using a circular microstrip antenna and variation.
We can actually use the triangular microstrip antenna variation also. Again one has to see
what is the field distribution of the triangular microstrip antenna? So, we will actually
look into this particular configuration in the next lecture. So, but just to tell you and then
will continue from here. For a triangular microstrip antenna again what we need to do it
is we should know where the field is going to be 0 and wherever field goes to 0, that
means voltage is 0 here. We can replace that portion by a shorting strip or shorting post.
So, by using these configuration, we can actually realize a compact microstrip antenna.
So, today we have looked into various techniques of using shorting post to reduce the
size. But in the lecture will continue with the triangular microstrip antenna and will see
how we can put shorting post at different places so that we can get a more compact
configuration. But we will also look at other possibility which is by cutting slot and then
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will use combination of short and slot to realize even more compact microstrip antenna.
So, with that bye for now and we will see you in the next lecture. Bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 07
Lecture – 30
Compact MSA-II
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on compact microstrip antenna. In fact, we had
started the concept of compact microstrip antenna in the previous lecture. And where we
had seen that there are different techniques are there which can realize a compact
microstrip antenna. One of the technique is to use high dielectric constant substrate, but
high dielectric constant substrate gives rise to smaller efficiency as well as smaller
bandwidth. So, but that still can be used. Then we looked at another technique which was
by using shorting post to put at appropriate places to reduce the size of the antenna. And
we looked at 2 different variations. So, we looked at the variations of rectangular
microstrip antenna and also we looked at variation of circular microstrip antenna.
So, today we will continue from the same. And will also look at some other configuration
where by cutting a slot we can increase the path length and thereby realize a compact
microstrip antenna. So, let us continue.
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Now, we had just started discussion on triangular microstrip antenna. So, here what we
have? we have an equilateral triangular microstrip antenna. And for equilateral triangular
microstrip antenna we generally let us say if you want to feed along this axis here, so we
can actually feed over here on this side or we can feed somewhere here also. Both the
possibilities are there. So, whether we feed here or here, this will be the portion where
there will be null along the triangular axis.
So, just recall what we had discussed, but when we discussed about equilateral triangular
microstrip antenna we had taken a feed point here. And a general notion is that when you
take a feed point you put a plus there. So, I had shown you that if this is 0, this is plus,
double plus, triple plus. And along this then it will be 0, minus, double minus ok. And so
these will be the constant voltage contours. So, this will be 0. So, this will be let us say
plus, this will be double plus and this will be minus.
However, if we feed this side here then the notation will be generally then plus here than
double plus here, then this will be minus then double minus and triple minus. Means the
amplitude will be higher. So, now, since we have a null along this axis, if we short along
this one over here and now there are 2 possibilities. Suppose we short here and use only
this portion and discard this particular part here. So, this is still part of this over here.
Boundary condition is satisfied. So, this will be 0 field and we can feed over here. So,
this particular configuration will be nothing, but shorted 60o sector.
Instead of using this configuration, one can also use the other part of the configuration.
So, here this will be shorted here. Feed point will be somewhere here. So, this will be
complement or this particular portion of the equilateral triangular microstrip antenna. So,
here also we have the same possibility, instead of shorting the entire this axis here we can
actually just short this single short can be put here, and thereby we can make this whole
configuration even more compact. And just like circular microstrip antenna, we went to
semi-circle.
Similarly, here equilateral triangular microstrip antenna has exactly the same resonance
frequency as that of 30, this is 30o 60o and 90o. Or you can call it a half of equilateral
triangular microstrip antenna or generally known as 30o, 60o, 90o triangular microstrip
antenna. So, for the feed point shown over here again, there will be null like this here ok,
same way just half the portion which is over here. So, again now there are 2 possibilities.
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One is we short this entire thing like this here and we put a feed point. The other is we
can use complement of that here. So, we use only this portion and discard this particular
portion over here.
So, I just want to mention here. So, the name we have given for this one is shorted 30 o
sector and you can see this is a complement of shorted 30 o sector here. So, now, all these
configurations actually came out from this or this or the concept of the circular
microstrip antenna which was extended here.
So, now let us just look at the other option for a circle where we just put a single shorting
post. So, we had seen that for a rectangle if we put a single shorting post over here then
we saw that for the case of rectangle putting a single shorting post, suppose just imagine
a rectangle over here. So, when we put a single shorting post, this length was like /4,
but over here things are slightly different here. So, let us if you put a short here. So, we
are putting the feed point along this for impedance matching. How will be the field
variation? It will be 0. It will go to plus, double plus, triple plus, along this also it will be
0, plus, double plus and triple plus over here.
So, effectively here now, this will be the mainly radiating edge you can say that. So, this
is a curved radiating, you cannot call it an edge, but I just said similar to the rectangular
patch where this will be edge, It’s a slightly curved configuration. Now over here to find
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the resonance frequency for the fundamental mode, so just to tell you this number has
come mainly from the simplification Knm, for a circular microstrip antenna is 1.84118.
So, the formula for f0, there we had seen was Knm*c/2a√e.
So, Knm*c/2 gets modified to this number here, and the unit will be GHz, but this ‘a’ has
now been replaced because earlier this was the short and this was ‘a’ ok and the field
variation was from here 0 to plus, but over here now this is the effective a. So, this value
can be obtained by simply taking ae1 as *ae. So, that will be the half of the
circumference. So, by using this one here and if you use this particular formula you can
actually realize the antenna very simply. So, again here let us say if you want to design
an antenna for a given frequency and again if you want a larger bandwidth and good
efficiency you can take e = 1; that means, you take this circular dish in the air you will
have a ground plane at the bottom and this one will provide support at one edge then this
one will provide the support and that will actually work as a suspended circular
microstrip antenna with the short over here.
So, for that given frequency e will be 1 you can calculate the value of a e1 which is equal
to this that gives the value of ae and that will complete the design of the compact circular
microstrip antenna. So, similar thing can also be done for triangular microstrip antenna
you can apply the same logic. So, suppose instead of a circle if it was a triangle like this
here, then again you can put a short over here, and put the feed point like this, and you
can obtain the impedance matching.
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So, let us just now look at the next configuration, which is by using the slots in the
rectangular patch antenna. So, now, just to tell you here this configuration it looks more
like a U-shape antenna; however, it is popularly known as C shape antenna you just have
to rotate your head by 90o or imagine this whole configuration is rotated by 90o.
So, now in this particular case what it is. So, rectangular patch is there, a slot has been
cut like this here, and then we put a feed point over here. Now I want to mention here
this configuration had been reported before we started looking into it. So, I just want to
tell you a little bit story also over here. So, that you realize that we professors are also
human being ok. So, actually I had a one MTech student. So, I had given him this
particular configuration to look at it and even some of the triangular configuration to
study and see how compact antenna can be realized. And he was a very good student, but
yet he was struggling the reason for that is was that in the literature they had talked about
compact microstrip antenna they mentioned about that C shape is compact and other
thing, but the field distribution the real explanation what was happening was not there.
So, I actually told him ok. So, you had, he had collected some 10-15 papers. So, I just
told him that why do not you give me all those papers. So, one night after dinner I sat
down with that bundle of the papers and by next day morning 4 am, nonstop study of
about 7 hours or so. So I actually had my eureka moment right just like Archimedes. So,
I had that eureka moment. So, next day I called that student and also I called another of
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my PhD student and I explained all these things how it works how it is done how the slot
is cut and even for those microstrip antenna which I told you about the triangular one and
how do we cut the slot there.
So, actually speaking since these are very good student dedicated student. So, within 2
months they actually were able to analyse do the experiment and we were able to publish
2 papers in the electronics letter. So, just from not knowing how things are working. So,
just by spending that 7 hours. So, really I wish that I should get more of those eureka
moments and we can do lot of good research work in time to come. Anyway, so let us
come back to this particular C shaped configuration and see what really happens over
here.
So, now I can explain you in a much better way. So, you think about this is the antenna
and this slot has been cut over here. So, by cutting this slot, what actually has been done?
See earlier for a rectangular patch the way we have shown the feed point this would have
been the length ok. So, that would be the length of the rectangular patch, but now this
length is still there, but now the length is going to be for the other part. So, this part
length is still L, but for this part from here the length is going to be like this here like this
here like this and it will go like this ok. So, that means now effective length has
increased. So, we actually came out with a very simple one-line formula also we put
some 2 condition and that is if this depth is not much then what we do? we take the
average of this length as well as this length over here and that will give us an average
length make that equal to /2 and you can find out the resonance frequency, but if the
depth is very large and also if this is, think about it is made something like this here ok.
If that is the case, then the effective length is to be taken as like this here at this average
and it goes over here and comes back here.
So, by this particular way you can calculate what should be the total length
corresponding to /2, just to show you the field distribution, now since this is the
symmetrical axis here. So, that is a field is 0, 0 here and then the field varies from here as
0, plus goes to double plus, goes to triple plus. Similarly, along this the field goes 0, plus,
double plus. And then this side here it is minus, double minus, triple minus and this is 0,
minus, double minus and then triple minus. So, this is how you can think about the
effective length if this depth is less effective length is average of this length and average
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of this length here, if depth is more again then the average length to be taken as this to be
equal to /2 here.
So, let us just see we actually came out with the lot of studies which we did, so that we
can come out with these simple equations. So, we actually have here effect of slot
dimension. So, we took L = 6 centimetre, W = 4 centimetre and these are the substrate
parameter and then what we have done over here w and l, just let us just go back here.
So, w is this one here. So, that is w and this is the length of the slot ok, so corresponding
to this. So, if w = 0, l = 0; that means, no slot is cut. So, that represents a rectangular
microstrip antenna. So, when no slot is cut this is f 0 we can see this is the resonance
frequency, but as the slot depth is increased. So, 1 x 1, 2 x 2 and different cases here one
can see that the resonance frequency is reducing from 1.6 to 1.4 down to close to 0.9
GHz.
So, there is not much of an advantage over here and feed point had to be shifted
accordingly. So, 0.7, 0.55 so, that means these feed points are getting closer to the centre
point. The reason is that impedance variation is increasing. Since impedance variation is
increasing; that means at the edges impedance is becoming large. So, if the impedance is
becoming large we need to move towards the centre point.
Now, what we can see over here the bandwidth. Now the bandwidth is drastically
reducing for all these configurations you can see that. So, even though the frequency is
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reducing, but bandwidth is also reducing drastically. Now this directivity I just want to
tell you. This directivity calculation has been done for infinite ground plane. And most of
the time we may not be taking an infinite ground plane. So, these directivity numbers
please do not use, it is only for infinite ground plane. For finite ground plane depending
upon the size of the finite ground plane you have to calculate the directivity or gain
accordingly, but this we had taken it so that we get a reference that what happens if it is
infinite ground plane.
Now, correspondingly we can see efficiency has gone down drastically from 79%
efficiency it has gone down to about 15% to 16% efficiency. So, these are not really very
good antennas from efficiency point of view, and hence they are relatively poor radiator
and also bandwidth is relatively small. So, we need to use some broadband techniques to
increase the bandwidth. So, few simpler things can be done first is we can reduce r = 1.
So, that will help in increasing the bandwidth and h can be increased. So, by increasing h
we can again increase the bandwidth, and if r is made equal to 1, we know that that will
have a little larger aperture. So, efficiency will also improve.
So, from here we can even realize another compact configuration. And that is by using
combination of slot and short. So, if you put a short over here, now there are 2 ways to
put the short, let just go back for a minute. So, over here there is a one possibility is that
we use shorted point over here. So, if we use shorted over here, then we can discard this
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particular portion and then this length will be roughly let us say equal to /4 ok. And
then instead of calling C shaped we can actually call this shape as a L shape. So, that will
be a L shape antenna. Alternatively, we can put the shorting post like this over here. So,
if you put the shorting post over here. So, the name is shorted C shaped MSA, you can
actually call it a shorted U shaped MSA also nothing wrong with that also.
So, now this is a 0 field here we can put the feed over here, and then this length will be
effectively equal to /4 instead of /2. So, size is again reduced by 50%. And over here
also instead of shorting this entire edge here we can actually do a partial shorting also.
So, if we do the partial shorting, suppose if we put a single feed point here then what will
happen instead of /4 length like this, now the /4 length will like one path and this will
be the another path here ok.
So, that can also be done to realize the compact configuration. So, you can say that this
particular configuration uses combination of slot as well as short.
So, now will look into the another configuration. In fact, I prefer this configuration then
a C shaped configuration. So, this one here more known as a H-shaped antenna. So, this
is H-shape here, but if you look at a 90 o angle you can actually also say it is a I-shaped
antenna. So, whatever term you like, but in the literature it is known more as a H-shaped
MSA. So, now, just to mention here, so think about if this particular slot was not cut only
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this was cut. So, this will look like a C shaped antenna, but now by cutting this slot here,
this is more symmetrical with respect to this particular axis over here.
So, now in this particular case how do we calculate the resonant length? So, here again
there are 2 paths we have to see. One path is from here to here and that will give me the
length L, and then there is an another path is going from here to here and then this path
here. So, what we need to do it is, we need to take average of the 2 length and that
average of the 2 lengths to be equated to /2, so by doing that we can actually reduce the
dimension. So, here also just like C shaped antenna we can change the slot depth and we
can change the resonance frequency and we can realize a compact antenna.
So, let just see one more thing here. In this particular case I also want to mention
efficiency of C shaped we had seen is not so good, but H-shaped has slightly better
efficiency, will look at a comparison little later, but just to tell you what really happens
here. So, this is the 0 field, then let us say it is plus, double plus and let us just use term
this is a triple plus here and a triple minus here. Because we have shown plus sign feed
here that is why I have said triple plus, this will be triple minus. So, triple plus means,
plus would mean field will be going in this direction and if it is minus again field will be
in this direction. So, these 2 slot will be radiating effectively in the broad side.
However, starting from here there is a 0, there will be plus it will be going towards
double plus and then go to triple plus. Same thing here 0, minus, double minus, triple
minus. So, now, just look at this here. So, this is plus. So, this plus is in this direction
field. Now this is also plus. So, this plus will try to radiate in this direction. So, this plus
and this plus they are in the opposite direction. So, some field gets cancelled, because of
this particular region here. These 2 are not a big problem because they are anyway along
the non-radiating edges. So, they do cancel each other which is the same thing as in the
case of RMSA. So, over here then this is 0, plus again double plus, triple plus. So, this
portion cancels part of this one here, this portion cancels part of this over here, and that is
why these are not very effective radiator as good as let us say rectangular microstrip
antenna, but that is the penalty we have to pay when we are going for a compact
microstrip antenna.
So, again here now we can realize 2 possible configurations. One is we can just use the
shorting along this entire axis and we can discard this particular portion here. So, if this
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is shorted here we can actually then call it let us say a T shaped shorted microstrip
antenna. Or we can do the shorting along this entire edge here. So, if we do the shorting
along this entire edge. So, the now the name will be shorted H-shaped microstrip
antenna. I can feed at this particular point over here for the impedance matching. Again
one can change the number of shorting post over here instead of shorting the entire edge
we can actually just short over here and in that case then the effective length will be
increasing and that would mean that this length now should be equal to /4. So, the
compactness will come. So, for a given frequency one can realize relatively a compact
H-shaped microstrip antenna or shorted H-shaped microstrip antenna.
So, now let us just look at the another configuration, which is a rectangular ring
microstrip antenna. So, now, a ring is cut inside the rectangular microstrip antenna. So, if
the ring is cut over here. So, now, what will happen if the ring was not there what
happens then? Then this length is equal to /2 because the current will be flowing from
here to here, but now what happens if we cut the slot like this here. So, in this portion
effective length will be /2, but in this case here now the current will flow like this it will
go up here and then it will come and then it will go like this here ok. So, that means, the
effective length is increased.
So, if the effective length is increased, so that means, now the total length should be
equal to /2. So, I will just tell you. So, what we need to do? Take this length and then
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another length will be this plus this over here and take the average of the 2 and that
should be equated to /2. So, now, in the literature they had reported, that when this
particular slot has a larger dimension which is somewhat something like this here. So,
they were not able to do the impedance matching, because see over here earlier the field
was 0 and then the field was plus over here and then another double plus here. So, one
could get a 50 ohm matching, but now if we have a larger slot dimension then at this
particular point 50-ohm matching does not come, so most of the time people actually just
said ok, if you take a larger slot you cannot get an impedance matching. So, we thought
of an alternate solution. So, what we did actually? We forced the boundary condition, we
put a short circuit over here. So, now, by putting a short circuit what we did? We actually
compelled the boundary condition to be here to be 0, and now this will become plus.
So, now the total thing will be is the length should be, see, earlier now the length from
here to here would have been /2. So, the total loop length you can think about now it is
almost resembling a loop, of course a loop with a much larger width. So, this is like now
a loop antenna and that dimension the median dimension should be here equal to . And
then by putting this here we can get the impedance matching. Now this is still here in this
case also this is still a E plane. I will explain that also, because this is now 0, plus, let us
say double plus, double plus, 0 then minus, double minus, double minus, 0. So, that
means field is along this side, along this direction and along. So, this is still the E plane.
So, even though we are putting the feed over here, E plane still is in this particular
direction. So, please do not get confused about that particular part.
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So, now let us see the comparison of different configurations. So, we can actually see
that different shapes have been realized by cutting the slot. So, we started with the
rectangular then we saw C shaped then we saw H-shaped and then we saw rectangular
ring. Again for comparison we took exactly the same dimension, L = 6 centimetre, W =
4, same r, h parameter as in the previous case. So, what we have here? Different slot
dimension, so, that means slot 0 x 0 is really nothing but a rectangular patch. And we can
see that the resonance frequency is about 1.6 GHz.
Now when we look at the C shaped if this is the depth which we had taken. In this case
we can see that the frequency has come down to 0.9 and that is about the bandwidth here
ok and for H-shaped for the same cross-section we need to cut half of this one, 1.5*1,
that will be on the upper part and the lower part. So, the cross-section will be same and
in this case resonance frequency slightly higher than the C shaped, bandwidth is also
similar. So, you may say there is not much advantage.
But look at the efficiency. Efficiency of C shaped is only 16% whereas efficiency of H is
about 32% which is about double of that. Now in case of rectangular ring when we cut
the slot in the centre the frequency reduction is not very significant. You can see that 1.6
has become 1.378. Unlike 1 or 0.9, so since the frequency reduction is not significant,
bandwidth is still higher than these 2, but yet much lesser than this bandwidth here ok.
And efficiency is still comparable to this one here. So, these are the configurations which
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can be obtained by cutting a slot and we also saw that by using the combination of the
slot and the short frequency will reduce further or the size will reduce by 50%. Now the
only limitation and the problem with these configuration is the bandwidth is very small.
Now, in the last lectures, we had talked about several broadband techniques. And those
broadband techniques we had applied for rectangular patches or circular patches or
triangular patches. Over there we what we had done was we added the patches next to
each other and we went horizontally or we went vertically we start them. So, now,
instead of using those rectangular or circular patches, what we are going to do in the next
lecture? We will use these compact configurations. And we will use these compact
configurations by using gap coupled or directly coupled or stacked configuration and
will realize much larger bandwidth and yet overall size may not increase significantly as
compared to rectangular or circular patches.
So, in the next lecture will talk about compact broadband microstrip antenna. So, with
that thank you very much. We will see you in the next lecture, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 07
Lecture – 31
Compact MSA-III
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on compact microstrip antenna. In fact, it is a

continuation of the previous 2 lectures. So, in the previous 2 lectures we had seen
compact microstrip antenna techniques. For example, we can use higher r or we can use
shorting post or we can do cutting slots or we can use combination of shorting post and
cutting slots and we saw that very compact microstrip antenna can be realized. However,
the disadvantage we noticed that the bandwidth of those antennas were not very good. Of
course, those bandwidths can be increased by using a thicker substrate or using a
dielectric constant instead of normal material we can use air. So, we can suspend those
metallic plates in the air at a certain height so that we can realize a broadband antenna.
But today we will look into various broadband techniques which we had studied earlier.
For example, we studied about gap coupled configurations, we looked into the
configuration where gap coupled were along radiating edges or along non-radiating
edges, we looked at the configuration, stacked configuration and other thing.
So, all those broadband techniques which we had used earlier they are also applicable to
the compact microstrip antenna. So, we will just look at a few of this configuration and
see how we can increase the bandwidth and how much we can increase the bandwidth
and yet area is not significantly large.
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So, let us start with our first configuration. So, the first configuration I have shown over
here this is basically you can actually think about these are the 2 shorted 90o sectoral
microstrip antenna. If you recall the previous lecture there I had put a shorting over here
ok and then feed point was put like this here. But here we have made the changes, we
have put the shorting post over here and this is the feed point. And think about this as a
parasitic patch here.
So, this is the one patch which is fed and this is the parasitic shorted patch. And we know
that this particular configuration is about one fourth of the circular microstrip antenna.
Now you might wonder why I did not put the shorting over here and put shorting over
here because if I put a short here, then fringing field from here are actually shorted to
ground. So, that will not get coupled properly to this particular patch here. So, coupling
to this patch will not be significant, but by putting a short over here, now the field is
varying from 0 to double plus here. Because 0, plus, double plus and 0, plus, double plus.
So, fringing field will be more strong and they will get coupled to this particular patch
here. And we have actually given one example also here. And this is the comparison of
this particular patch here. So, here we have taken whatever this radius a is taken for the
same radius of circular microstrip antenna this is the plot over here ok.
So, you can see that would be the response for a circle and for the circle we got 28 MHz
at 1.375 GHz. But by using this particular configuration, coupling this one over here, you
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can see that over here is the loop. And this loop is because this patch is acting like a
parasitic element and there is a loop over here. And for this particular case we can see
that the bandwidth is 69 MHz. If you see here this is 28 it is more than double the
bandwidth of this particular here. So, you actually think about for a circle the area will be
double of this entire thing. So, for half the area we are getting a bandwidth which is more
than 2 times.
So, really speaking you know there has been always a discussion at one time, that you
cannot increase the bandwidth without increasing the volume of the antenna, but over
here we can see that the volume is reduced by almost 50% and yet bandwidth is
increased by more than 200% . So, by using this gap coupled configuration we can
increase the bandwidth. However, just to tell also not everything is in gain. Here the gain
of this particular antenna will be much lesser than the gain of the circular microstrip
antenna because first of all the aperture is half of the circular microstrip antenna ok.
And also here the radiation pattern variation I want to mention is not very significant
unlike in the case of the rectangular patches where we had seen that when the patches are
put on the one side, what we noticed when we had 2 gap coupled configuration. So, this
patch was getting excited. So, it gave broad side radiation pattern at the lower frequency.
At the higher frequency when this patch started radiating the beam was shifted on this
direction. And that is why we actually started with 3 gap coupled configuration. This one
tried to shift the beam in this direction, this one tried to shift beam in the other direction
and the resultant was broadside pattern.
But in this particular case here we have a one patch and then we have an another patch.
Now this patch is of course, parasitic as we have seen over here, but in this particular
case centre to centre distance is much smaller compared to the patches when we are
using, earlier the patch size itself was /2, and then if you look at that gap coupled centre
to centre distance was more than /2, but here the patch size is very very small. And
since the patch size is small centre to centre spacing is also very small. And the phase is
given by  = 1 where  = (2/)*l or you can say here it is the spacing.
So, phase difference will be  = (2/)*spacing. And spacing is much small, so, that
means phase shift will be very small. And that means beam shift will be lesser. Also one
additional thing, for a rectangular microstrip antenna the beam width was relatively
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narrow. And when this is shifted you can see the notice, but in this particular case since
the antenna itself is a compact antenna. So, what happens it has a very large beam. So, if
it has a large beam and if you do a little bit even of a tilting of that large beam, the effect
is not really appreciable. In this particular case here what we have noticed that the
radiation pattern variation over the bandwidth is not very significant, but yes overall gain
is small, but these antennas are useful where you want a wide beam coverage. So, gain
smaller is required.
Now, just as a passing note over here, we can see that this particular loop is somewhere
over here, it is not centred around the central point. So, how we can do the little bit
optimization? Well optimization can be done is if you want to shift this loop down below,
that means it is to be shifted to the higher frequency. So, if we reduce the parasitic
dimension slightly, then what will happen? Its resonance frequency will increase and if
the resonance frequency increases this curve will come right in the centre over here. So,
now, instead of using this configuration, we can make even more compact instead of
using so many shorting things here, we can use a single short here or we can use single
short here, and by doing that we can realize a more compact broadband antenna.
So, here we started example with a 90o sector, but we can use the similar thing for
rectangular patches also here. So, here what we have since we are more concerned about
compact antenna. So, we have actually taken an example here, rectangular microstrip
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antenna length is L, this is the width here and since a single shorting post has been put
here. So, from here going like this here and this, so that will be the total length should be
equal to /4 ok. So, we can say that /4 should be equal to Le + W/2. So, that will be the
/4 length.
Now, what we have done? We have put the gap coupled configuration. We have put the
short on the other side. So, basic idea is again so that the field gets coupled maximally to
this particular patch here. So, if we put a short over here, that will have a 0 field force the
boundary condition. So, that is not a very good idea ok. So, by putting this over here, so
field will be maximally coupled to this particular patch over here. So, by using this
particular concept we could again get much larger bandwidth than corresponding
rectangular patch antenna. And feed point again can be optimized to obtain a much better
bandwidth.
Now, instead of putting this one, we have used a term radiating edge because this is the
radiating edge. So, we have put the radiating edge gap coupled shorted rectangular
microstrip antenna. Now instead of that putting here we can also put it along non-
radiating edges also, or we looked into an example of just sector and rectangle, but we
can do lot of other variation. We can use all those triangular microstrip antennas, shorted
variations of those and thereby we can realize larger bandwidth.
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So, these are the things where we have used gap coupled concept to increase the
bandwidth of the antenna. Now let just look at another very interesting concept where
antennas have been put inside the other antenna. So, let us just first look into this
configuration here. So, we know that a rectangular ring is relatively compact antenna ok.
So, this is the rectangular ring you can see here, and then we also know that a partially
shorted rectangular patch also has a compact nature ok or has a lower frequency. So, here
what we have done. So, first we have chosen this particular ring microstrip antenna, and
then within that ring we have placed this another rectangular patch over here, and what
we did it is the resonance frequency of this should be close to the resonance frequency of
this. So, the resonance frequency of this can be controlled by changing number of
shorting post here. So, what we need to do since we are feeding it over here. So, that will
be our fed patch and this ring here acts as a parasitic patch here.
Now, if you recall for ring microstrip antenna, when it is very thin rectangular ring in
that case we had seen we had to put a short circuit here and put the feed over here. Here
we do not have to do anything like that because it is acting like a parasitic patch. So,
field is set by this here. So, this is 0, it goes here plus, it is double plus, double plus, plus,
0. So, that double plus here induces the thing here. So, field gets induced to this
particular axis here, and then from here then since the field is determined by this
coupling here, it will actually flow around here and that is how the loop gets excited.
So, by using this concept if you think about just this patch it would have given me a
narrow bandwidth, just think about this rectangular ring that would have given me a
narrow bandwidth, but now putting this particular antenna within this particular ring over
here, what we have done? We have not increased the size at all. So, if you think about a
rectangular ring, which was a compact configuration by putting this particular thing over
here inside and making the resonance of that close to this, what we have really achieved
is much broadband antenna.
So, just by using some concepts you can actually increase the bandwidth of the antenna
very significantly. We have given these dimensions over here, now the same concept has
also been extended for a circular ring also. So, here is a circular ring which is not being
fed ok. So, that is again acting as a parasitic element. Now we have an another circle in
between, but this circle has a short circuit, so by putting a short over here as I mentioned
in the previous lecture. So, now, the ae, instead of taking just the radius you actually take
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now that as a circumference. So, again now by optimizing the dimension of this patch
along with the short circuit and the dimensions of this ring here we actually should
ensure that the 2 resonance frequencies are close to each other, and if these 2 frequencies
are close to each other we can realize broadband antenna. And again we have not
increased the overall dimension of the antenna, if you think about circular ring as the
basic antenna ok.
So, now just using this concept, one can actually think about n number of shapes ok. In
fact, I just want to mention here one of my PhD student I will take his name also. So, his
name is Amit Deshmukh. He did his PhD with me and he had submitted is this is around
2004 or so. And he had studied on several configurations, variations of compact
microstrip antenna then broadband microstrip antenna. I will not mention to you about
stacked configuration the concept is very very simple. So, you have a compact antenna at
one layer, then you put another compact layer on the top layer, and by coupling that
particular thing you can get a much broader bandwidth. So, their aperture size does not
increase at all, you are only increasing the height of the antenna. And in his PhD thesis,
in fact, I did not notice also, but his examiner actually came, when that person came as
an examiner and that person told me that there are 81 new configurations reported in his
PhD thesis, and based on just his PhD thesis, we published somewhere around 8 to 10
journal paper and 8 to 10 conference paper.
So, we would like to have such kind of a PhD student and we really came out with lot of
new configurations by adjusting the simple concept again. One compact antenna coupled
with another compact antenna, also we studied how the radiation pattern varies. And
coupling is very very strong which is important, and also you should ensure that the
overall size does not increase, the radiation pattern does not take place and also what is
important is that placement of the element is very important ok, so that you can really
optimize the configuration. So in fact, his PhD thesis can be accessed or you can actually
go through my book broadband microstrip antenna, where we have reported many of
these configurations. So, compact microstrip antennas have been taken from chapter 6 of
my book. So, what we have presented.
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Now, I am going to present you one another configuration where we have used 3
different gap coupled configuration. Again what has been reported here these are the C
shaped antenna. So, you can now think about this as a, if you look from here 3 U shaped
antenna or you think here 3 inverted C shaped antenna. Well you can take a mirror image
also there will not be much of a performance difference, but I what I want to highlight
over here is, that all the C patches are identical ok. So, if you see here the height of this is
4.2 and all of these patches the length over here is 1.4, gap is also. So, these are 3
symmetrical identical you can say patches except for one major difference. And the
major difference is that shorting width has been changed.
So, if you notice over here, this shorting width is 0.6, this one over here is 0.8 and this
one here is 04. And now just recall if this shorting width is changed, then what happens
path length will change. And in this case just to remind. So, if this is the short here. So,
from here to the opposite end length should be /4. And if this one is reduced; that
means, what will happen path length will decrease. So, resonance frequency will reduce
and in this particular case if this is increased path length will reduce. So, resonance
frequency will increase. Now this is the patch which is fed here these 2 are the parasitic
component. Now since that there are 2 parasitic patches both the parasitic patches have
different resonance frequency because of the shorting variation. So, one can actually see
over here that there are actually 2 loops. So, one is there and then another loop is
between and then it comes like here.
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It all depends upon how we choose these dimension. So, if you choose these shorting
post slightly different then what can also be done. So, you can go like this here, loop can
be completed then it can come out then another loop can be there and then it comes here
so; that means, you can do the little bit of that optimization. Now in this case now you
might wonder in case of a rectangular patch, this is something very similar to gap
coupled rectangular patches. And now in case of a gap coupled rectangular patches I had
mentioned that if the dimensions are taken different, that means the resonance frequency
if we take this length as L, then L1, L2, we had mentioned that the, with the change in the
frequency the beam was shifting on this side or the beam shifts here, pattern symmetry
was not there, but in this particular case this problem is not very significant. First of all,
the patch itself is a very compact antenna. So, since it is compact antenna, its gain will be
less, it will have a very broad beam. Then from here centre to centre distance is very
small. So, since centre to centre distance is very small, phase delay experienced by this
particular element will be very small.
So; that means, beam shift will be relatively small, but also beam width itself is very
large, even for a very large beam width if we see slightly shift. You will actually not even
notice much, think about this if the beam is very narrow, and if it is shifted it looks like
broad side there is a very less radiation, but if the beam is wide like this, then even if
there is a small shift it does not really make too much of a difference, it looks like there
is a very small difference may be half a dB gain variation may take place in the broad
side direction. So, here we have 3 patches 1, 2, 3.
So, we will have a one patch which is resonating then another patch resonating and then
another patch. So, it is possible that the beam will try to shift this side and then the beam
will try to shift this side, but since the phase delay is relatively very small. So; that
means, delay or the shift is small, second as I said half power beam width is very wide.
So, if it is a wide beam like this. So, small shift is not very noticeable. Or if at all change
will be there it will be less than 0.5 dB.
So, it is a very good configuration here and some of the variations of these things have
been used in the typically in the mobile phone. If you recall earlier when mobile phones
were launched, mobile phones actually had a large monopole antenna which was ticking
out of the mobile phones. So, remember earlier models more than 20 years back there
were antennas which was sticking like this here. There was typically /4 monopole
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antenna. And that was breaking very often. And then people came out with the normal
mode helical antenna. In the normal helical antenna, the height was only 2 centimetre
where the antenna wire was wound around this.
Do not worry after some lectures we will talk about normal mode helical antenna, and
will tell you how to design normal mode helical antenna, but then later on. In fact, there
was an advertisement in the TV where a scissor comes and it comes like this here and it
cuts the antenna like this ok and then it says there is no outside antenna. In fact, no
outside antenna story is then, in fact, these gap coupled antennas were used in the earlier
models and these earlier models were inside the mobile phones.
So, let us say if this is the mobile phone, then these antennas were earlier hanging like
this then they became small, then these removed and on backside of this one here these
compact gap coupled microstrip antennas were put over there. And that is how it started,
but of course, now technology has changed significantly, earlier mobile phones used to
have generally just one band, but now a typical mobile phone may have several bands, it
may work at GSM 900, 1800, 1900, 2100 and then also it may be having a Wi-Fi which
will be 2.45 GHz. That will require another antenna, then many of the mobile phones
have a GPS then they need to have a GPS antenna.
So, typically inside a mobile phone these days we have quad band antenna or penta band
antenna ok. So, actually speaking in the next lecture, we will start talking about how to
realize multi-band antennas. We will start with of course, a dual band, but before that
also we will also look into a few other things; for example, let us say you have fabricated
the antenna ok, and if antenna has been fabricated and let us say you want frequency to
be just as a number let us say 1 GHz. Now let us say you did the experiment, we instead
of 1 GHz we got 1.1 or 0.9. Let us say now the error is almost close to 10%.
So, of course, you can use the concept which I mentioned to you earlier which is f 1*L1 =
f2*L2, so, that means let us say you chose certain dimension for which you got let us say
1.1. So, L1 you know f1 is 1.1, what is desired 1. So, calculate the value of L 2, then use
that dimension fabricate another antenna, but that actually becomes very tedious, how
many antennas you are going to fabricate. So, there are techniques with which you can
use tuning of the microstrip antenna.
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So, in the lecture will talk about how to tune the microstrip antenna. And also we will
look into how to realize broadband antenna and in fact, a little bit of a preview I can tell
you today itself. So, we looked into the configuration for example, over here.
So, you can actually see that by changing the shorting ratio, what we notice here by
changing the shorting ratio frequency change considerably. So, suppose if you are using
a compact shorted microstrip antenna, then you can change the shorting width, so instead
of drilling one hole you can drill another hole. And by doing that another thing here what
you can do? You can see that from here to here the frequency shift is close to 0.1 which
is approximately 10%. Or from here to here you can see that it is about 8% to 9%. So,
one can actually use these shorting technique, to do the tuning of the microstrip antenna.
So, you need not fabricate another antenna just by changing this shorting thing you can
tune the frequency.
Then we looked at another configuration where we actually have got these

configurations here.
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And let just say by cutting the slot here, by cutting the slot we can actually see that by
changing the dimension of the slot, we are able to change the frequency. So; that means,
just suppose we have fabricated this particular antenna and that we got 1.6 may be let us
say the desired frequency is 1.55. So, what you can do? You can just change the slot, you
cut a little slot here and you can reduce the frequency and thereby you can get the desired
result.
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So, sometimes we can cut the slot or sometimes we can even add a stub over here to do
the tuning. And many times we can actually have a larger coupling we can realize a
broadband, so let us say and dual band also.
So, for example, in this particular configuration, if we choose the 2 frequency very
differently then what we will see here? One loop, a very large loop if it is, gap is very
small or we can get a resonance of this here or there is a possibility of using this kind of
an antenna, where this patch can resonate at one frequency, we can use this one to
resonate at another frequency and thereby we can realize a dual band antenna.
So, in the next lecture we will look about different techniques of tuning the microstrip
antenna, and then we will also look into multi-band antenna and after that we will talk
about how to get circularly polarised microstrip antenna. So, today’s lecture mainly you
can say we discussed about compact microstrip antenna and how we can get broad
bandwidth by using these compact microstrip antenna, I gave you more examples of
planar configuration, but the same concept can be applied for the stacked configuration
also, you can see for more detail chapter 6 of my book broadband microstrip antennas.
Thank you very much and will see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Mod - 07
Lec - 32
Tunable MSA-I
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on tunable and dual band microstrip antenna. So,
why do we need tunable microstrip antenna? Now suppose let us say you have designed
an antenna and the designed frequency was suppose 1 GHz and after the design you have
done the fabrication. Now what you find is that instead of 1 GHz it may be 1.05 GHz or
0.95 GHz because your design should not be too much off also. In fact, if you design
antennas using the simple design equations given by us in the earlier lectures you should
be able to get an antenna within  5%, but now suppose instead of 1, let us say we got
1.05 GHz. So, now, there are multiple options are there. One is that you actually make an
another antenna and for the other antenna you need to choose the dimension. So, you can
use the concept of f1*L1 = f2*L2.
So, for example, whatever length you have taken for which you are getting 1.05. So,
L1*f1 which is 1.05 and the desired is 1. So, you put 1 there and L 2, find the new length
and do another fabrication. And also if the feed point is not matched with the 50 Ω, then
you need to shift the feed point also towards the edge or towards the centre depending
upon whether the impedance is low or impedance is high, but these things require
multiple fabrication things. And sometimes you want a quick fix solution. So, we are
going to tell you today how even though you have fabricated the antenna which is not
working properly, or it has a slight shift in the resonance frequency or may be slight shift
in the impedance, how we can take care of that problem without fabricating another
antenna. So, let us start with tunable microstrip antenna.
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So, we will first start with a tunable microstrip antenna, and then we will talk about dual
band. We will first see that what is the need of dual band antenna. And then will talk
about dual band microstrip antenna. So, let us focus right now on tunable microstrip
antenna. So, one of the simpler way to design a tunable rectangular microstrip antenna
with a single stub. So, what we really have here. So, let us say this is the antenna which
has been fabricated with the length of L, width W. And here is the feed point and for this
particular case now, you measured the frequency which is not really the desired
frequency, it is slightly shifted either increased or decreased.
So, now by adding a stub over here we can actually reduce the frequency. I will tell you
how to increase the frequency also. So, suppose we add a stub over in this direction and
this stub can be simply added take a copper foil. And that copper foil can be soldered
over here and rest of the thing you can use a something like a simple tape and tape it over
there. So, let us say now this length which we have added and this width over here. So,
strip has a width of w and a length l. Now this whole thing can be now approximated as
that if you find the area of this which will be l * w which is a small w.
Now this particular thing you now equate to the W e over here. So, we can actually say if
we say it is an We and think that effective length increase will be ∆l1. So, we can say that
∆l1 will be nothing but we*le which is area of the stub, we always use effective length to
account for the fringing field from the stub and that divided by We which is the effective
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width of the microstrip patch. So, this gives us ∆l1. So, now, we can find out the
resonance frequency as same as before c/2L e, but now Le has this additional ∆l1 coming
into picture that is because of this stub here.
So, actually speaking now let us say we got 1.05 GHz earlier and we want this to be 1.
So, you put one here we know what is L e, find out what should be corresponding ∆l1.
And then correspondingly then you can use finite length and width of the stub. And this
can be always cut or added little more to tune the frequency. Now this also does one
additional thing. So, now, think about this now. So, effective length is increased on this
side here. So, if it is effective length is increased on this side then the 0 axis of the field
will be slightly shifted on this side. So, if the 0 axis is shifted slightly on this side. So,
what will happen now input impedance will reduce? So, you have to also check when
you do the measurement, see what is the impedance you got.
Suppose you got impedance of say 60 Ω, so if the effective width centre is shifted to this
side that 60 will become say 55 Ω, but suppose you got only about 40 or 45 Ω. Then
what should do instead of adding stub one this side you put a stub on this side over here,
and when you put a stub one this side. Now the centre will be shifted along this here. So,
if the 0 axis is shifted away. So, impedance at this will increase now suppose you got
exactly 50 Ω or 55 Ω which is a good matching then what you do? You add stub on both
the directions ok. So, now, by adding a stub what you really can achieve? You can reduce
the resonance frequency, but what if the resonance frequency is already less and you
want increase it. So, adding stub will not help in that case what you can do? You can
actually cut a notch?
So, suppose now you cut a notch in this side. So, what will happen now? Effective length
will reduce and that will increase the frequency. So, you can use the same concept either
you cut a notch over here or you can cut a notch over here or you can cut notch on both
the side and by doing that you can increase the resonance frequency. Now again cutting
notch is very important where you cut it, if you cut here resonance frequency will
increase because the effective length is decreased. However, if you cut the notch only let
us say in this direction. So, if you cut notch here if you recall compact microstrip antenna
then this configuration will look more like a C shaped microstrip antenna which is
compact. So, if you just cut a slot like this here, then effective length will be increasing.
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So, that will reduce the frequency and if you cut a notch here let us say as well as you cut
a notch here then it will resemble something similar to H-shaped microstrip antenna. And
again the path length has increased. So, resonance frequency will change accordingly.
So, you can cut a notch appropriately with the smaller values then you can tune the
frequency either to the higher side or to the lower side.
But now let just see the numbers by adding this stub here how much change frequency
really takes place ok.
So, let just see the various values here. So, here we have taken a case L = 3 cm, W = 4
cm, feed point has been fixed. Because once you do the experiment feed point will be
fixed and these are the substrate parameters. So, what in the table you see over here, this
is the effect of the stub ok. So, what we have done? We have taken a length of the stub of
different values and even the width has been taken different value. So, let us start with
this. So, if there is a no stub added that means l = 0, w = 0 then in that case resonance
frequency is 2.975 GHz and the bandwidth is about 65 MHz.
Now let us say this is not the desired frequency, you want to reduce it. So, then if we add
a stub of length 0.5 and width 0.4, you can see that the resonance frequency reduced
from 2.975 to 2.898. If we increase the length further, we can see that the resonance
frequency is reduced further and here it shows the effect of the width also. So, you can
see that length is same, but the width is reduced by the half. If the width is reduced by
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half, the area of the stub will reduce and hence delta l1 will reduce. So, that is why 2.828.
It increases back if you reduce this here. So, really speaking from 2.975 you can tune
down to 2.74. If you see the variation here that is about 230 MHz.
So, that is close to about 8%. So, by adding this stub you can tune the resonance
frequency by almost 5% to 8%, but then something strange also happens if we take this
length stub length equal to 1.5. Now just this 1.5 is approximately half of 3 cm that
means this length will be now /4. And if this length is /4 something else happens. Now
what you can see here, instead of having a single resonance which we were getting, this
resonance is split into 2 part. So, there is a lower resonance here and there is a higher
resonance here.
So, why that happens? So, let us see if this length is equal to /4 will go back to the
figure. So, if the length is /4 this is an open circuit. So, open circuit will create a short at
this particular point. So, you can see that the boundary condition has changed
significantly. Now at lower frequency wavelength will be large and if the wavelength is
large then this length will be less than /4 and if this length is less than /4 it will act like
capacitive impedance over here. And if frequency is high then this length will be slightly
greater than /4 then this will offer an inductive load at this particular point.
So, now just recall for a rectangular microstrip antenna, we were looking at a smith
chart. So, just imagine there is a smith chart here. So, resonance frequency is actually the
lower resonance was here. And as you keep the frequency, frequency is actually
changing. So, this is the inductive part and here it is capacitive part. So, now, at the lower
frequency this stub adds capacitance. So, it was inductive earlier, you add a capacitance.
So, that becomes a resonance comes close to the central axis. And when this particular
thing at higher frequency this offers an inductive load and on a smith chart the
impedance curve would have been here which would be impedance value. Now, you are
adding inductance to that, it will come to the real axis. So, you need to imagine all this
figure here and that is why at l = /4, we actually see the split in the resonance frequency
and we actually get a dual band antenna.
Now, the only problem with this configuration is that the bandwidth at each of the band
is relatively small compared to the bandwidth for the other rectangular patch or stub
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loaded patches here. So, now, let just look at another configuration. So, we can see that
by adding the stub or cutting notch we can tune the frequency.
Another way to do the tuning is by adding number of shorting pins. In fact, we did
discuss about this configuration when we talked about compact microstrip antenna. And
we had discussed that if this w s/W is changed then the resonance frequency changes
because effective length changes. So, let just recheck again suppose the way it is shown
here, if this is ws then from here to here length will /4. If it is fully shorted, then this
length will be /4. If there is a single short, then this entire length will be /4 and since
the length is increasing. So, what happens? Resonance frequency will decrease. So, for
these cases here L = 1.2, W = 1.2, x fixed over here, r parameters are given here. So,
these are the normalized frequency values ok.
In fact, it is important to actually know what is the normalized value because the
requirement may be different for different application. So, it is good to see what happens
the normalized value here. So, one can actually see if the width is fully shorted, if that is
normalized to 1 then as partially shorting takes place, then we can see that the resonance
frequency is changing and by changing the width of this here, we can actually tune the
frequency from 1 to 0.65. So, here generally speaking what you do? You start with the
lesser number of shorting post, and then you increase the number of shorting post to get
the desired exact frequency.
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Now another way to do it is. So, once you put the shorting post that is fixed, you cannot
tune it any further. So, there is an another way also. Instead of using a proper shorting
post, you can actually put pin diodes here. So, pin diodes are nothing, but just to tell
normal diode has a PN junction, P and N. PIN diode has P I N. So, these are the thing
and generally PIN diodes are used at microwave frequency. So, if these PIN diodes are
forward biased, they will act as a short circuit, and if the PIN diodes are reverse biased,
they will act as open circuit. So, if we put number of PIN diodes over here at number of
places here. So, by switching them off or ON, we can vary the shorting position here and
thereby we can do the tuning of the frequency.
So, this is the one of the way, you can tune the frequency. Instead of using PIN diodes,
we can also use another device which is known as a varactor diode. What is a varactor
diode? Varactor diode is again a diode, but it is capacitance varies with the reverse bias
voltage. So, let us see how we have put here in this particular figure. So, here is length
and this is width here. The 2 varactor diodes are shown over here.
Now just to tell you the biasing circuit is not shown over here, the varactor diode has to
be biased properly and a reverse bias voltage has to be given. So, these are the length
width and x values for this particular patch, and a varactor diode voltage just to tell you
what we have here. So, this is the bias voltage and this is the frequency response. So,
what we can notice here is just to mention this is a reverse bias voltage ok and that is 0,
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10, 20, 30. So, as the reverse bias voltage increases, we can see that the frequency is
changing, but however, just to tell you what really a varactor diode. If we look at the
varactor diode characteristic, the varactor diode characteristic is actually reverse bias
voltage here. And for the varactor diode we normally show capacitance over here.
So, if we have a capacitance here for varactor diode capacitance response is like this ok.
So, higher value it reduces to the lower value. So, now, if the capacitance is lower here,
think about the rectangular patch is nothing, but equal to if we can represent this as a
parallel combination of RLC. So, if now C is changed or external capacitance is added.
So, how is the resonance frequency defined? 0 = 1/√(LC) and if the smaller capacitance
is added or a large capacitance. If a large capacitance that is the capacitance
characteristic large capacitance is added frequency will reduce, if you actually look at the
characteristic of this, it is just reverse of the characteristic of a varactor diode which is
like this here so; that means, capacitance increases resonance frequency reduces. So, by
changing the bias voltage from 0 to 30 volt what we can see that the resonance frequency
changes from 1.4 to 1.81 GHz. And that is a tuning range of about 25%.
Now, see something like this I just want to tell this is not a broadband antenna. So, at a
given value of the biasing voltage, there will be some frequency over here. The
bandwidth of the antenna is relatively narrow, but this bandwidth is basically getting
tuned. So, let us say if the biasing voltage is here then the resonance frequency will be let
us say around 1.7, bandwidth will be still close to about say 2% or so. Now, the biasing
voltage is changed, so it goes over here. Now the biasing voltage is changed over here,
for example, then it will be 1.6 but with the bandwidth of say approximately 2%. So, that
is the way, it is not a broadband antenna, it is a tunable antenna.
Now these kinds of a things are actually required. For example, let us say we want to use
an application for example, say ground penetrating radar. So, for a ground penetrating
radar, let us say what we do? We send a signal down to the earth, it reflects back from
whatever metallic portion or dielectric portion is there, it reflects back over here. So,
generally if you use only one frequency then one frequency goes back down there and
comes back. And you can measure the amplitude and phase of the reflector signal, but
that is not sufficient to detect the buried object. So, the concept which has been used is
stepped frequency radar or stepped frequency FMCW radar. So, in that case what
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happens? You change the frequencies in steps. So, let us say you send one frequency,
measure the reflector then you change the second frequency measure.
So, now there are 2 options. One is we change the frequency which can be designed
using varying the input of the VCO which is a voltage control oscillator. Now there are 2
options, one is you use 2 broadband antenna or the other option is we can use 2 narrow
band antenna, but they are tuned with frequency. So, as the VCO voltage changes which
changes the resonance frequency, that same VCO voltage can be modified and that can
be used to tune the varactor diode which will change the frequency. So, this way you can
realize a compact microstrip antenna which can be tuned by changing the voltage and
this change will be similar to that of the change in the VCO. So, many applications
where we want to transmit a signal for a narrow bandwidth, but we want to tune that for
a different frequency, this kind of a concept can be used very appropriately.
So, now let just go to the next configuration which is a dual band rectangular microstrip
antenna. Now I just want to say there are several applications where we require dual
band microstrip antenna. For example, an application can be where we transmit a signal
at one frequency, and we receive the signal at different frequency. So, here is a one
configuration, where we are using single feed. However, there are many times
requirement where you use dual feed also, but let just see one by one. So, the single feed,
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in fact if you recall rectangular microstrip antenna we did discuss something like this
here, but let just look into here.
So, what we have here? A length L which is 3 cm, this is the width which is 4 cm and
now this feed point can be optimized corresponding to the length here and corresponding
to the width. So, now, it is at a diagonal. So, when the feed is along the diagonal then
what happens it will excite both the modes, this one here also and this one here also. So,
at lower frequency since W is large. So, this mode will get excited and at higher
frequency because L is small this mode will get excited. So, you can actually see the
VSWR plot here. So, there is a decent matching also one frequency you can see is
around 2.3 or so. And another one you can see close to 3 GHz. Now these 2 frequencies
correspond to the length and W. So, this frequency corresponds to length 3 cm and this
one corresponds W = 4 cm.
So in fact, depending upon the design requirement, suppose we want this to be even
lower than this value you can increase W. If you want this to be increased, we can
increase W here. But however, I just want to mention here, this particular feed point
actually gives orthogonal polarization. Why it gives orthogonal, because when the length
is excited at this particular frequency that time the E field is this here. So, that would be
the E plane, but at a lower frequency when W is dominant then in that case E plane is in
this side. So, you can actually say that E plane is changing polarization changes from this
plane to this plane. So, if an application requires orthogonal polarization, one can be used
for transmit and receive then this is a good configuration.
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Now, as I mentioned, not always we want a single feed. Sometimes we want dual feed
also. So, here it is exactly the same example as before. Except that now there are 2 feed
point. So, we have taken the same dimension 3 cm, 4 cm, x y are same, but now there are
2 feed 1 and 2. So, you can actually see the response, this response is almost similar to
the previous case here. So, this response here corresponds to, you can see here dotted
that is S22, S22 is over here. So, this really corresponds to width W becoming resonant and
this response which is actually S11 that corresponds to the length being resonant, but over
here now one additional important thing is there. When there are 2 feeds we would like
to know what is the isolation between the 2 feeds.
It is very important to have this isolation, and just to refresh the memory. So, when we
feed at this point, then this axis here will be a null axis ok. And when this is fed over here
then corresponding to this width, this acts as a null axis. So, you can see that for this feed
this is along null axis, for this feed this is along null axis. So, that is why the isolation
between them is fairly good, you can see the response which is S21 response. So, between
1 and 2 and S21 will be same as S12. So, that is same. So, over here you can see that the
isolation is roughly better than about 24 dB across the entire band of 2.2 – 2.3, but that is
not really too much of an interest. What is of interest is corresponding to this here what is
the isolation.
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So, if you see that in this particular range here, where let us say reflection coefficient is
less than 10, if you see over here that is almost 27 28 dB is the isolation. Whereas, we are
getting a much better isolation in this particular band if you see corresponding to -10 dB
if you draw here. So, this value is somewhere less than 35 dB. So, we are getting a very
good isolation in this particular situation. So, here now what the problem is again that for
this frequency the polarization will be in this plane E plane polarization and for this feed
point polarization will be in this plane so; that means, there will be 2 orthogonal
polarizations.
So, in the next lecture we will actually look into how to design same polarization for the
same feed point so; that means, for a give feed point let us say if this is the feed point we
look at an alternate configuration where at both the band polarization will be same.
So, just to recap, today we talked about tunable microstrip antenna, we looked at
different techniques. So, one technique was we can add a stub to do the frequency tuning
or we can cut a notch and the stub and notch can be also cut carefully, so that you can do
little bit of impedance variation also, for proper impedance matching. Then we also saw
that we can do the tuning by adding shorting post or instead of that we can use pin diode.
Then alternate technique we looked at it is a varactor diode by changing the reverse bias
voltage of a varactor diode. We can tune the frequency by almost 25% and then we
looked at the dual band orthogonal polarization, but in the next lecture now we will also
see dual band for the same polarization.
Thank you very much will see you in the next lecture, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 07
Lecture - 33
Tunable MSA-II
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on dual band microstrip antenna. In fact, we started
discussion about dual band microstrip antenna in the previous lecture. So, where we had
seen that a rectangular microstrip antenna can be used with a single feed or dual feed to
realise dual band operation, but those 2 dual band polarisation also give orthogonal
polarisation. So, let us start with that.
So, we had seen this configuration in the previous lecture by feeding along the diagonal.
We could excite both the orthogonal mode. So, since width is large. So, this will be
resonating at the lower frequency and since length is small, this will resonate at higher
frequency. And we saw this particular response here. So, instead of using a single feed,
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We could also use a dual feed here for the same parameters. And we noticed that the
reflection coefficient for the corresponding 2 port is almost same as before, but now what
is important is the isolation between the ports 1 and 2. And we can see that the isolation
was about 27, 28 dB over the bandwidth for which S 11 < -10 dB, and same thing we had
seen over here, here it was almost 37, 38 dB. Now it is not necessary that you have to use
rectangular, you could also use an elliptical microstrip antenna also. So, think about an
elliptical over here. So, it will have a major axis and then it will have a minor axis.
So, you can actually tune the minor and major axis and you can design those things
corresponding to the dual band operation desired, but the only thing is that these 2 give
orthogonal polarisation.
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Today will look at alternate configurations, which actually give the same polarisation.
So, here is a one configuration, where you can see that there is a one rectangular patch is
here. The length of that is 4 cm, width is 3 cm, and the 2 slots have been cut in this
particular rectangular patch here. So, now, what is the concept here? So, concept here is
what we want for this particular feed point, we want dual band and the dual band should
have same polarisation. Now suppose if we had not cut the slot. So, then 2 bands which
would have been there, one corresponding to TM10 mode and another corresponding to
TM30 mode. Now those 2 modes will be exactly at a frequency ratio of 3 and, but they
will give both broadside radiation pattern as well as the same polarisation. Here this
configuration modifies these 2 mode. So, what is being done here is that by cutting the
slot over here, and this slot is cut near the radiating edge. So, what we have here current
is relatively 0, current is maximum over here.
So, what happens? For fundamental mode, now the path length will be like this. And it
goes here and comes back, comes over here. But for fundamental the higher order for
TM30 mode again. Now the path length is again going up here, coming back and then
going over here like this. Now when you cut the slot near the current 0, for fundamental
mode effect is not very significant, but for third order mode the effect is fairly significant
because the field will go from 0 to maxima to 0 and then maxima, 0 will happen along
this. So, there will be total 3/2 variation along this particular length. So, by cutting the
slot over here just to mention the dimension is 2.8 almost filling up the entire width, and
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the width of the slot is 0.1. And in this particular case one can see that the 2 bands are
obtained at 2.22 GHz and 3.48 GHz and thereby giving a frequency ratio of 1.57.
Now if this was not there, frequency ratio would have been equal to 3. So, by changing
the dimension here. Suppose you reduce this here and then we also reduce here this is
basically to make it symmetrical with respect to the feed point here or with respect to the
central point over here.
So, by cutting the slot on both the side, it is basically symmetrical with respect to the
central axis. And if these dimensions are reduced or if the position is changed then this
ratio changes. So, that means, by cutting a slot between the 2 higher, 2 modes f 1 and f2
we can change their ratio to 1.57 to as high as 3. So, just think about an application for
example GSM 900 and 1800. And we know that frequency is roughly 900 MHz and
1800 MHz. So, that means, what is the frequency ratio between the two, it is 2. So, by
tuning these stub slot dimension and by reducing their size we can actually tune the
frequency to 1 is to 2 or 1 is to 2.5 and so on.
So, this is the very good technique where you get the same polarisation, and the modes
are of course, 10 and 30 mode here. Of course, gain will be different at the 2 different
mode because for fundamental mode frequency is low aperture area is constant for both
the cases. So, for this case just recall aperture area theory what it says G ≈ (4A/2) *ƞ.
So, 4A is constant,  is changing because of the frequency hence gain will be different
at 2 different band, but other than that the polarisation will remain same and maximum
radiation will be in the broadside direction. Now this antenna can be made compact also.
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So, if you just see here this configuration is somewhat similar to the previous
configuration. So, we have a rectangular patch and there are 2 slots over here, but now
multiple notches have been cut. You can see here 3 notches have been cut over here and
the 2 notches are cut over here, so there about 5 notches which have been cut along non-
radiating edges.
In fact, if you just think about now what has happened, so, current which would have
been gone like this here, goes up here, it would have earlier gone like this and come back
here, but now the current path has changed. It is going up it will come down then it will
go up here, it will go like this here, and then it will move. So, that means, effective
length has increased. And if the effective length has increased correspondingly resonance
frequency will reduce. And basic idea of this configuration by cutting the slot is to
reduce the overall size of the antenna. So, just recall for the previous case let just see
what was the length 4, what was width 3. These 2 have been reduced now. So, 4 has been
reduced to 3.6 and 3 has been reduced to 2.4, but the slot is now as before reduced
correspondingly. So, it is 2.2 and the width of the slot is 0.1.
Now, what is being changed in the next slide will show you is, the length of this
particular notch. By changing this length, we can tune the resonance frequency as well as
the frequency ratio for the 2 mode.
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So, let us see. So, what we have here. The first case is when there is a no slot which has
been cut ok, that is the slot along the non-radiating edge. So, just go back here. So, what
this L is we are talking about this length variation. This slot and this slot, that remains for
same for all the cases. So, now here L, for this L we are getting feed point at 0.67 the
lower resonance is 1.915 upper resonance is 3.62 and if you take the ratio of the two, the
ratio is around 1.89, but now this length is changed.
So, the slot depth is being changed. So, 0.4, 0.6 and if this is increased what will happen
path length will increase and if the path length increases resonance frequency reduces.
So, you can actually see by cutting these multiple slots along the non-radiating edges.
The resonance frequency reduces from 1.9 to almost close to 1.1. So, that is a large you
can say change in the frequency, correspondingly even the upper resonance frequency
changes. So, there 3.6 has almost become close to 2.6.
However, the ratio of the two is not constant in this particular case. So, this also varies
from 1.89 to 2.36. So, now, depending upon the requirement you can actually choose any
of these particular things suppose that is the desired let us say we want an antenna at say
1 GHz and 2 GHz, this one will be a good choice or if you want something at 1 and 2.2
gigahertz, then this will be the good choice here. And if you do not want any one of these
ratios suppose we want a ratio of close to say 1.6 or 1.7, or we want a ratio close to 2.7,
2.8, then what you need to do it is- you need to change the slot dimensions of this over
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here. So, if you reduce this slot dimension then frequency ratio will increase. So, by
doing this you can actually tune the antenna and also realise a compact microstrip
antenna and the dual band can be designed according to whatever the ratio of this L you
take here.
So, this is very powerful technique to design dual band antenna which has the same
polarisation and the radiation pattern is in the broadside direction.
Now, there is another technique which we will look at. And this one here, what it has? If
you see it has a patch which is known as a cross patch or you can also call it a plus patch
depending upon whatever you like, but let us first focus on this here. If we actually
increase this particular portion here, this will be like a square patch, but out of that
square patch if you cut this particular portion here then it becomes a plus patch or cross
patch. Now the resonance frequency of this patch will be governed by the length over
here, and since it is, this length is same as this length here, we can say that the resonance
frequency in the either direction it will be same. So, it can be modified also to obtain
dual polarised antenna also. That is why a square patch has been used here or modified a
square which is cross here. So, now, there is an empty space there. In this empty space X
band antenna has been put there. So, basically this configuration is very useful when the
frequency separation between the two bands is very large. And just to tell you the
nomenclature: S band corresponds to 2 to 4 GHz, X band corresponds to 8 to 12 GHz,
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and just to give you some other nomenclatures also. There is a L band which is let us say
if you put here L band, L band is 1 to 2 GHz, S is 2 to 4 GHz, there is a C band in
between 4 to 8 GHz and then X band which is 8 to 12 GHz.
So, since the frequency separation is large. This is the situation which can be used. So,
here 4 square patches have been put. These 4 square patches resonate at a different
frequency which is 8.65 which is in the X band range. So, this cross patch is designed at
2.85 GHz, X band patch which is at 8.65. These patches are designed at that particular
frequency. Now the only important thing which we need to do it is that these 4 patches
now actually form a sub-array of 4 elements. So, they will also give a larger gain
compared to this particular patch over here. The important thing is having some finite
gap between this patch and this patch. So, that the coupling to the 2 patches is reduced.
Because there will be fringing fields from here and there will be fringing fields from here
and that can get coupled to this here. So, if possible try to keep this gap greater than 2*h
where h is the thickness of the substrate. Then the coupling between this and this will be
relatively small.
Now remember there is a one issue that suppose if you take this here which is 2.85. The
third order mode of this, if you multiply this with 3 that will be close to 8.55 that is very
close to this here. So, the third order mode of this may be you know getting excited or
closed to this particular mode here. So, some interference or some coupling can happen.
So, sometimes those precautions need to be taken. So that the isolation between the 2 is
relatively good.
So, there are several other possibilities are there. In fact, if you recall we had discussed
about some compact antenna. Where what we had was we had a ring antenna. And in that
ring we took 2 different cases of a square ring as well as circular microstrip antenna ring.
So, in that ring what we had done, we had put another patch in between which was
shorted. So, that the 2 resonance frequencies are close to each other, but now for dual
band configuration what we can have? We can have a one ring, and inside the ring we
can have an another patch and that patch can resonate at any different frequency which is
desired. So, ring can work at the lower frequency and the in between patch can excite at
a higher frequency. So, that is actually a very good also candidate and there also by
properly feeding the 2 patches, one can actually design same polarisation as well as
orthogonal polarisation depending upon how you choose the feed point. There are many
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other configurations given in chapter 7 of my book broadband microstrip antenna. So, I
encourage you to go through that.
So, now we will discuss about circularly polarised microstrip antenna. So, we have just
discussed about dual band microstrip antenna. Now let us talk about circularly polarised
microstrip antenna. So, if you recall the earlier lecture, when we were talking about
antenna fundamentals, we did discuss about polarisation. We talked about linear
polarisation, we talked about circular polarisation, we talked about elliptical polarisation.
So, for example, if we take a case of a dipole antenna. So, this dipole antenna, what is the
polarisation for this. The E field is varying like this here. So, that is a vertically polarised
antenna. If I put it like this here, then it is horizontally polarised. So, if you want a
circular polarisation what is the condition for circular polarisation? That there will be
vertical component, there should be a horizontal component and these 2 component
should be fed with equal power and 90o phase difference. Now with dipole antenna it
becomes very tedious also to design these kind of a thing, but for a microstrip antenna it
is actually very very convenient to design circularly polarised microstrip antenna, but
first the question is why do we need circularly polarised microstrip antenna.
So, again assuming that let us say this is a transmitting antenna, let us say this is a
receiving antenna. Now if these 2 are properly aligned, then we will get full signal, but
suppose if this particular antenna is rotated by let say 90o, then the signal received by this
will be relatively very very small, but suppose if this was a circularly polarised antenna
transmitting, then in that case whether the field is, antenna is like this or antenna is in any
of this position, it will still receive exactly the same signal.
Then the question comes why we not always transmit circularly polarised antenna. Now
if we know that the alignment will be proper, it is better to transmit linearly polarised
antenna. The reason for that is see in order to transmit circularly polarised antenna what
we need, we need one vertical component, we need horizontal component. So, half
power will be fed to one, another half power will be fed to the other one, but suppose
now we are now putting only half power in the vertical, half power in the horizontal. And
if the receive is always going to be vertical, it will never ever receive the horizontal
component. So, that means, compared to linearly polarised both of them if it is circularly
polarised and if it is linearly, it will always receive half power less or 3 dB less.
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However, if it is circularly polarised and it is going to rotate, if it is aligned it will receive
0, but if it is not aligned it may receive- 30 dB, but by doing this circularly polarised and
this can be anywhere, it will receive only -3 dB less compared to the other situation.
Of course, if it is circularly polarised antenna and this is also circularly polarised

antenna, and if the polarisation is rotating same way then that will be a perfect match
then there is a no loss of 3 dB. So, now, with that little introduction, let us talk about
circularly polarised microstrip antenna, and how we can obtain circular polarisation
using microstrip antenna.
So, the first configuration is relatively very simple. This is a square microstrip antenna, S
is for square and this is circular microstrip antenna. So, let just look into this here, for a
square microstrip antenna what we do? So, length is equal to width. So, L will be equal
to W and we find the feed point x, I had given you a general guideline that x for a
rectangular patch can vary from L/6 to L/4 depending upon the bandwidth of the
antenna. So, y will have the same value as x. Now what we need to do it is, we need to
feed this antenna with let us say 10o that means amplitude is 1, angle is 0 and if we
feed this one as 190o or 1-90o. So, by changing say + 90o to - 90o, we can actually
make it left hand circularly polarised or right hand circularly polarised. So, we look into
that in the next slide.
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But here instead of using a square, we can also use a circle here. So, again circle can be
designed for a desired resonance frequency x can be calculated, again I had given a
general guideline that x can be from a/3 to a/2 for the given circular microstrip antenna
depending upon the bandwidth. So, choose y equal to x.
Now, here the advantage is again just I mentioned in the dual band. So, if you feed along
this here, there will be null along this axis. And if we feed here, there will be null along
this. So, that means, there will be a good isolation between these two feeds.
So, let us see now the example. So, here length is taken as 3 cm. These are the substrate
parameters and the 2 feeds are taken identical x is 0.5 cm, y is also at 0.5, but this is fed
with 10o, this is fed with 190o. And this is the concept for LHCP. If instead of 90 o, if
it is -90o then this will be RHCP - Right hand circularly polarised. So, you can actually
see here this antenna resonant approximately at 3 GHz. So, we can actually see that left
and right hand circularly polarised component. So, here do not look at E   = 0o or E 
= 90o which we normally see for linearly polarised antenna.
Here you should plot circularly polarised component. So, you can see that left hand
circularly polarised component has a maximum value and right hand circularly polarised
component has a lower value. So, now, ideally when this is getting excited this should
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not be getting excited. So, if you see in the broadside direction the isolation between the
2 polarised component is nothing, but closed to 40 dB.
Now, you might actually see that over here E L component and ER component are almost
same. So, that is really not circularly polarised at this particular angle, but normally we
do not care about that particular thing here. Most of the time what we are really
interested in is half power beam width. So, along the half power beam width if you see,
that this component is almost 25 to 30 dB or close to 40 dB over here. Which is
considered very good isolation and also there is another thing which is defined that is
axial ratio. So, will see in the next slide what is axial ratio and how it varies. And now
just remember here that this is h = 0.159. We will actually take different cases in the next
slide.
So, here is the case here solid line, which is for the previous case r = 2.55 and h equal to
this, just I have written again L is 3 cm, x = y = 0.5. Corresponding to this solid line you
can see that this is the VSWR curve. You can see that the bandwidth is relatively narrow
you can draw the line from here; you can see that is the VSWR < 2 bandwidths is here.
Now corresponding to this here, this is the axial ratio. How do we define axial ratio?
Again since we discussed this long time back just to tell you, axial ratio is nothing but
you can say that it is the major axis divided by minor axis. So, if it is elliptical
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polarisation if we take it. So, for elliptical polarisation major axis divided by minor axis
will give us axial ratio.
Now, from that if the ellipse becomes circle. So, then what will happen major axis
divided by minor axis will be equal to 1, and if we take the logarithm of that, that will be
0 dB. So, for circular polarisation axial ratio will be equal to 0 dB. What will happen for
linearly polarised, for linearly polarised you can think about ellipse is compressed to
single line. So, that will be linearly polarised. And in this case if you take the ratio AR
will be equal to infinity. So, axial ratio theoretically can vary from one numeric value to
infinity or in terms of axial ratio in dB you take a log of that, that will 0 dB to infinity.
So, in this case now let us see the axial ratio. So, for this particular case here you can see
that the axial ratio is really very very good. And generally we define bandwidth for axial
ratio less than 3 dB. That is acceptable for most of the application. You can see that over
here it is actually even less than 0.5 dB. So, this particular configuration gives lesser
bandwidth from VSWR point of view, but very large bandwidth from axial ratio point of
view.
Now, here is a case where r is same, but h is doubled. When h is doubled we know that
bandwidth should increase. So, x and y value has been shifted towards the edge which is
0.6 now. And for this particular case if h is increased what will happen? fringing fields
will increase, and if fringing fields increase resonance frequency will reduce. So, you can
see this is the corresponding curve. So, this curve has a slightly lower resonance
frequency than this curve here, that is because h is increased which increases fringing
field. You can also see that the bandwidth is relatively large compared to this over here.
Let us see the corresponding axial ratio. So, corresponding axial ratio is slightly worse
compared to the previous case, but still axial ratio is less than 1 dB, which is also fairly
good. Again we can say axial ratio bandwidth is larger than VSWR < 2 bandwidth.
Here is the next case, where what we have done? We have reduced the r. By reducing r,
we know that bandwidth will increase. We have also increased h also. So, that will also
help in increasing the bandwidth. Now since r is reduced and we wanted a resonance
frequency around 3 GHz. So, if r is reduced we have to increase the length. So, here
length is increased again since it has a larger bandwidth we need to shift the feed point
towards the edge or away from the centre. So, you can see that this is increasing.
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For this particular case now, let us see the VSWR plot. So, this is the VSWR plot here.
So, one can see that it has a very large VSWR < 2 bandwidth. Let us see corresponding
axial ratio plot. So, this is the axial ratio plot here. You can see that this axial ratio is
worse than these 2 axial ratios, but still this axial ratio is less than 3 dB. So, we can say
that it is again a very good antenna, but I want to just mention this is a hypothetical or
just a theoretical thing because we have taken one angle 0 and one angle 90 o as a perfect
thing for simulation. In real situation this will not be the case. Always power will not be
divided equally and always phase will be not 90 o difference. So, this is an ideal situation,
but even in this ideal situation you can see that this has become poorer.
So, what is the reason? In fact, there are lot of reasons given in the literature, some
places it says because the antenna bandwidth has increased, that is why axial ratio has
become poor, but that is not really the reason. Actual reason is if you see here probe
height is increased basically substrate thickness is increased, compact axial feed is there.
So, probe height is increased.
So, now you think about probe is like a top loaded monopole antenna. So, there is a
probe and the patch is acting like this thing. So, if this height is small the effective
radiation from this monopole will be relatively small, but as the height increases, then
what will happen? Effective radiation from the monopole will increase. And if that
radiation increases, that is a linearly polarised radiation. And also the phases going to the
2 different ports will be different. So, what it results into only one component not both x
and y component, but it also results into phase degradation.
So, because this probe is acting more effective radiator; that means, the component
generated by that will be higher which is not circularly polarised component and hence
axial ratio becomes poor, but yet the result is fairly decent it is still less than 3 dB and
you can actually see over the desired bandwidth over here we can see that this is still less
than 3 dB.
So, in the next lecture, we will actually talk about how to realise these 2 feet in the
practical scenario. And also we will talk about several configurations which use only
single feed point so, will talk about practical realisation of dual feed as well as single
feed circularly polarised microstrip antenna.
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Thank you very much. We will see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture – 34
Circularly Polarized MSA – I
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on circularly polarized microstrip antenna. In fact in the
last lecture, we discussed about why we need circularly polarized antenna and then we looked
at simple configuration of square and circular microstrip antenna which can generate circular
polarization by feeding at two orthogonal point. So, let us just continue our discussion.
We had seen that here is a square patch and we had fed at 2 orthogonal points and by feeding
this 1  0, 1  90 which is this is 1  0, this is 1  90, we got LHCP, alternatively if you
make 1  0, 1  -90 then it will become RHCP and we had seen the component; LHCP
component and RHCP component and we noticed that in the half power beam width, E r
component is very small and then we had taken 3 different cases.
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So r = 2.55 with 2 different h and then r1, so what we notice that by increasing the substrate
thickness and reducing r, we could get a much wider VSWR bandwidth; however, axial ratio
becomes slightly poorer for r = 1 and h = 0.5, but still it is within AR < 3 dB. Now in this
particular simulation, we had assumed ideal condition of 1  0 and 1  90 whereas, in
practice it will never really happen. So, let us see today, what is the practical way of realizing
these configurations.
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Here it is 2 different possibilities are shown over here. So, what we have here? This is a
square patch and then a quarter wave transformer has been used, I will tell the reason also.
So, we know that impedance is 0  over here and impedance is maximum; this impedance is
much more than 50 . So, it is a larger impedance, say quarter wave impedance transformer
has been used over here and similarly a quarter wave impedance transformer has been used
here. Now both feed 1 and 2 are never used, it is just to show you if you feed at 1, you can get
LHCP or if you feed here, you can get RHCP. Now between the 2 feed, the distance you can
see is /4. / 4 gives us additional phase shift. So, if you see now, this is symmetrical with
respect to this here. So, you can say that the power going here will be equal to power going
over here.
But between this and this, you can say distance wise the phase difference is 90. So, by
changing this position from here to here, we can either have a leading or lagging phase shift
which will give rise to LHCP or RHCP, but I generally do not recommend this particular
configuration, I recommend this particular configuration and even for this configuration, will
show you some other single feed point configuration which gives actually similar response as
compared to this here. So, I strongly recommend that please do not use this configuration.
Now, this is a much better configuration than that; what is the difference here? This part is
remained same here and that is a /4 transformer is used here, /4 transformer is used here.
So, this is high impedance; high impedance that high impedance is transformed to 50  here,
50  here. Now what we really have here? This is actually at 2 branch coupler. So, let me
explain, what is a 2 branch coupler? So, for that we have to first understand the microstrip
line. So, think about if there is a one microstrip line here. So, if I feed at this particular point,
power will go to this end here, which is straight forward. So, now, if I put another microstrip
line which is in parallel with this line here; with this small gap so what will happen now?
There will be a microstrip line will have some fringing field.
That fringing field will get couple to the other microstrip line. So, what will happen?
Something field will get induced into it. So, think about if you have a current carrying
conductor then generally what happen? Induce EMF in the opposite direction. So, here also if
you feed in this direction output mainly will go there, but part of the power will get couple to
this side and this one theoretically is a isolated port. It will not get any power; practically it
may be -30 dB or -40 dB or more depending upon the configuration which you have used.
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So, here we feed power, part of the power gets reflected back here and generally this is used
in many applications. In fact, this is actually known as the coupled line directional coupler
and the coupling between the 2 is optimum when the length is equal to /4 or odd multiple of
/4 then coupling is maximum.
But the problem with this configuration is even though coupling is we say very large, the
coupling is still about maybe -6 dB, -10 dB or -20 dB, now that has application for example,
let us say if I am transmitting say 20 W of power and we want to really know whether is it
exactly 20 W or it is less or more. So, suppose we have designed it say 10 dB coupler then 10
dB coupler would mean 10% power so; that means, out of that 20 W, 2 W will be getting
coupled over here, but that is too high. So, that is why a 20 dB coupler would mean 1%
power is coming here and that can be used to monitor the power or it may be used for
automatic gain control or this thing may be going to some other circuit, now that is a coupled
line. But for circularly polarized antenna; what we need? We need output which has equal
amplitude? So, this is not going to do the job.
To increase the coupling, now what you think about is that instead of having a gap between
the 2, if we now physically connect a line like this and physically connect a line like this. So,
what we have achieved is 2 branches which are following from here to here and over here to
here that is what the configuration is known as, this is known as 2 branch line coupler. So,
here is a one microstrip line, here is another microstrip line and what you can see here, there
are 2 branches are connected in between. Now in this case, this length is /4, this is /4, this
is /4, this is /4. So, let us just have a quick analysis in a very simple way.
Suppose if I feed a power here then part of the power will go here, part of the power will go
to this side here, then this part of the power; part of the power will go over here and the rest
of the part will go over here. Similarly the power which is coming here, partly it will go
there, partly it will come here. So, now, let see what happen. So, there are 2 parts from here to
here. The 2 parts are: one here which is let us say /4, /4. Now each /4 gives phase
difference of 90. So, this is 90 and 90; 180. This part also travels 90, 90; 180. So, the 2
parts get added up. So, we get a sum power here, now for this particular port here, actually
speaking nothing comes here that all depends how we choose the impedances. So, in this case
what happens? The path over here gives us 90 phase difference and then this is 90, another
90, another 90. So that is 270, 270 is also equivalent to you can say -90. So, this one
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here and this one here; these 2 cancel each other and hence power is coming which is 0. Now
for this side, here also you can see that the power goes here which is /4 which is 90 from
here to here to here, again it is going as 270. So, then the question comes, why this is not
becoming 0? The reason for that is you have taken a larger width here. So, larger width
means larger power goes, here fraction of the power goes here, out of this fraction power,
some fraction is going and then fraction of that is going. So, it is like this is also -90 phase
delay, this here is -270 phase delay which is +90. So, even though that the 2 paths have
opposite phase, but cancellation does not extinct this way suppose. If this is coming at to be
let us say a number, if we say 0.8 and if this is coming out to be let us say 0.1. So, that will be
0.7. In fact, that is what is the |S21| value here, but otherwise half power will be there
corresponding to 0.707. So, basic idea is larger power is going. So, part of the power is only
getting over here which is subtracting. So, now, between the 2, what it is? the phase
difference between the 2 is 90 which is what is require and these impedances Z 1 and Z2 are
chosen such a way that half power goes here and half power goes here and if half power goes
here and there, that is known as a 3 dB 2 branch coupler and just to tell you. So, if this is a 50
, 50  then Z1 for 3 dB coupler comes out to be 50 /2 which is 35.35 . So, these 2 are
same and Z2 comes out to be 50 . So, if we choose 50  and 35.35 , this become say 3 dB
2 branch line coupler.
Now if we feed here, this will be relatively isolated port or if we feed here then this will be
isolated port. So, here we can do something interesting, you feed here; let us say we will get a
LHCP, if we feed here then we will get RHCP. So, when you feed here, this should be
terminated with the 50  match load or if you feed here then this should be terminated with
50  match load and now you can see that the power gets divided, if we are feeding here,
half power here, half power here which is getting impedance matched to this impedance and
hence it is properly matched and it gives circular polarization. Now the only problem with
this particular configuration is, it occupies lot of area because already there is a patch over
here which is /2 x /2 and we have a /4 another /4. So, the size of the antenna becomes
large. So, that is the only disadvantage, but now this disadvantage, we have used for
advantage; will show you the next configuration now.
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Now, what is this configuration here? This configuration actually is circularly polarized
suspended circular microstrip antenna with dual feed. So, what we have done here? Here
entire green which is here that is down here also that is acting as a ground plane. So, that is a
circular ground plane which we have taken and then we have a circular patch here which is
printed underneath of this substrate over here and that is suspended instead of in the air, we
have actually used a foam to provide a proper support otherwise we can use air also then we
have to provide support over here. So, this foam provides a support and these 2 are substrates.
So, this we have used for this example RT Duroid 5870 substrate whose parameters are r, h =
0.8 mm thickness substrate. So, these are the 2 identical substrates over here. So, now, the
patch is suspended over here and printed in the underneath side of the substrate, now what we
have done, this 2 branch coupler that has been designed on this particular substrate here. So,
this gray color comes over here, you can see that is getting merged with this line over here
and then we are feeding at these 2 port here port 1 or 2.
That is the port 1 corresponding to this over here and this is another port. So, depending upon
again, we feed here or here, we can change LHCP to RHCP or RHCP to LHCP. So, now,
these 2 point here are connected via this here. So, you basically connect 1 solder your wire
here to here and solder another wire over here and that is what the proper connection. So, in
this case, you can see that a real estate has increased in the vertical plane, but not in the
horizontal as in the previous case here and by using this configuration we are actually getting
a much broader bandwidth also because effective dielectric constant seen by this is very
small, foam had a typical dielectric constant r = 1.05 and this one had a r = 2.33, but since
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this foam thickness h = 4, this is only dielectric thickness = 0.8, effective dielectric constant
seen by this patched is just approximately around eff = 1.1. So, low r seen by the patch and
also higher h so which gives rise to the larger bandwidth. Now, we will show you the actual
design and requirement, so the requirement was, we wanted to have a circularly polarized
antenna in the s band to cover 2.7 to 2.9 GHz which is about 7% bandwidth. So, that is why
we choose this configuration.
Corresponding to this frequency and knowing what is the effective dielectric constant patch
diameter comes out to be 52 mm, a ground plane diameter is taken as a 90 mm. So, this is the
input impedance response corresponding to the feed port here. So, whether you feed at this
port or this port, since everything is symmetrical both the responses are identical.
Now, let just see what is the reflection coefficient response? So, here 0, -5, -10, so instead of
defining bandwidth for |S11| < -10 dB which would be very large bandwidth, we have actually
defined it |S11| < -15 dB. So, even for this value, you can see that the bandwidth is from 2.62
to 3.1 GHz which is 17%.
Our desire requirement was only 7%. So, you can see that there is a lot of margin on both left
side and right side and |S 11| < -15 dB corresponds to VSLR < 1.5. So, it is a much better
matched antenna. Now corresponding to this here, let us see this is the plot for axial ratio
versus frequency. So, what we can see that this is the axial ratio 3 here? So, axial ratio AR < 3
dB bandwidth is very large that is about 21% whereas, our requirement is only about 7%. So,
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you can see that for that requirement from 2.7 to 2.9 GHz, axial ratio AR < 2.3 or so. So it
meets all the requirement as such for the desired design.
Let us just now look at the gain plot. So, for this particular case gain is about 6.2 dB at the
center frequency and the gain variation over 2.7 to 2.9 GHz is relatively very small. Here is
the radiation pattern. So, LHCP radiation pattern at 2.8 GHz. So, this is the LHCP component
that is  equal to 0 and  equal to 90, you can see that.
In fact, ideally if you take  equal to 0, 10, 15, 20, full 360, the variation should be
relatively very small and you can see that the variation is small specially over the half power
beam width, range we can see that the cross polar is slightly higher here. Here the cross
polarize component is right hand circularly polarized component, but still that is about 17, 18
dB below the normal thing. So, why cross polar is slightly poor the reason for that is again,
we can just see that the total height is quite significant and the feed is coming over here these
are the thing and this will act like again a top loaded monopole antenna and that will not be
circularly polarized; that is a linearly polarized. So, this is getting super imposed on the
radiation pattern of circularly polarized antenna hence there is a slightly poor axial ratio.
We are not getting close to 0 dB or 1 dB it is close to 2, but yet we can see that axial ratio <
2.3 dB over the desired band and the isolation is still better than about 17 dB in the desired
frequency range now these are the situation which are for you can say the 2 feed antenna.
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Now, there are many configurations available, they actually use single feed circularly
polarized microstrip antenna and there are n number of variations are there for the circularly
polarized microstrip antenna. Let me just say what these are. So, this is a nearly square
microstrip antenna where this is length L1 and this is length L2 and L1 = L2, but not same and
this is being feed along the diagonal.
I will just explain this particular thing how it is working. So, what happens? Let us say if we
feed along the diagonal and we have to just take a case here. So, let us say L 1 is larger than L2,
but slightly larger than L2. So, what happens if L1 is larger than L2 that at lower frequency
which will correspond to f1 then this length will be resonant and we are feeding it along
diagonal. So, this length is resonant so; that means, there will be a phase difference of 45 at
slightly higher frequency this length will be resonant because L 2 is small. So, now, this will
act as a resonant now between the 2 resonances this is 45 and this is also 45. So, between
the 2 orthogonal resonances phase difference will be 90. So, that satisfies the criteria that the
2 orthogonal polarization should have a 90 phase difference. So, how that particular thing is
achieved that can be explained. So, let us just look at corresponding to L 1, we look at the
resonance curves here.
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Let us say corresponding to length L1 as I said, length L1 is more. So, here is the resonance
curve corresponding to L1 which is equal to f1. Now corresponding to length L2, this is the
resonance curve for f2. Now you can see that if we look at this curve here when this patch is
resonant f1 corresponding resonator value of f2 is very very small. So, this cannot give us a
circular polarization because circular polarization has condition that the amplitude for the 2
orthogonal mode should be equal and that condition is getting satisfied only at this particular
point. So, at this particular point which let me call now as f 0, we get circular polarization why
at this point the 2 amplitudes are equal and also the phase difference between them is equal to
90. Now as the frequency increases you can see here this amplitude is maximum, but
corresponding to this; this amplitude is very very small.
So, for you can say 3 dB variation let me use some different color. So, you can see that for 3
dB amplitude, variation will be over this. So, this is the frequency range over which we can
say axial ratio will be relatively less than 3 dB beyond that axial ratio will not be very good.
So, this is the general concept so just to repeat that and look at this particular configuration
again. So, what we would like to see that at frequency f 1, this length becomes resonant at
frequency f2, this length becomes resonant and as I mentioned that at f1 when this is resonant
that will be dominant E-plane will be in this here let us say horizontal and at f 2 the dominant
will be vertical polarization, but in between as we change the frequency from f1 to f2.
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What we can see the dominant horizontal polarization changes to vertical polarization, but in
between there is a circular polarization. So, this particular configuration as such gives larger
bandwidth from impedance matching point of view, but it gives very small axial ratio
bandwidth. So, now, once you have understood this. You will actually see that these all
configurations are very simple to understand. So, here it is a square patch length L here, this
is also length L here, but here this stub is attached. So, if by adding this stub what happens?
This length will be slightly more than this length here. So, since the 2 lengths are
approximately equal slightly different and this is spread along diagonal; that means, the phase
difference between this and this will be 90 and hence it can give circular polarization.
Instead of nearly square, we can use a square with two stub instead of adding stub, we can
also cut a notch. By adding a notch again what happens this length will be changing through
the path here and this length will be changing through another path so that 2 length should be
different. Now this is the configuration where diagonal is changed you can see that a
triangular segment has been removed from here and here. So, you look at this diagonal and
then you look at this diagonal. So, you can see that the 2 diagonals have different dimension
and between the 2 diagonal, just put the feed over here. So, for this feed, this will be let us
say at 45 this also will be at a 45 . One will be leading and one will be lagging. But the 2
diagonal will have a phase difference of 90. Instead of cutting a triangular segment, we can
also cut a notch like this the concept is similar. So, again this length will be different then this
length here then there is another possibility that is we cut a slot like this here. So, now, what
happens? This diagonal length will be going like this and reaches here whereas, this diagonal
length now will be going like this going around and then coming back here so that means,
now the 2 diagonal lengths are different and repeat in between. So, this is -45 this will be let
us say +45 between the 2 phase will be 90. So, it will give circular polarization, but all of
these configuration actually speaking give very less axial ratio bandwidth. In fact, you will
see that typical axial ratio bandwidth obtained by these configuration may be 1 to 2%. So, let
just now take an example.
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Here is an example where length is taken as 3 cm which is L 1 and what we are actually to
going to show you here for different values of L2, what happens? So, here L1 is taken, feed
point has been kept fixed as 0.15*L 1 and 0.15*L2; these are the substrate parameter. So, now,
let us see what we get for different values of L 2, there are 3 cases are there, 2.9 GHz, 2.92
GHz, 2.95 GHz. I just want to mention here, how to choose these particular values here. So,
remember corresponding to this here since substrate is very thin the bandwidth of this
antenna is just about less slightly less than 2%, first let us just see the result then will come
back to the ratio. So, for 2.9 GHz, you can see that there is a small loop over here. For 2.92
GHz that loop has almost become a kink. In fact, the definition of the kink is when the loop
size is almost close to 0, it becomes a kink and the kink is the point which is which actually
gives us the best axial ratio because kink is the point where one resonance frequency shifted
to the another resonance frequency and that is where the amplitude of the transition is exactly
equal leading rise to the kink and if the value is increased to 2.95 GHz which is getting close
to 3 cm, you can see that the loop has completely disappeared. If this is equal to 3 cm. There
will be no even bent also here that will be going to the simple response will be of that of is
square patch. Now corresponding to this, let us first just look at the axial ratio. So, we can see
that the best axial ratio is obtain when there is a kink and you can see that the axial ratio is
relatively poor for other 2 cases. So, for optimization of this configuration, I always advice
look at the smith chart plot and if it is a kink that is what will give you the best axial ratio.
Now corresponding to these cases this is the case for VSWR here. For the kink, this is the
VSWR plot and for the small loop here this is the VSWR plot.
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You can see that this plot gives me a larger VSWR bandwidth, but that is not the useful
bandwidth because here then polarization changes as frequency changes. Since we have taken
L2 as small. So, that will have a higher resonance frequency. So, at lower frequency this will
be a resonant. So, let us say that will be horizontally polarized and that at higher frequency
that this will get excited that will be vertically polarized. So, it will go from horizontally
polarized to circularly polarized to vertically polarized antenna. So, VSWR large bandwidth
is not useful because in this case, it will be horizontally polarized then this will be linearly
polarized. Only in this region we are getting circularly polarized given by that axial ratio over
here.
This particular configuration gives us LHCP left hand circular polarization, if we change that
diagonal position feed along this diagonal that will give us right hand circular polarization,
but even here, we have taken L2 small if you take L2 larger than L1 then for this feed, it will be
right hand circular polarization. So, it is important to know in which direction the field is
moving and that is what determines our left hand or right hand circular polarization.
In the next lecture, we will see many more configurations of circularly polarized antenna will
also see how to realize compact circularly polarized antenna, we will also talk about
broadband circularly polarized microstrip antenna. So, we are going to see lots of variations
of circularly polarized microstrip antenna and this material has been taken mostly from my
book broadband microstrip antenna chapter 8. So, see you, please read this portion again
before attending my next lecture.
Thank you, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture – 35
Circularly Polarized MSA – II
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on circularly polarized microstrip antenna. In the last
lecture, we started discussing about circularly polarized microstrip antenna and we did look
into why we need circularly polarized antenna instead of linearly polarized antenna because if
we use circularly polarized antenna then the orientation of the receiving antenna if it is
linearly polarized, it does not really matter. It was still receive the full signal and then we
looked into how we can realize circularly polarized microstrip antenna using a very simple
technique by feeding a square microstrip antenna with 2 orthogonal feeds with 1 0o and 1
90o. Instead of square microstrip antenna, we also saw that we could use circularly microstrip
antenna by using 2 orthogonally feed and the reason for that is that is square microstrip
antenna.
If you feed along, let us say in one axis along the center then the null will be there at the
perpendicular direction. So, for example, if this is a rectangular microstrip antenna. We feed
here that will excite this particular plane which is E-plane and along the center there will be a
null and if you feed at this particular point there will be null in the other direction. So, by
feeding at those 2 points with 1 0o, 1 90o, we saw that we could get circular polarization
and LHCP or RHCP can be obtain which is left hand circularly polarized or right hand
circularly polarized antenna can be obtained simply by using feeds like 1 0o, 1 90o or 1
0o, 1 -90o.
Then we also saw how this power divider network can be realized and we actually saw that at
2 branch coupler meets the requirement, a 2 branch coupler gives us equal output as well as
90o phase difference and then we looked into it that that particular thing if it is then the same
plane will actually occupy much larger space. So, in order to reduce the overall area of the
antenna then what we have to looked into a configuration where 3 dB 2 branch coupler was
realize at the bottom layer and then the square patch was put on the top layer in an inverted
configuration and by connecting those output of the coupler to the feed point location, we
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saw that we could get very broadband circularly polarized microstrip antenna then we also
looked into how we can get circular polarization using single feed microstrip antenna. So, we
will continue from there.
Let us just look at the configuration which we had looked in the last lecture. So, these were
nearly square patch I will just go through one more time. So, this length is L 1, this length is L2
and the ratio of L1 by L2 should be approximately equal to 1.01 to 1.10 depending upon the
bandwidth of the antenna and bandwidth is determined by the substrate parameter. So, if r is
low and substrate is thick then it will have a higher bandwidth so in that case will have a ratio
which could be maybe close to 1.05 or so, but if the bandwidth is less then the ratio should be
small and then we noticed that by feeding this particular antenna along the diagonal. So, what
really happens and let us says is if we assume L 1 is longer than L2 then for L1 frequency f1
will be lower and at L2 frequency will be higher. So, when L1 is getting excited at lower
frequency and since the feed is along the diagonal, this particular polarization will be there
and that is how the radiation dominant will come from the f 1. As frequency increases then
what happens L2 will become resonant. So, then this particular portion will become dominant.
So, from horizontal it will go to vertical, but in between it will go to circular when the
frequencies of f1 and f2 will be relatively close and we had seen the resonance curve also that
when the resonance cross over takes place at that particular point, we will get axial ratio.
Now instead of using a nearly square patch, one can also use a square patch with 2 stubs. So,
basically now this will be one dimension and this dimension will be slightly more. That
means, frequency will reduce and we again feed along the diagonal in this case, instead of
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adding is stub, a notch has been cut over here. So, this length will be less, this length is going
to be more. Now instead of that here, one can also chop the corners and by cutting the chops
along the corner we have a one diagonal length and we have another diagonal length. So, this
diagonal length will be smaller giving rise to a slightly different frequency compare to this
diagonal length. So, we are feeding in between the 2. So, again this will be let us say 45 o
leading, this will be 45o lagging and the net result will be 90o phase difference. Instead of
chopping the corner, we can also cut its notch in the corner with the similar effect. Instead of
that we can even cut a slot here. In this case will have a diagonal length which will go like
this and come over here and another diagonal length will go like this move like this here and
then goes here. So, 2 diagonal lengths are different and we are feeding in between the 2
diagonal lengths.
Then we have seen, what is the effect of the length L 2? So, we have taken a fixed length of L 1
and these plots are for different values of L 2. So, just to quickly go through so, L 1 was 3 cm,
feed position is along the diagonal and these are the substrate parameter and since h is
relatively small. So, that is why it has a narrower bandwidth and hence we have taken 3
different values which are relatively close to L1. These are 2.9 GHz, 2.92 GHz, 2.95 GHz so
corresponding to 2.9 GHz, we can actually see that there is a small loop there, for 2.92 GHz
that loop is reduced to kink and then for 2.95 GHz, you can see that even the loop is not
there. Just little bit bend is there and if this becomes 3 GHz then this will become a square
patch and there will not be any kink or any bend also. Now corresponding to these 3 curve,
we get the best AR which is over here and this particular case corresponds to when there is a
kink over here. Basically what this kink implies that over here one of the patch length was
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dominant and here there is a transition took place other patch length is dominant and at this
particular point where there is a transition, the amplitude will be approximately equal and
hence it is giving a good AR now.
If you look at here corresponding to this curve here, this is the VSWR curve. So, you can see
that this is VSWR = 2 over here. So, we can see it has a much larger bandwidth then
corresponding to the AR < 3 dB bandwidth. So, we can actually say that even though this has
a larger VSWR bandwidth, but it is not the very useful bandwidth because at this particular
frequency which is a lower frequency L1 will be resonant. So, this polarization will be
dominant. At the higher frequency, this will be dominant. So, that will give rise to a vertical
polarization and only in between this smaller portion where we can see that axial ratio is less,
we will get a circular polarization, now this particular loop over here that actually gives a
much larger VSWR < 2 bandwidth, but it is not at all a useful bandwidth because the
polarization dominant here will be horizontally polarized then circularly polarized and then
vertically polarized. So, it is not a very good antenna because the pattern is not symmetrical.
Now for this particular feed and L1, L2 we get LHCP which is left hand circular polarization.
So, instead of feeding along this diagonal, if we feed along this diagonal over here
somewhere here then we will get right hand circular polarization. Now even for this feed
point, we took L2 which is smaller than L1, if we take L2 larger than L1; that means, instead of
2.92 GHz, let us say if we take this as close to say 3.1, in that particular case what we will get
will be a right hand circular polarization. So, one has to be careful to know what kind of a
polarization, we will get it. So, now, let us just look at another configuration and this is a
nearly square ring microstrip antenna.
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Let me first explain when we discuss about compact microstrip antenna, we had actually seen
that in a rectangular patch if we cut a slot in between it becomes like a ring microstrip
antenna then what really happens we noticed that it actually becomes a compact microstrip
antenna. So, now, over here now this particular length has been taken as L 1 here it is L2 and
these this is actually taken as a square. So, that is a L and L and we feed along the diagonal
and here we can get a impedance matching and there are several variations possible over
here. Instead of using L1, L2, we can use square patch with diagonal cut or we can use square
patch with corner chop and other possibilities are there or we can do another thing. We can
take outer one as a square patch; that means, L 1 = L2, but here we can take L1 and L2 which
are different values. So, then what happens even then we can get a circular polarization. Now,
we had also seen that for a compact microstrip antenna when this particular thing increases
significantly. Which is the case over here we can see that a much larger slot has been cut
inside the patch. So, in this case what happens impedance will not be equal to 50  just like
what we could get here with the matching. So, over here a quarter wave transformer has been
used to do the impedance matching and again as I mentioned before L 1, L2 can be square then
this will be nearly square or it can be corner chop or other configuration. So, we looked into
it. So, it is not that we can only use the variations of square we can also use the variations of
circle and triangle also.
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Here is a configuration which is a elliptical microstrip antenna. So, what we really have here
is a major axis to a minor axis 2b. So, the ratio of major axis to minor axis again should vary
between 1.01 to about 1.1 depending upon the bandwidth of the circular microstrip antenna.
Instead of using a circle or here we can say ellipse, we can also use a circle with notches cut
in between. So, what really happens now? So, along this dimension, length will be equal to
the diameter, but over here length will be slightly different and we are feeding in between the
2. Instead of cutting a notch, we can also add a stub or we can cut a slot in between. So,
basically path length this side and the path length this side will be different and we can get
circular polarization and again instead of using a circular patch, we can also use triangular
patch and its variation. So, this is equilateral triangular microstrip antenna, but it is nearly
equilateral why now S1 and S1 , S2 is different. So, this again is to be chosen such a way just
like in the case of elliptical or nearly square. So, the ratio of the two again should be between
1.01 to 1.1 and then one can use a chopped triangle tip here which is equilateral triangle just
similar to this here or one can cut a slot here or one can cut a notch here in between.
I generally do not recommend triangular microstrip antenna because it is not a symmetrical

configuration. So, hence it does lead to a higher cross polar. So, I generally recommend that
you can use the variations of square microstrip antenna or you can use variation of circular
microstrip antenna. Let us look at some more compact circularly polarized configuration.
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Here there are variations of square microstrip antenna. So, just to mention here, what we
have? So, here there is a length L and this is also length L. So, it is a square microstrip
antenna and in this square microstrip antenna, 4 slots have been cut here. So, here you can see
that this length is lX. So, these 2 are same and these 2 lengths are l Y. You can just imagine for
a minute that if these 2 slots are not there if these 2 slots are not there then what will happen?
This actually looks like a H-shaped patch and we had discussed about H-shaped patch. So, H-
shaped patch is relatively more compact compare to the square microstrip antenna because
imagine again this is not there. So, this will be the one path and then the path will be
something like this here. So, path length has increased, path length has increased. So,
resonance frequency will reduce.
Now instead of thinking this. You now think about this is not there. So, now, the path length
will be like this here path length. So, this will be you can say rotated H, now when we have
slots cut on both the side, you can just say that it is a modified H configuration in both this
plane as well as in this plane and we have chosen l X ≠ lY. So, that the 2 path length will be
different and if the 2 path length are different, resonance frequency will be different and we
can feed along the diagonal to get circular polarization.
Again there are lot of variations possible here. One can take all these 4 sometimes people also
call these slits are cut in the patch. Sometimes it is also known as a deep notches are cut in
the patch where basically meaning the similar thing. So, here now we can also do that l X = lY
can be taken and then this can be taken as L1 and this can be taken as L2 or one can take L and
L here, one can have notches over here and so on. So, there are lots of possibilities are there
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to do the variation, but just to tell you here. So, one can get a compact circularly polarized
microstrip antenna using this configuration.
This is another configuration which is a fairly compact configuration. Now, let us just first
see here. So, we if you think that this is not there just imagine that this is not there in that case
then this will be one length and this will be the another length and that is why the feed is put
between the 2 diagonals to get circular polarization. Now by cutting these slots in between
there 4 of them are there. So, that it is symmetrical configuration. So, in this case now the
path length will be not straight from here to here, but it is going to be like this here it will go
around. It will go around then come back over here. So, path length has increased
significantly and hence resonance frequency reduces. Again, we can think about lot of
variation. So, here it is a square patch with notches one can use L 1, L2 and then we can have
things over here or we can take these length different. We can take a square patch and so on,
but I just want to tell you in all of these cases whether you take L 1, L2 or you take L with a
notch and so on. Variation in the performance is relatively very very small and this kind of
antenna is actually very useful for let us say for example, GPS antenna. Now, that is a global
positioning system and the frequency of that is 1575 MHz and the bandwidth is ± 10 MHz.
So, the total bandwidth is about 20 MHz that is about just about close to 1.4% of this which is
relatively small bandwidth. So, one can use some of these configuration. Now in this
particular case here for GPS application, they receive antenna should be right hand circularly
polarized antenna.
So, now, let us just look into it. So, by using this kind of a configuration we can realize a
compact antenna everybody wants a compact antenna for GPS application, just think about
your mobile phone GPS antenna is inside that. As it is inside the mobile phone, there are
plenty of antennas are there, there are antennas for 2G application. There may be a antennas,
for 3G, now 4G is coming, then it should also have a Wi-Fi antenna. So, many antennas are
inside your mobile phone. So, we do want all these antennas to be compact and hence this
particular thing finds lot of application. In fact, even think about you might have seen
something active GPS also. So, there also use nearly square microstrip antenna. But on a
relatively thick substrate and there use generally high dielectric constant substrate. Some of
them use alumina substrate which has r = 10. Some of them use substrate which has and r
close to 6 and of course, you can use that technique which I mentioned you can cut slots or
slits and that way you can realize compact microstrip antenna.
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Now, instead of using a square variation, we can also use the circular variation and I just want
to tell that many of these variations are actually important depending upon where you want to
install these antennas or where you want to put these antennas. So, here are the compact CP
CMSA variation with slits or slots. So, here what we have, we have a circular patch over here
and in the circular patch, these equal dimensions slots are cut here and here a stub has been
added to do the tuning.
One can actually see that the 2 orthogonal dimensions will now be not same and we feed
along the center of these 2 dimensions and since we are feeding it over here at the periphery.
At the periphery input impedance were be very high. So, /4 quarter wave transformer has
been used to do the impedance transformation to match with 50 . So, here again we could
have had lot of variation, you do not need to have this kind of a thing here. These 2 slots
could have been of different dimension or instead of taking a circle, this could have been
taken as a ellipse also and that also could have been given circular polarization. Now instead
of using these, you can say plus kind of slot 1 can also cut slot along the periphery. So, here
we have a circular patch with these slots which are curve slots and this one here is cut
basically to do the impedance matching from here, but this is mainly for circularly polarized
tuning.
By cutting this particular thing, changing this dimension, it is easy to do the tuning of the
antenna to obtain proper or good circularly polarized antenna. So, we had also seen this
configuration for rectangular ring. Here it is a circular ring. So, again we know this will be a
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compact configuration and this is another variation that where it is fed over here and here and
at this particular point, you can even use a /4 transformer, if required to transform the
impedance and over here what you can see that this is the one small length here and this is the
relatively larger length. So, this larger length should be equal to this smaller length plus /4.
So, that it provides 90o phase difference. So, again here instead of using this kind of a
configuration, a relatively smaller ring has been cut here and then we can cut the notches or
add the stub along this then this can be circular or alternatively. We can have this circular and
we can cut notches or in this case we can add stub whatever where you would like to see. In a
reality, this whole thing has been removed from this particular patch over here. So, these are
several variations are there. Similar variations are also there for triangular, but as I mentioned
earlier, I generally recommend that you use variations of rectangular or variations of circular
microstrip antenna. So, these are all compact configuration.
Let us just look at now some broadband configurations also after all we do require broadband
circularly polarized microstrip antenna. So, here I just want to tell whatever the broadband
configuration we had studied earlier which are also given in chapter 3, 4 and 5 of my book.
They all can be suitably modified to obtain broadband circularly polarized antenna.
Here is one example, this is a radiating edge gap coupled microstrip antenna, if I look from
this feed point of view and for this feed point of view, this will be along the null direction, but
if you now look at this particular feed point. So, in this case, now this is radiating edge. So,
this will be more like a non radiating edge gap coupled configuration. So, what really
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happens for this particular feed? Let us say choose 1 0, we can choose 1 90o or 1-90o
depending upon LHCP or RHCP is required so, but I still do not recommend this
configuration very strongly. The reason for that is as I mentioned earlier for this feed, this is
radiating edge and we know that radiating edge field is uniform. So, we may need a little
larger gap, but for this particular feed here this will act as a non-radiating edge and along
non-radiating edge is we actually have a sinusoidal field variation. So, for that particular case
coupling will be relatively weak. So, what happens for these 2 feed points then for this feed
point, there will be relatively stronger coupling, for this it will be relatively weaker coupling.
There will be some difference in the input impedance plot, but it gets a fairly good axial ratio
bandwidth so, but I do recommend this particular configuration. In fact, here what we do. Just
take all the parasitic patches equal when you take all the parasitic patches equal. So, let us
again think about this feed point. So, for this feed point, these are the radiating edges, these
are the non-radiating edge, but for this feed point now, these are the non-radiating edges.
These are the radiating edges. So, in reality, the response will be similar because we have
taken L1 equal for all the parasitic patches. So, here again we need to feed. Here let us say 1
0 o, 1 90o for LHCP and that can be obtained by using let us say, we can use on this on the
top layer and underneath layer, we can actually designed a 2 branch 3 dB coupler and we can
connect over here, but I also want to mention, now it is very broadband configuration. So,
even 3 dB 2 branch coupler which generally may have acceptable bandwidth of about 20%
and these configuration may give us bandwidth of about 25% or so. In that case, instead of
using 3 dB 2 branch coupler; one can even use 3 dB 3 branch coupler or even 3 dB 4 branch
coupler and there is a lot of area available underneath these patches. So, which can be utilized
to excite all these antennas.
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Now instead of going planar one can also go vertical also. Here is the configuration where
this is a stacked broadband circularly polarized square microstrip antenna that is important
here. So, we have a square patch at the bottom layer, we have a square patch at the top layer.
Here, all the things are taken in air to realize very broadband antenna and again, we can feed
here 10o, 190o or 10o, 1-90o for RHCP. So, these are the different configuration.
In the next lecture, we will discuss about some more broadband configuration and will see
that how we can also use these circularly polarized antenna in the form of an array and will
look into a very nice concept of sequentially rotated circularly polarized microstrip antenna
which gives very broadband circularly polarized antenna. So, today we looked at single feed
circularly polarized microstrip antenna and its variation then we also looked at compact
microstrip antenna configuration and we also looked at a few broadband microstrip antenna
configuration. So, will see some more of these in the next lecture and then will see very
broadband microstrip circularly polarized antenna.
Thank you. We will see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture – 36
Circularly Polarized MSA – III
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on circularly polarized microstrip antenna which is in
continuation of the previous 2 lectures where we have been talking about circularly polarized
microstrip antenna and we saw various techniques. So, we saw that we can feed the circularly
polarized antenna, let us say that can be a square or it can be a circle and that can be fed at 2
orthogonal points with phase of 10o, 1 90o then we also looked at various configurations
which were actually using a single feed and these were variations of square patches or
variation of circular patches or even variations of triangular patches then we also looked at
the compact microstrip antenna and we also looked at one typical application which is for
GPS where we really need a compact microstrip antenna then we had started discussion about
the broadband microstrip antenna and I did mentioned that all the broadband techniques
which we studied earlier and which are also covered in chapter 3, 4 and 5 of my book
broadband microstrip antenna are also applicable for circularly polarized antenna.
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So, let us start from there and will see some other broadband configurations also today. So,
here we discussed about 3 gap coupled square patches because we need square patches here
unlike in the earlier cases for broadband, we could have length L and width, but here L = W
so that for orthogonal mode this also will excite at the same frequency then instead of this
particular configuration, we can use this configuration where there are 5 patches which are
gap coupled to the central patch and this gives us very large bandwidth; both AR bandwidth
as well as VSWR bandwidth and we had also mentioned that if you want a larger AR
bandwidth, sometimes a 3 dB 2 branch coupler may not be sufficient. So, we may have to use
3 dB 3 branch coupler or even 3 dB 4 branch coupler also then we had also looked into
instead of using a the configuration which is in the planar nature that was gap coupled. But
we can also now use stacked configuration also. So, what we really have here? The difference
compare to what we discussed in the broadband technique when we discussed about
broadband stacked there L could be different then W.
But over here it has to be a square microstrip antenna and here the configuration which is
shown is the bottom patch is fed at 2 orthogonal points and then there is a top patch. Now this
configuration shown over here uses air here and air here and of course, we need to practically
support these antennas and that can be supported right at the center over here. So, we can
provide a central post to both the patches bottom and the top and that way, we can suspend
these things, but now suppose we also want to realize 1 0o, 1 90o or 1 -90o, there are 2
options are there, one is we can actually use an external 3 dB 2 branch coupler and the output
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of those 2 can be connected over here or if you want the same thing then that can be printed
over here and this substrate here we can put a substrate here and then this can be again
metallic plate with the central support over here or these can also be printed on the substrate
either in the suspended configuration or in the inverted suspended configuration. Now, this is
the configuration and you can use the modification also. Instead of using a square patch you
can also use circular patch; you can also use triangular patches and so on and so forth and
also instead of just using of gap coupled configuration like this which are covered in chapter
3 or instead of using stacked configuration which are covered in chapter 4, you can also use
combination of all these things also. For example, you can use 1B2T configuration or 1B3T
configuration or 1B5T configuration to realize even a much larger bandwidth.
Now instead of using this, one can also think about another concept which is a aperture
coupled broadband circularly polarized microstrip antenna, let me first show the concept
here. So, what is not obvious here; that this is actually a multilayer antenna. Underneath the
multilayer, this is the microstrip line which is actually feeding the top patch which is in this
particular case a square patch of length L through this slots which are cut in the ground plane
which is sandwich between this microstrip line and this particular patch over here. So, you
just need to imagine that there are 2 substrate. So, on the top side of the first substrate, the
patches are there, underneath of that let us say there is a ground plane and we cut aperture
slot over here and on the second substrate which is on the other side there is a microstrip line
here. So, once we understand how it is drawn, now let just see this microstrip line will feed
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through these apertures which are cut over here and generally for maximum coupling what is
done this is an open end. So, generally this length is taken as /4. So that maximum coupling
can take place to this particular patch through these slots here. Now to get circular
polarization, we can actually say that here this is a square patch, but over here, the slots
which are cut over here, these slots have a different length, you can see that this is a length of
the aperture 2, this is the length of the aperture 1. So, these are the 2 different length and
because these 2 lengths are different, so, the loading to this particular square patch will be
different and hence it will give us a circular polarization, again there are lots of variations
possible. So, one can actually have these Lap2 can be equal to Lap1 and then this can be a nearly
square or a square patch with a notch and so on and so forth, but since this particular antenna
is designed for broadband. So, here if we take, let us say nearly square then L1 /L2 will not be
close to 1.01. But, it may be close to 1.05 to 1.1 because we are trying to realize broadband
antenna. In fact, that is the purpose of the aperture coupled microstrip antenna and if we see
the response of this particular antenna and this is the smith chart plot here and I had mention
to you that if you see a kink over here instead of a loop then we can say that would not be a
very good axial ratio for this microstrip antenna. So, over here what we actually see that there
is a kink in the smith chart plot. So, again that kink implies that there is a one mode getting
excited and another mode has taken over and at that kink point, the 2 orthogonal modes are
equal to each other, hence they give rise to good axial ratio.
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Now we will look at one vary another new interesting concept which actually was reported a
few decades back and this is a very interesting concept even though I have shown four
element over here, but first let just talk about these 2 elements. So, now, what we see over
here that here is a rectangular patch if feed is here so; that means, this particular polarization
or you can say that if E-field will be in this particular plane now you think about this here the
same thing is rotated by 90 o. So, now, it is fed over here. So, in this particular case, we can
say that this will be E-plane. So, if you look at this is E-plane in the horizontal this is a E-
plane in the vertical and the phase difference now between the two has been kept as 0 o and
90o. So, now, from a far away point if you look at these 2 antenna. What do we see? A
faraway point is faraway and these are the 2 patches here. So, it actually see almost the same
distance because this distance is very very small. So, really speaking, you can say that at a far
away point amplitude received from these 2 will be actually same and since now these two
are fed at 1 0 o and 1 90o so; that means, this will give rise to circular polarization. So, this
concept was earlier reported and that would was very good configuration and these are
basically dominantly linearly polarized antenna because you can see here that compare to this
length here, width is very different. Hence it is pre dominantly linearly polarized, this is also
pre dominantly linearly polarized. Now this was the configuration which has been reported
and it gives CP by using only 2 patches, now what if we want to use these things to get higher
gain.
If you want to get higher gain, what we need to do? We need to add more number of patches.
So, then a few different configurations were reported earlier where this is 0 o, this is 90o, this
was also kept 0 o and 90o. So, 0o, 90o will make a pair, here 0o, 90o will make a pair also and
this is 90o, 0o will make a pair. So, all these are making pairs of 0o, 90o for a far away point;
however, it was noticed that if this is fed at 0o and this is fed at 90o then the cross polar level
was quite high and also VSWR bandwidth was also not very good. So, then instead of
feeding this at 0o, it is actually fed at 180 o. So, again you can see that this is rotated by 90 o,
another 90o, another 90o. So, there are 2 things are there. One is the physical rotation of the
patch and feed by 90o and additional thing is that the phases between these elements is also
changed by 90o. So the combination of this particular thing here give very good circular
polarization over very broad bandwidth then the concept came that why use linearly polarize
antenna why not use something like a may be elliptically polarized antenna and that is where
this concept was reported.
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So, here is a concept, first let us just see what we have here. So, this we can see here is a
circular patch with a notch and if you feed along the diagonal here, if you feed at the
periphery here then we can see that this will be orthogonal to these two axis and in that case it
can give us a circular polarization, but since the feed is at the periphery, input impedance will
be very high and since it is a very high input impedance, a quarter wave transformer has been
used to transform this high impedance to relatively lower value.
Now, if you look at number 1 and number 2, what you can see that this is rotated by 90 o. So,
now, these 2 patches are rotated by 90o and then there is additional thing this patch is again
since fed at periphery, it will have a very high impedance. It is transformed to a lower
impedance by using a quarter wave transformer. So, now, if you see that this particular patch
has additional phase delay of /4 which gives rise to 90o phase delay, so if you see here from
a reference point of view, if this is a reference as 0 o, this reference will be -90o. So, now, let
just imagine that we are operating this particular first antenna. So, now, we know that this
length here is relatively larger than this length here so; that means, at lower frequency, this
will be more dominant and then in between it will give circular and at higher frequency, this
will be more dominant.
Let us just think about a lower frequency point so at lower frequency, where this particular
dimension is dominant. So, in that particular case, this will give us a vertically polarized
pattern, but it will not be linearly polarized. It will be more like elliptically polarized. So, at
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lower frequency if you see, so, this will be the pattern for one. I will just repeat, so, here at
lower frequency this is dominant. So, that is why vertical component is dominant and since
some radiation will be occurring because of this even though it is not fully resonant, but it is
partly resonant because this dimension is relatively closer to this dimension. So, it will give
us a somewhat elliptical polarization.
Now since at that particular point here this patches rotated by 90 o. So, at lower frequency
now that dominant will be this particular dimension. That would give us the ellipse, circle
like this here which will have a major axis along this one here and minor along this here. So,
dominant variation is in this direction, now just think about these 2 patterns are there and
these 2 patterns are at 90o. So, what will be the resultant one resulted will be nothing, but E x2
+ Ey2. So, if you look at the resultant here for this particular thing, we can actually see, we
will get a perfect circular polarized antenna now plus just go in between. So, in between that
frequency increases. So, in between frequency, frequency increases this is nothing but a
circularly polarized antenna. This is also circularly polarized antenna which will give rise to
circularly polarized component. Now at higher frequency when this is dominant. So, when
this is dominant then for one this will be the field pattern and for 2 this will be the field
pattern this will happen at higher frequency. So, again now if you take x 2 + y2, we will get a
circularly polarized component. So that means, by using this particular configuration, we can
actually get a circular polarization over broad bandwidth. Now instead of 2 element what if
we want to use 4 elements if you want to use 4 element let us see what happens.
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So here, we have a one patch, let us start with here because that is reference here which is 0 o.
So, this is again similar to the previous case where it is a circular patch with a notch here, I
just want to mention here it is not necessary to use circular patch with notch. You can use
circular patch with stub; you can use elliptically ellipse also over here with the axis ratio a/b
you can use is instead of this nearly square also instead of that you can use square with
notches or slit and slots and so on and so forth. So, it is not important, it is just that it is
shown this particular as an example, now this patch here, this is 0 o, it is rotated by 90o. You
can see that it is coming over here, this is again rotated by 90 o and it is again rotated by 90 o.
So, now, this one here shows the feed point you can actually see how in a very very simple
manner, one can actually obtain proper feed network. So, if you see here this particular length
you assume that has to be common to all the other configuration. So, starting from here this
plus this, you consider this as a reference length let us say call it L 1. So, now, this part is
common to this path here. So, what we need here, this path plus this path here which is
common here this is for after that this should be / 4. So, if that is /4, the path delay from
here this will be if I say this is reference, this will become 90o additional. Now if you look at
this here, this is symmetrical, this part is coming over here, this part is coming over here. So,
we can say that this is that additional reference length here and this one will be additional /4.
Now additional 180o phase difference is obtained. You say that whatever is this length; this
length has to be /2 plus this particular length and if this is /2 plus this length that would
give us 180o additional phase shift. So, now, let us see what is happening. So, over here this is
the reference length that is 0o. It has additional /4 length. So, it get 90o phase delay. This has
an additional you can say /2. So, that gives 180o additional phase delay, this is part of that
reference and this one again gives additional 90 o. So, that becomes 270o. So, now, this is the
configuration. In fact, we have also realized this particular thing here and here also
impedance matching also can be done in a very very simple and effective way. Since we are
feeding along the periphery input impedance will be very high.
If you look at over here, so, one can actually use a thin microstrip line and over here thin
microstrip line. So, this impedance and this impedance will come in parallel. So, that
impedance will get reduced and again this impedance and this impedance will get in parallel
that will get reduced. So, then from here and from here, the 2 impedances are getting in
parallel. So, we can actually realize the 50  matching over here. So, by careful design one
can actually get a good impedance matching here also; however, if that is not possible we can
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always use a /4 transformer at all these points to get a proper matching over here now this
gives us a fairly broadband configuration, but instead of showing the results of this here I am
going to show you the results of the another configuration.
Now, this is the configuration where it actually shows 2 x 4 arrays of circular patches with 2
notches and there are 2 configurations, one is conventional, another one is sequentially
rotated. So, what is conventional if you see conventional array, what it has; all the elements
are similar and all the elements are being fed with the same phase and individual element is
circularly polarized antenna. So, since individually these antennas are circularly polarized.
So, that will give circular polarized antenna and since we are using eight of them, it will give
us higher gain, but over here instead of 8 element which are fed in the same phase here all
these things are rotated. So, the concept over here is that instead of using for 2 patches, we
had seen 0o, 90o for 4 patches; we saw 0o, 90o, 180o, 270o and 360o. So, now, if there are 8
patches, so what do you do? You divide that by 360 o/8, so now, each individual is rotated by
45o. So, 0o, 45o then 90o and then keep on putting together and get the phases. So, if you see
here. So, you can see here, this is 0, /4 is nothing, but  is 180. So, that will give us 45o and
this is what the rotation has been done over here in this particular case.
So, now, if you look at the results of these 2, so, these you can see here, these are the
measured VSWR and AR plot. So, if you look into here, the VSWR is really very good, you
can see it is the line which I have drawn is at 1.5. So, you can actually see from 2.1 to 2.5
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frequency response, we can see that this is the plot for the conventional antenna which we
know that it generally gives us a nearly you know you can say that nearly circular patch with
notch they all are single feed they give larger VSWR bandwidth, but the problem with these
antenna is they have a relatively smaller AR bandwidth, you can actually see that this is the
dotted line which have shown here for AR = 3, you can see that the bandwidth is relatively
very small.
So, even though VSWR bandwidth is so large, but it is not at all a useful bandwidth. So,
really speaking for circularly polarized antenna, this is the only useful bandwidth. So, all of
this VSWR < 1.5 is not at all useful; however, when we use these sequentially rotated
antenna, in that case you can see that the axial ratio bandwidth is very very large and you can
just think about that concept which we mentioned to you, I will just go back. So, if we have a
multiple number of elements so what happens? This is just for 2 element will have a one
response and that will with another response. Now you think about multiple elements which
are acts 0o, 45o, 90o. So, will have a one response like this, another response will be like this
here, third response will be like this here then there will be another response and if you take
combination of all these. We will get a really good circularly polarized response. So, that is
what is happening and a good circular polarization response is indicated by good axial ratio.
You can see that this axial ratio is fairly large and over here also one can see VSWR < 1.5
bandwidth is really very very large. So, why VSWR bandwidth is large again I had mention
to you when we were discussing about this concept here. So, if this is 90 o, this is 180o, 270o.
So, these 2 the reflected VSWR from here at the reflected VSWR or you can say reflected
reflection coefficient from here they will be out of phase. So, they will try to cancel each
other and hence we get a very broad VSWR bandwidth also. So, you can see that this in the
entire range. In fact, if you actually see over this bandwidth VSWR maybe even less than 1.3
or 1.25 also, but we get a fairly large axial ratio bandwidth.
It is basically very good circularly polarized antenna and then you really have to start
thinking if sequentially rotated antenna is good from VSWR point of view, it is good from
axial ratio point of view then why you ever use this particular configuration, now see in fact,
I always believe that you know nothing can have all the advantages, anything you take, it will
have lot of advantages, it may have some disadvantages also, I mean think about let us say if
I take a Maruti car or I take Mercedes car. So, Mercedes car definitely looks very nice. It has
a very good performance and all that, but then there is a disadvantage associated with that
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and what is the disadvantage? The price is very high and maintenance is also very high, but
otherwise it has a brand, it has everything, but; however, both Mercedes as well as Maruti;
they have their share of market.
Now similarly over here when we actually looked into this sequential rotated array. I went
through this lot of paper at all the papers were only talking about fantastic VSWR bandwidth
fantastic axial ratio bandwidth and I was trying to figure out then what is the disadvantage
why I should ever use a conventional this thing. I did not really find much of that answer, but
in general what I am finding many a time the publish papers always talk about the advantages
of that particular thing. So, if you give let us say this particular antenna they only talk about
the advantages only and sometimes I really feel that have become a sales people. Are we
really a scientific community? A scientific community should always say what are the pros
and cons? what are the advantages and disadvantages? But I was very disappointed. I only
saw advantages. So, what are the disadvantage that is what a sales person will tell you if a
sales person is trying to sell a car or anything or furniture that will only keep talking about the
advantages pluses point. Because the sales person has to sell the product. But a researcher has
to give the information to the people and the scientific community should not only talk about
advantages, but talk about disadvantages. So, then we had to study; we did study; We
simulated these things; We did the experiments and now I want to tell you what is the
disadvantage of this particular configuration. So, this particular configuration has relatively
lesser gain compared to this particular array here because here what is happening all the
elements are radiating together. So, the contribution towards the broadside direction in this
narrow bandwidth all of them radiating in a similar fashion. They give rise to better gain over
here what is happening, this one will give us let us say this polarization this will give at 45 o,
this will give at another angle. So, what is happening? We are actually seeing the contribution
like this here. So, here more contribution from here, but for this particular patch there is a
relatively lesser contribution right whereas, had it been all same then all the circularly
polarized component will be giving the similar performance. So, here the contribution from
one patches more, but contribution from this patches relatively less and that is why the gain
of the sequentially rotated array in general is less than the gain of the normal conventional
antenna array. So, if your application demands high gain then better use conventional, but if
your application require larger axial ratio bandwidth, larger VSWR bandwidth and you can
compromise little bit on gain then please use sequentially rotated microstrip antenna and
since we talked about all these arrays, we now need to know also; how do we feed all these
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arrays? So, in the next lecture, I will actually talk about microstrip antenna arrays; will talk
about how to feed different elements, what are the different feeding techniques and how we
can optimize the performance for different configuration.
So, just to summarize today, so today we talked about broadband circularly polarized
microstrip antenna which can be realized by using 2 feed or we can use the configuration of
gap coupled, we can actually build the array in the planar or we can build the antenna in the
vertical plane which is a stacked or we can do both the things and thereby we can realize
broadband circularly polarized microstrip antenna and those 2 feed things if you actually
think about they to give us broadband width as well as they give us broad axial ratio
bandwidth then we looked at this sequentially rotated array and we did noticed that axial ratio
bandwidth is fantastic, VSWR bandwidth is fantastic, but there is a compromise of slightly
reduced gain that is acceptable absolutely fine, but in the next lecture, will talk about
microstrip antenna arrays and arrays and arrays.
Thank you very much, we will see you in the next lecture, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture - 37
MSA Arrays – I
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on microstrip antenna arrays. So, we just want to take
you little backward and if you recall we did discuss about array theory. So, when we discuss
about array theory, we started talking about linear array and there the first thing which we
started was let us take linear array with equal amplitude and equal phase and then we looked
into how we can calculate half power beam width, how we can calculate gain, how do we see
radiation pattern and so on and so forth and then we also looked at the, if there is a phase
variation what happens, then beam can be changed. So that a scanning beam antenna array
can be utilized.
After that we also looked at the non-uniform amplitude distribution and the advantage of
using non uniform amplitude distribution. Some examples which we had seen was cosine
distribution, triangular distribution, cosine square distribution and by using this distribution,
the advantage was we could reduce the side lobe level, but at the expense of reduce in the
gain also. Then we also looked at the planar array. And now in the last several lectures we are
talked about microstrip antenna. So, we actually looked at a simple rectangular microstrip
antenna, then circular, then triangular, then we looked at broadband techniques and after that
we looked at compact microstrip antenna techniques, then tunable antennas, dual band
antennas and then we also looked at compact microstrip antenna.
Now, for all those cases which we discussed earlier, typical gain can be maybe 5 dB to say 9
to 10 dB or for gap coupled configuration, we could see you could get 11 or 12 dB, but there
are many applications where we need an antenna of gain of may be 20 dB, 30 dB, 40 dB, 50
dB; however, microstrip antenna arrays cannot give us about 40 dB on its own. So, generally
speaking microstrip antenna arrays are very popular up to gain of about 30 dB and anything
to be done beyond that it requires very special care, precision and lot of innovative thinking.
So, today we are going to talk about microstrip antenna arrays. We will start first with the
series feed and then will talk about corporate feed. So, let us discuss today’s topic which is
microstrip antenna array.
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So, now, for microstrip antenna array, the most important thing which you really talk about is
how do we feed different elements and array is supposed to consist number of elements. So,
at the array size is determined by the number of elements. So, suppose if you have a linear
array then, all the array elements are arranged in a linear fashion or we call it a planar array
where, all the elements are not just in the linear fashion, they can be in the different different
configuration. They can be in rectangular configuration, they can be in circular configuration
also, they can be in hexagonal configuration also. Now, for all these cases then we need to
design proper feed network and this feed network has to be design properly depending upon
the requirement.
Suppose, we need to feed all the elements with equal amplitude, which has an advantage of
highest possible gain, but it has a disadvantage of that side lobe level, we can get is only
about -13 to -13.5 dB. There will be radiation from the feed network which may actually
increase the side lobe further. So, then we also use sometimes the amplitude distribution so
that we can get a better performance from side lobe level point of view. So, depending upon
the type of array, is it a linear array or a planar array we need to design the feed network
accordingly. So, let us look at how do we feed these antennas? So, there are different
techniques to feed these antennas. So, the feed techniques are one is a series feed; that means,
suppose you have a patch here you have another patch you can connect these patches in
series. So, let us say we have a one patch then another then another. You keep connecting
them in series. The another possibility is you connect these patches in parallel. So, for
example if there are two patches and in fact parallel is also known as corporate feed, how is
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the corporate world works? So, for example, let us say if you take an example of IIT Bombay.
So, we have a one director then, there are two deputy director, then under these director there
are multiple deans are there. Then under multiple deans there may be multiple head of the
department and then after that there are multiple number of faculty and then after that we
have nearly 10000 student. So, that is what the corporate feed is. So, you start with one and
let us say that top here will be divided into two, then we can actually feed two patches. Then
these two can be further divided then, that will become 4, 4 can be divided further into 8. So,
that is a normal thing which goes like 2n. So, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 but that is not always the
requirements. Sometimes we need different type of elements or different number of elements
depending upon the space requirement. We need to optimize number of elements to fit in a
given space.
So, lot of thinking has to be done where we need to actually speaking feed all the different
elements and which may not follow the concept of let us say 2 n. So, sometimes we use series
feed where, we can connect them directly. Sometimes we use corporate feed where it is like a
corporate structure also known as a parallel and sometimes we have to use combination of
these which are known as series and parallel network. So, these are the different possibilities
are there; series feed, corporate feed, series and corporate feed.
So, let us first look at what are the advantages and disadvantages series and corporate feed?
So, one of the major advantage of series feed is, it has reduced feed length because the
elements are connected in series. Whereas, in corporate the length is much larger and since
the feed length is smaller, there is a reduced losses are there and also in the feed, series feed
we will see that it actually gives rise to lower side lobe, but that also again depends how
properly you design the feed network. The disadvantage is that there can be beam tilt with
frequency, especially if you use end feed series array and in general it has a narrow
bandwidth.
The reason for that is that when we use series feed. So, one element, then second, then third
there is a phase delay happening across the patches and that gives rise to narrow bandwidth.
In case of corporate feed what are the advantages? Generally speaking corporate feed is
designed for equal power to all element, but this is not always true corporate feed can also be
designed to give unequal power also. But this is most common thing. Now corporate feed in
general has a larger bandwidth compare to the series feed and this is modular in nature; that
means, suppose you have designed a 2 x 2 array then, making a 4 by 4 array is relatively
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simple. Just use the concept of 2 by 2, extend it to 4 by 4, then 4 by 4 to 8 by 8 or 4 by 8 it is
relatively easy. Similarly from 8 by 8, you can go to 16 by 16 from 16 by 16 we can go to 32
by 32. Now 32 by 32, we are talking about 1024 elements. Now majority of the time people
actually stop there.
Because after that if you start increasing, the feed looses become very very large. So, there in
general then what is done? You take a one; let us say full module of 32 x 32 another module
of say 32 x 32. These can be arranged in 2 x 2 configuration, which will give rise to 64 x 64
array or 32 x 32 can be put in this way and then generally external power divider network is
used to feed these arrays. So, that is a general convention, so that the feed losses which are
going to be on the same substrate can be contained. So, it is modular in nature, but what are
the disadvantages? Now basically the disadvantages since it has a higher feed length so there
will be higher feed losses and also there will be radiation from the feed network and hence it
gives rise to higher cross polar also and sometimes to higher side lobe level also.
So, let us start with an example of a series feed microstrip antenna array. So, what we have
here? You can see that here we have a number of patches here. So, we can just count here 1,
2, 3, 4, 5 then there is a central element and there are 5 elements on the left side so 5 here 5
here. So, total number of elements are 11 and this generally uses this particular configuration
uses odd number of elements. So, that with respect to the feed it has its left hand symmetry as
well as right hand symmetry then now comes the next part, this one here is the radiating patch
here. So, you can see that the radiating edges are connected to the next patch.
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Now generally we know that the patch length is approximately equal to /2 and suppose for
feed is here we generally say this is +, this is 0, this is -. So, this is “+”, “0”, “-” and we want
the same thing over here +, 0, -. So, now, this is “+”, from here we want this to be - and that
can be achieved by using a /2 connecting line; that means, the length of this particular
connecting line should be approximately equal to /2. So, then what happens? So, this is “+”,
“0”, “-“ because of this length to be /2, this “+” will become “-“. So, this “–“ then this is
“+”, then “+” here becomes “-”,“-” becomes “+”. So; that means, now all the patches have
“+” on this side, all the patches have “-” on this side. So, they will be radiating in the
broadside direction and hence they will give rise to better gain. So, over here now the next
part is what should be the characteristic impedance of this line? So, we know the length
should be approximately /2. Now why again I use the term approximate? Why not exact
/2? The reason for that is that the fringing feed is also there. So, if you look at the equivalent
configuration of this one here. So, what the fringing feed will make it? The effective length
will be something like this, it will go up here then it will come here. The fringing field will be
like this going up here and like this here. So, that is why the effective length should be /2,
effective length of this should be /2. Not the physical length of this and this should be /2.
So, effective length is important and that is what gives rise to phase shift from here to here,
which is 180 degree.
Now as I mentioned the next thing. So, what is important is what should be the characteristic
impedance of this particular line here; that means, what should be the width of this line? Now
if you apply transmission line theory. So, in the transmission line theory we know that
concept is that a transmission line which is ended with the load ZL and this length is if it is
/2 then input impedance of that line is equal to Z L. It is not dependent on the characteristic
impedance of the line.
So, we try to use the same concept. It does not depend upon the characteristic impedance of
the line so; that means, you can choose any width, but that is not really correct over here. So,
is transmission line theory wrong? No definitely not. Transmission line theory is correct that
if the length is /2 and the load is ZL, input impedance will be equal to ZL, but over here the
loading effect is making changes. So, let us just look at this configuration one more time. So,
what is happening? Think about this, if this width is very large; suppose it covers over here
the whole thing. So, is this patch then of length L? Not really if it look like that whole thing is
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a one big patch over here. So, now, suppose if this characteristic impedance is relatively high.
High would mean this width is small. So, what will happen? There will be more fringing field
from here, but if this width is little large then there will be lesser fringing field over here. So,
what really happens? Because of that this actually line acts does loading to this particular
patch not only that. In fact, the design of series feed micro strip antenna is much more
complicated in a sense that suppose we take this one here. Then we add let us say these two
patches and in that cases suppose if we just think of three element, then this is not there. If
this is not there; that means, this side is not loaded. So, this will at does not open circuit. So,
that loading over here will be different, but now suppose we just add one more patch here,
this is suppose not there. So, now, this sees an open circuit, but this sees over here a loaded
line. So; that means, the impedance of this then loaded over here then comes over here and
the same thing happens over here.
So, as you keep on adding more number of elements. So, what actually happen? The loading
effect of that reflects over here and that is why one has to really properly optimize the patch
length as well as the connecting length as the number of elements change and now I am going
to show the design example at Ka Band. A Ka Band actually corresponds to the millimeter
wave band and In fact, the band here which we have chosen is about 34 to 36 GHz. Just to
tell you, a millimeter wave band is very large it actually its goes from 30 GHz to 300 GHz
and millimeter wave band today is becoming very very important. Especially with the advent
of IOT which is internet of thing. They are talking about using millimeter wave
communication. Then there is another thing which is coming up that is 5G. So, 5G is also
going to use millimeter wave communication. So, there are lot of advantages and
disadvantages of using millimeter wave configuration.
So, one of the major major advantage is that; the size of the antenna at millimeter wave is
very very small. I mean just think about it compare to 3 GHz, if you have to design antenna
30 GHz; frequency is increased by 10 times; that means, the patch length will reduce by 10
times. So that means, in a very small aperture you can accommodate an antenna or in the
same aperture you can actually accommodate compare to 3 GHz, you can accommodate 10
times more of the antenna; that means, gain realized can be very very high. So, that is the
major advantage of millimeter wave; the second major advantages the bandwidth available.
So, for example, in the millimeter wave what we have bandwidth available is say let us say
from 34 to 36 GHz, but even you can extend that. Now, but just 34 to 36 GHz itself, is a 2
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GHz bandwidth and we can accommodate lots of channel. We can actually talk about of very
large bandwidth, very large data rate. People have been talking about having a data rate of 1
gigabits per second. So, think about a movie which maybe having a 1 gigabit you can
download that movie in just about 1 second which may take few minutes today. So, data
transfer will be very very fast, but at millimeter wave, we have to be very careful about some
other problems associated with it and the one of the major problem is the path loss is very
high and especially rain attenuation is very very high.
So, during monsoon, propagation in the free space may be very less because rain attenuation
will be really large. So, there will be lot of absorption will happen in the water molecule of
the rain, lot of diffraction will happen and also in millimeter wave there are lot of bands are
there where it has a very high absorption also, for example, just to mention. So, 34 to 36 GHz
there is a lowest absorption in that particular range. Then at 60 GHz, there is a very high
absorption. Then at 94 GHz, there is a lower absorption, then at 140 GHz, there is a lower
absorption, then at 220 GHz there is a lower absorption. So, you really speaking if you want
to use communication then you have to select these bands where there are lower absorption.
Yet at around 60 GHz it is very very popular where, the absorption is very high. So, now, you
might wonder why 60 GHz or 67 GHz is very very popular. The reason for that is the
precisely the same thing that it has a very high absorption. So, if it has a high absorption just
think about that let us say we are in a room and in that room there are multiple gadgets are
connected and all these gadgets are connected with the wireless router. So, that would mean
that let us say a computer can communicate with another computer without connecting the
cable computer can communicate with the printer and the data rate will be very very fast or
so many devices within that room can communicate with each other wirelessly. So, now, that
information is freely available here. So, we do not want that information to be heard or to be
tapped by the people outside, just because of the very high absorption. So, what happens?
The distance travel will be less outside the room or the office or the lab the signal will
attenuate very significantly. In fact, about 4 years back, I had gone to Kashmir in India and
there it was very interesting thing happened or I just tell you little diversion from here, but
then you will realize the importance of millimeter wave and also why I am telling you that
that; why 60 GHz is very very important? So, just the little diversion here, around 4 years
back, me and my family went to Srinagar because one of my army student who was posted
there, they had some requirements about antennas and mobile phone jammers.
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So, we went there and at IIT, we get LTC. So, I took LTC, took the whole family over there
and just before going I remember we went on first June and just previous night around 11,
11:30 PM my this student, who was a first, a Lieutenant Kernel there. He called me and he
said Sir, there is a one small problem. I said what is that? He said curfew has been imposed in
Kashmir and then he said still; Sir please come, we will make arrangement. Now I did not
want to tell my family something like that is there. I said since my student is telling and he is
from army they will take care of it. So, when we all went over there when we were about to
land in Kashmir.
So, we could see the roads which were all vacant and there all saying oh you know all these
vacant road empty roads are there. I did not want to tell them, that it is because there is a
curfew in Kashmir. So, when we came out you know the air was so fresh you know it actually
really felt you know that you have really come to heaven; absolute fantastic clean air. So, you
know we just took lot of breathing and you know felt good about it. So, when we came out
and then you know you could see there were very few people and then my family came to
know that there is a curfew. But this person who had come in the civilian dress he said do not
worry, we will take care of it. Well that worry was there, but let me tell you. So, what
happen? So, from there and we have to go to Baramulla place where this particular officer
was posted. So, from Kashmir we were going towards this on one road which we took we
saw that the road was totally blocked. The driver said - do not worry, then we took another
road. On that particular road, we saw now that was a lot of smoke was there and people were
burning tires and all the other things. He said do not worry sir, we will take care of it and then
he took another now bumpy road. So, we went over there and then suddenly he saw that to
another riots were happening there and then we actually took a shelter in one of the
Kashmiris house. They were very nice, very cordial people. So, we spent some time with
them and then suddenly driver came he said lets go over there and then we moved we reached
safe and sound there and then because it was curfew. So, these army people we had done the
work.
So, during the day we did the work and then they said Sir the work is now over, let us just
look in to some other thing. So, then we went; we saw the bunkers, we saw all those different
very interesting things which as a civilian we would never see and then they took us to the
place which is Aman Setu; this is right at the border and at that place between the India
border and Pakistan there is just a very small bridge and all along the way. So, this people
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kept on explaining us. So, there was only a one river which was flowing. So, on this river
India was on this side and Pakistan was on the other side and then when we went over there
at Aman Setu. So, one of the person actually gave one binocular to my daughter, this is you
ok you see and through that binocular I also looked into that. So, we could actually see the
people who were in the Pakistani side. So, when we are looking at the binocular we noticed
that they were also looking at the binocular. So, we were actually looking at each other
through binocular. So, they waved hand and we waved our hands and then some people came
out from there, then over here we were just saying. So, it was really even now we were across
two different countries that the border was very small, but you know it actually look like that
you know you are just waving to your friends over there. So, I think people are nice. So, it is
not that we had a problem, but they are only I was thinking about because these people were
talking using their walkie talkie and other thing. Now walkie talkie if you are talking, then the
range will be much larger. So, whatever things you are communicating within let us say in
Indian army that can be heard by the Pakistan army. So, that is where I started thinking about
why not we use millimeter wave communication. So, suppose if we had use this 60 GHz band
then they could communicate in their area and across the river or across that bridge, signal
will not be going to that particular side. There will be a huge attenuation. So, millimeter
waves do have some good application, size is small data rate will be very very fast.
So, let us just see now what we actually realized so after that diversion? So, we designed the
antenna at Ka Band and over here, one can actually see that the substrate thickness is very
very small. It is just 0.254 mm. In fact, it is a very thin substrate, if you do not handle it
carefully. It actually can bend also and the lot of works can be seen over here. So, it has to be
handled very carefully. Why such a small thickness? If you recall when we were are talking
about microstrip antenna. I did mention that h should be less than 0.06 and at Ka Band  is
very small. So, 0.06 will be also very small. So, now, at this particular frequency and for
these substrate, we calculated the length of the patch, width of the patch using the standard
equation which we saw when we are talking about rectangular microstrip antenna. The
connecting length has been taken approximately equal to /2. We chose connecting line width
0.4. In fact, we did study the effect of the width also. So, we varied the width from 0.2 to 0.5
and then we felt 0.4 is a good option and the space between the patches which is centered to
center spacing is about 5.45.
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So, let us see what results we got over here. So, this is the S 11 plot, you can see that this is the
bandwidth over here. If you look at the number this is almost 2 GHz bandwidth. So that is a
very large bandwidth, but if you really look at a percentage, it is only about 5.6% here, but
that much bandwidth is available to us. So, that is the impedance plot. You can see that this is
the plot which is the radiation pattern plot at 36 GHz. You can actually see that the side lobe
levels are relatively low, but there is a one small problem; you can actually see that the gain is
fairly decent which is about 19 dB, but you can see that the gain bandwidth is relatively
small. So, you can see that the gain is decreasing. So, why this is happening? and why this is
giving us a good thing? So, let just go back look at the configuration one more time. So, let us
say when we feed over here. So, what happens? From here, let us say power travels this side
also and this side also. So from here, let us say then this patch. So, this will also radiate little
bit part of that power will go there, then this will radiate little bit part of that will go here,
then this will radiate part of that.
So, basically what happens? If you think about this has a maximum power, if I put over here
maximum and then as we move along the power will keep on reducing. Same thing happens
over here power will keep on reducing. So, this actually gives us a natural you can say taper
distribution. So, since it is a amplitude is non uniform changing it like this here it gives us the
lower side lobe level. Now there is another reason why we choose at the center? Why not we
feed at the end over here? There is a reason. If we feed at the center then what happens? All
these patches even if you design perfectly /2, /2 but that perfect will happen only at single
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frequency. So, we can say that at single frequency all of them are in the same phase, but if
frequency changes what happens now? Let us say this will see a delay of say suppose say -5 o,
this will also see another -5o, another -5o.
So, what will happen? Because of that beam will try to tilt in this direction. Now this side will
also see this similar phase delay then the beam will try to shift in this side. So, one side is
trying to shift on this side another is trying to shift on this side. So, with the result in that
there beam be remains maximum in the broadside direction, but that happens only over a
smaller bandwidth. So, as the bandwidth increases, phase error increases and then you can
actually sees a split in the main radiation pattern.
So, we will continue from here in the next lecture. So, in the next lecture we will see how
series feed behave if you feed at the end or you feed in the center. Then we will see how
corporate feed can be used, how corporate feed needs to be design for different configuration.
Then will also look at smaller corporate feed and a larger corporate feed also and then will
look at the combination of series and corporate feed. So, with that thank you very much. We
will see you next time, with more arrays and feed networks, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture - 38
MSA Arrays – II
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on microstrip antenna array. In fact, we started
discussing about microstrip antenna in the last lecture and where we actually noticed
there are 3 different types of feed techniques, one is series feed, another one is corporate
feed also known as parallel feed or hybrid feed which consist of both series and parallel
feed. In the last lecture, we did see one configuration where we had used the series feed
antenna array. So, let us continue from there and let us look at other options of series
feed antenna array.
So, in the last lecture, we had seen the series feed microstrip antenna array. Where we
had noticed that there are number of patches are there which are connected with the /2
connecting length and the idea of this /2 connecting length is so that ± here which is the
voltage distribution for a patch then this “+” here going through this a /2 which is 180o
phase shift will give “-“ then this will become “+” then this ±. So that means, that all the
patches will have a similar phase and they will radiate in the broadside direction.
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Then as an example we looked at a Ka-Band microstrip antenna array. So, let us just look
at the results of that. So, these are the results for 23 elements series fed array at Ka-Band.
One can actually see this is the reflection coefficient plot and that is -10 dB. So, if you
look along this line here, we get bandwidth for |S 11| < -10 dB  2 GHz, This is about
5.6%. This is the input impedance plot and this is the radiation pattern at 36 GHz and this
particular thing shows over here gain variation with frequency and one can see that the
maximum gain is around 19 dB at 36 GHz, but the gain falls off rapidly. So that means,
gain bandwidth is not very good as compared to the VSWR bandwidth and the reason for
that is that if we look at the microstrip antenna array. So, what happens as frequency
changes this length will be not /2 anymore, it will be slightly different. So, that phase
change progresses significantly from here to here to here. So, this one tries to shift the
beam in the right hand side direction and this side tries to shift the beam in the left hand
side direction. So, with the result beam is in the broadside direction, but that happens
only for limited frequency range. For larger frequency range what happens, this one
shifts to the right side; this one shifts to the left side. So, for narrow bandwidth, the
radiation is in the broadside direction, but for larger bandwidth what really happens this
phase delay is very significant and this phase delay is also very significant and what we
notice is there is a beam split in the broadside direction.
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Let us look at another example of the series with microstrip antenna array, and this we
have designed at 5.8 GHz. So, what we can see here, we can see actually 13 elements
over here and instead of using the straight feed here what we have done, we have used a
U-shaped bend. The reason for this bend is so that the spacing between the 2 patches can
be reduced. In fact, that spacing can be now control by changing the depth of this U, and
suppose let us say we want to have a lesser spacing. Then this too will get closer and the
shift here or the bend here down will be more. If you want the spacing to be increased
then this will increase and the U shape, the depth will actually reduce, and if you want a
larger spacing then this length can become straight line. Now, for this particular case
here, it is very important that the right hand side and the left hand side should be
symmetrical, and if they are symmetrical that can be seen through the current
distribution. So, let us see we are feeding the central patch. You can see that it is much
more reddish; that means, stronger current flow in this particular patch. As we move
away from here, you can see that the strong reddish color is kind of reducing right and if
you also notice that this particular side is actually symmetrical to this particular side.
Now, the reason why this is happening, because we are feeding this particular patch.
From this patch, it is flowing in this direction as well as flowing in this direction. So,
from here when the power comes here, part of the power is radiating and then rest is
flowing here, then part of the power is radiating, rest is flowing here and that is why you
can see that the reddish portion is almost diminishing. In fact, this particular thing has an
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additional advantage that we have maximum amplitude here and that will be decreasing
this side as well as decreasing in this side. So, this series feed antenna array provides a
natural amplitude distribution, and if you recall array theory, we had mentioned that if all
the elements are fed with equal amplitude and phase then the side lobe level can be about
-13 dB to -13.5 dB, but if we use taper amplitude distribution then side lobe level
performance can be improved. So, one can see the radiation pattern at 5.8 GHz.
So, you can see that the side lobe levels are much lower in this particular case here. One
additional thing I want to mention that the impedance matching could not be done for the
larger array. So, that is just by feeding along the patch. In fact, up to about 7 x 1 element,
we could just feed the patch here. In fact, the feed point was just shifting towards the
edge, but for larger array input impedance was relatively inductive. So, we have actually
added a small stub over here, which provides the required capacitance for impedance
matching and because of this good matching, one can see that the VSWR < 2 is this
particular line here corresponds to VSWR = 2, and this one here you can see that VSWR
< 2 here and the bandwidth for this particular configuration is from 5.78 GHz to 5.94
GHz and the maximum gain, this is the gain plot verses frequency maximum gain is
obtained at 5.82 GHz which is of the order of 17 dB.
You can actually see that this is a 13 x 1 element and the previous array was 23 x 1
element. So, since the size is relatively close to half of that that is why the gain is also
reduced by approximately 3 dB or so. So, let us just look at the practical result. So,
instead of fabricating a large 13 x 1 array, we actually fabricated a 7 x 1 series fed
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microstrip antenna array and these are the simulated and measured result. So, one can
actually see that the results are fairly in good agreement with each other, and these are
the results for simulated and measured. So, one can again see that this is the line
corresponding to about 14 dB gain, and one can actually see that because now the
elements are 7 x 1 the previous result which I had shown over was for 13 x 1.
So, again number of elements have reduced by an approximately 1/2. So, hence gain is
reduced correspondingly. So, now, let us just do a comparison that if we instead of
feeding the center feed over here, what if we had fed over here. In fact, this kind of an
array is known as end feed array and this one here is known as central feed array. In fact,
if you notice we have actually taken everything symmetrical with respect to this. So we
have let us say 3 elements here we have 3 elements on this side. Whereas for end feed,
there is no restriction. We can have any in even number or odd number; however, the
problem with the end feed is that this length which can be /2 at the central frequency,
but as frequency changes the phase delay increases so that means, the beam shift takes
place and this time now beam shift is taking place only in one side whereas over here
these elements try to shift in the right side, these try to shift in the left side and the
maximum radiation still remains in the broadside. But over here because of this delay in
one side only, we will see that the pattern shifts, but over here let us just see. So, if you
look at the comparison, the red line is mainly for this here and the green line is for this.
One can actually see that for end feed, VSWR < 2 bandwidth is slightly larger, but this is
not really a useful bandwidth. Also one can see that the gain is slightly smaller
frequency, slightly shifted the reason for that again is it is an end feed.
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So, now let us just see the comparison. So, here is a comparison of central feed with end
feed. First let us just look at the radiation pattern at 3 different frequencies 5.73 GHz,
5.78 GHz, and 5.83 GHz. Now these are the frequencies which are within VSWR < 2,
but now let us see here, one can see that this is the pattern for the central feed you can
see for central feed the pattern is relatively symmetrical. But for the end feed one can see
there is a small shift here, then there is a little larger shift in the beam maxima, and here
there is an even more larger shift here. In fact, that can be seen from here. So, let us just
see for central feed VSWR < 2 bandwidth is about 100 MHz, which increase to 141
MHz. Gain is approximately same, but now let us just see the half power beam width if
you look at these numbers here, it is actually symmetrical with respect to the broad side
direction, but if you look into this here the beam is shifted which is from - 4 to 9 then
you can see there is an even more shift and over here you can see that the beam is really
shifted away from the broad side direction and also it has a higher cross polar level
compare to the central feed in this particular thing. So, now, from series feed let just see
corporate feed. Now this is the one example of a corporate feed or this we have designed
at X-band.
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In fact, I have given you different different flavors. So, the first example we give at
millimeter wave that another example we gave at C band which is 5.8 GHz. Let us just
look at another example which is at X-band. So, here we designed antenna around
8.75 GHz. So, let us see what we have here. So, we can actually see it is a 2 x 2
microstrip antenna array and now we need to feed these elements. So, now, what you
should do. In general first you do the simulation of a single patch and these are the
substrate parameter. So, for these substrate parameter, first what you need to do for this
particular frequency find the length and width. So, these are the length and width which
we have taken and then inter element spacing has been taken close to 0.670. In fact, you
can take inter element spacing between 0.50 to maybe even up to 0.80.
So, we took in between value. So, here now what we did, you calculate the input
impedance at this particular patch and since this is relatively narrow band antenna,
impedance will be high. In fact, this impedance maybe of the order of 200  or so, what
we have done we are used a quarter wave transformer to transform this impedance to 100
. Again the same thing it is symmetrical. So, this impedance is transformed to 100 .
This microstrip line has a characteristic impedance of 100 , this one transform to 100
, 100  remains 100  here, 100  remains here 100 . Now 100  in parallel with
100  will become 50 , now then from 50 , in fact, if we just use 2 x 1 element that
design would be over. You just use this much portion and we can feed at this particular
point, but now this example is 2 x 2. So, now, this 50  has been now again transformed
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to 100  here by using a quarter wave transformer of impedance 70.7 . So, that
transforms the impedance to 100 . Now, this side, it is exactly the same thing here. So,
this impedance is transformed to 100 , 100 . 100  in parallel with 100 , 50 
transform to 100  and now 100  in parallel with 100  will give us 50 . So, if we
did not want anything is we could have actually just fed over here with a coaxial feed
and we could have got the impedance matching. Now this extension we have shown over
here mainly to extend this array to the larger size. In fact, this approach: one of the
advantage of this particular approach is, it is a very modular in nature; that means, once
you design let us say 2 x 2 array, you can then make it 4 x 4 or 8 x 8 or 16 x 16 array or
even larger. So, now, for larger array this is the 50  line. So, again what has been done
it has been transformed the impedance here. So, let us just first see the results of this and
then will look at the larger array.
So, one can see here this is the VSWR = 2 line and one can actually see this is the plot
here. We can say bandwidth for VSWR < 2 is more than 500 MHz. This is 8.5 GHz, this
is 9 GHz, VSWR is still less than 2 and this bandwidth is about 6%. We will also take
some example where we get much larger bandwidth also, but for now let us see these
results here. So, this is the radiation pattern at 8.75 GHz. So, you can see that the
radiation is in the broadside direction.
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Now, let us just look at the another example, which is now an 8 x 8 corporate feed
microstrip antenna array. So, just to tell you now, suppose we have this 2 x 2 array which
I discussed earlier. So, this 2 x 2 array and then let us look at this 2 x 2 array. So, for
these 2 x 2 array here one set here and one set here you can see that this 50  is now
impedance transfer to 100 . So, that is a quarter wave transformer used and this is the
100  line. Now this set here is repeated over here exactly with the same thing.
So, here then again this impedance which is 50  transferred to 100 . So, 100  in
parallel with 100  will be 50  here so that means, if we now require only suppose 4 x
4 array. Our design would have been completed here we could have just use the coaxial
feed at this particular point and that would have been a 4 x 4 array, but now this 4 x 4
array is now repeated 4 times. So, you can see first here this array and this array here
first. So, this is 50  quarter wave transformer is used to transfer this impedance to 100
. Same things here 100  in parallel with 100  will be 50  and then this 50  is
transferred to 100  which is over here, and then we could have used a coaxial feed at
this particular point or this can be extended to the larger array. In fact, we have also done
the simulation for 16 x 16 where then this point then replicated this whole thing and take
mirror image in this side bottom side and this side here and that was used to design 16 x
16 corporate feed MSA. I just want to tell here that as the number of elements increase,
simulation time increases significantly. So, one is to have good computer and with large
memory so that you can do the simulation of these things.
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So, let us just look at the results. So, over here, one can see that this is the line which is
corresponding to VSWR = 1.5. So, VSWR < 1.5, we achieved the bandwidth from
8.55 GHz to 9 GHz which is about 5%, but you can see that is bandwidth will be much
larger, if we define for VSWR < 2 and here is the radiation pattern at 8.75 GHz. So, the
maximum gain obtained in this case is about 21.3 dB. You can see that E-plane, half
power bandwidth and H-plane half power bandwidth are approximately same because
the array is symmetrical in the both the planes. Maximum side lobe level is about -12.5
dB which you can see over here and the reason the side lobe level is high because
normally for an ideal array with an equal amplitude in phase it should have been about
-13 dB to -13.5 dB slightly below there, but this is slightly higher that is because of the
radiation taking place from the feed line, and that is why we use either amplitude
distributed array or series fed antenna array.
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Now, let us just look at an example of a how to realize a larger bandwidth. This is an
example of a 4 x 4 electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna array. So, just to
mention here, here what you notice here there is a feed network which is shown in a
green color here and there is actually a patch here also which is of almost the same
dimension, but that is on the lower layer. So, this is the side view. So, what you see over
here. This actually consist of the feed network as well as patches over here. So, which
will be a 4 x 4 array, and we saw in the previous example if we just take 4 x 4 array
bandwidth was not very large. So, here now all the patches which are down below here
they are electromagnetically coupled with the top layer patches. So, what you see here,
these are total 4 x 4 microstrip antenna elements which are printed on the underside of
the substrate.
So, this substrate also acts as a radome for this particular array and if you now see the
result here. I have drawn the line for reflection coefficient |S 11| = -10 dB and just to
remind reflection coefficient |S11| = -10 dB is approximately equal to VSWR = 2 and for
this particular case we can see that for reflection coefficient |S 11| < -10 dB, bandwidth is
about 16% and or you can say 8.7 GHz to 10.2 GHz; that means, 1.5 GHz bandwidth.
Now I will tell you, this particular antenna array, we had design for a very specific
application and that application required the set of frequency to be 9.25 GHz. You can
see that a very good matching has been obtained at 9.25 GHz. In fact, our requirement
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for this particular project was only from 9 GHz to 9.5 GHz which is about 500 MHz, but
if you see corresponding to this here.
You can actually see reflection coefficient |S11| < -20 dB. So, which really corresponds to
about 1% reflected power, 99% transmitted power and also VSWR = 1.22. So, you can
see that it is a fairly broadband antenna, but just VSWR bandwidth is not sufficient. We
should also look at the gain. So, we can actually see here this is the gain plot and one can
actually see that gain is fairly uniform over a large bandwidth. In fact, one can actually
see that over 1 GHz bandwidth, the variation is less than 1 dB. So, it is a fairly good
array and the radiation pattern also variation over this band here is very small. So, when
you are designing an antenna please do not just look at the VSWR bandwidth, just check
each and everything see- what is that radiation pattern? Is it stable over the bandwidth or
not? What is the gain? Is gain stable over bandwidth or not?
This particular array, we would generally like that the gain should remain flat and the
absolute maximum error which we can tolerate is about 1 dB, but over here you can see
that with in the desired bandwidth the variation is less than 0.5 dB. Now this particular
thing has been extended to a one interesting application which is monopulse system
using electromagnetic coupled microstrip antenna array. So, now, let me just tell you this
particular thing has been designed for one of the application where the specifications
were that the entire array should fit within 240 mm diameter. So, that was our restriction
and I will also just tell what is this monopulse system as such? What does this really
mean? Now normally this particular thing is covered in the radar systems course here,
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but since we are designing antenna for this particular application, let me just tell you
little bit more detail. So, generally speaking in monopulse system what is actually done,
there generally 4 different antennas are used and in these 4 different antennas. So, let us
say there is a one antenna, second, third, fourth antenna. So, these 4 antennas are first fed
with the equal amplitude and phase. So, that the radiation will be maximum in this
particular direction and this is actually used for tracking the object which can be a flying
object. So, then what it does? It sends these signals together. So, that will have a narrow
beam. It will go there reflect back from the target. So, suppose now if the target is
exactly in the center of these 4 elements then what will happen? All of them will receive
the same amount, and the same phase also and then what we do, we take the sum pattern.
So that we get the reflected beam which is sum of all these, and we also calculate what is
the difference of this and this. So that gives me azimuthal difference and then we also
take the difference of this with respect to difference of this so that gives me elevation
difference. So, suppose now if the target is exactly in the center then what will happen?
All these reflected wave will be exactly at the same phase and if we take the difference,
then the difference should give me 0 in the broadside direction, we call it a null. But
suppose if these two are not aligned and suppose it is shifted like this or this; that means,
in the reflected, these two will see a different phase and you can see that if it is aligned
more with this so this will have a one phase, this will have a little different phase. So, if
the phase is different; that means, alignment is not proper and this will give me azimuth
difference which has finite value. Similarly, if the differences between this and this that
will give us the elevation difference, so that would really mean that target is not exactly
in the center. It is either shifted in this side or this side which belongs to azimuthally
difference and if the target is shifted this way then that gives us the elevation difference.
So, by looking at that then we can do the tracking of the object properly. So, let us just
see what has been done over here to achieve that. So, think about this entire big array is
to be divided in to 4 quadrant. So, this is the quadrate one then second then third and
then fourth. So, this is the one antenna another, another one and another one. Now if you
look carefully this particular thing here and just recall our 4 x 4 array which we talked
about. So, just look at this portion here. So, 1, 2, 3, 4 and if you see over here, this is
nothing but the same 4 x 4 antenna array which we saw in the previous one.
But since we had some extra space available to us so we decided to add some more
elements so that we can enhance the gain. So, what we have done over here. For this 4 x
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4 element we took little bit power from here, and this whole portion is a corporate feed,
but over here from this we have taken the power in the series manner. So, this length is
now taken as /2. So, that this element is in the same phase. So, now, looking at these 3
element. So, they are fed with the equal amplitude, but this one here now even though it
was fed with equal amplitude, but part of the power is taken to this one here. So, this
actually gives us the amplitude distribution in this particular direction then the same
amplitude distribution. We try to achieve in this direction because we had a room over
here. So, what we did from the top elements. So, part of the power we took from here
and fed it over here.
Now in this particular case actually this length is close to . So, that this phase here
remains same as this particular phase here. So, part of the power is given here, part of the
power is given here, part of the power is given here. So, what happens? Now if you look
at the totality. So, it actually gives us the amplitude distribution complete as central
elements are fed with equal amplitude. So, let us say we get a line like this and the end
elements are fed with the lesser power. So, that will give a distribution. So, in a reality
what we get a distribution something like this then uniform and then coming over here.
So, that gives us the natural taper distribution and also we could optimize the area
available to us. So, now, these are the results given over here, but just to tell you the next
part. So, the 4 feeds here they are actually fed to the 4 rat race things here. Now these rat
race actually are nothing, but these are 3 dB hybrid coupler. So, the property of these rat
race is that they give sum and difference pattern. So, we have taken sum and difference
from here, then sum and difference from here, sum and difference from here, sum and
difference from here.
So, one of the port then gives us sum port and the other 2 ports give difference and the
forth port is actually terminated in a matched load. So, you can actually see that this is
the VSWR 2 line here; bandwidth is almost from 8.75 GHz to 10 GHz, which is more
than 1 GHz bandwidth. So, over here now sum to difference is -20 dB, but what is more
important is isolation between difference to difference which is -40 dB. So, you can
actually see that the isolation between this is extremely good. Generally, anything better
than 20 dB is considered good and -30 dB is very good -40 dB is considered very good
and because of this particular case here what we get is a very good null direction in the
broadside direction.
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So, here is the gain you can actually see that in this particular region here gain is fairly
uniform. The absolute maximum gain variation is about 0.5 dB over the bandwidth of
1 GHz and we got a maximum gain of about 24.7 dB. Now this one over here shows sum
of the azimuth and sum of the elevation. So, one can see that sum of the azimuth and
elevation, they are fairly good. Only in this particular over here we see that the readings
have slightly different, but that is not really too much of an importance because we are
more interested in this particular region here and the difference of these 2 actually gives
us a null of better than -30 dB.
So, with that, we will conclude today’s lecture. So, today we looked at the series feed
antenna array then we looked into corporate feed. We noticed that corporate feed is very
modular in nature, and you can start with 2 x 2 array and you can build array from that
particular small module. So, that is also known as sub array. So, you can start with 2 x 2
sub array, make it 4 x 4, make it 8 x 8, make it 16 x 16, people have gone to 32 x 32
array also, but after that generally they do not make 64 x 64 using this feed network.
Generally, for those kind of an array what they do. They use let us say one 32 x 32
another 32 x 32 and then use external 4-way power divider network. So, as the general
rule, and then we also looked at the hybrid coupling which basically consisted of
corporate feed as well as series feed. So, we could take power out of the corporate feed
to also get better side lobe level performance as well as get slightly better gain. So, in the
next lecture, we will talk about more types of the antenna array and will see that in fact,
will see something very interesting that an array which does not require any feed
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network. So, we will see something interesting in the next lecture, till then bye, will see
you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture - 39
MSA Arrays – III
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on microstrip antenna array. In fact, in the last
couple of lectures we talked about different types of feed network, we looked into series
feed microstrip antenna array. Then we looked at the corporate feed microstrip antenna
array, then we looked in to the combination of series and parallel feed, but let us just look
at today an array which does not require any feed network as such, the feeding style is
very different.
So, let us start with the today, topic is now space fed microstrip antenna array. In fact,
this is actually a much later version, in the beginning we actually started with the
rectangular microstrip antenna array. So, instead of using circular patches we had use the
rectangular patches, but I just want to tell you how we came with the space feed
microstrip antenna array. So, actually just to tell you, there had been now problems when
you have a larger array, which require large gain that would mean really that the feed
network becomes very complicated, the losses in the feed network become very large.
So, during those days then we noticed that is a new concept came which is known as a
reflect array concept. Basically reflect array was the concept which was combined using
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a reflector and array. So, in that what they had done just to give you the little bit
background. So, for example, there is a reflector antenna. So, this reflector antenna
would require a feed over here and then let us say it is a parabolic reflect or so. The feed
will radiate and then it will go in the parallel direction or the signal coming from the
parallel direction will focus at the focal point.
When we discuss about reflector antenna will discuss this thing in more detail, but now
the problem with this particular configuration is, it occupies lot of space, and specially
for let us say satellite which has a relatively smaller size, they do not like this reflector
antenna which occupies too much space. So, that is how the concept of reflect array
came into picture, where what they had done was, they actually use the concept of that
microstrip antenna array, but instead of feeding all the element what was done was that
let us say you excite this array using this, let us say it can be microstrip antenna feed or
horn feed and this one goes over here now it is in plane. So, what happens? From here to
here it will see one distance, but from here to here it will see slightly different distance.
So, what they had reported was that they actually use the different phase shift. So, that
this one receives a different phase and the element here are designed such a way that it
gives us the relative phase shift. So, we looked into that it looks very interesting thing we
started seeing how it is, but then I noticed that they efficiency of these antennas is not
very good and then we also read that they were talking about the blockage with this
particular feed point. So, we came out with the concept that why feed like this and then
this whole thing is radiating. So, why not we feed this particular array from the down
below and will have a ground plane and this will radiate and it will radiate further. So,
there is a no aperture blockage at all. So, that was the thought process with which we
started working on it and then let us see what we got, just to explain the concept here. So,
here is a ground plane. On this ground plane, we have this microstrip antenna which is
fed over here, it is only one of the patch which is being fed, and now this patch will
radiate in this particular direction which is the broadside direction. So, now, suppose if
we have number of elements and I am not right now saying rectangular or circular it can
be any of those configurations. So, we have a number of elements over here.
So, now, from here to here, you can actually see that this distance is h 2, but for this
element here that distance will be h3. So, this distance is more than this here so; that
means, this element will receive additional phase delay compare to this particular
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element. So, that additional phase delay can be compensated by taking this dimension
slightly shorter than this particular dimension over here, and by doing that one can
actually design this particular array. So, here just to mention in the beginning we had
taken a rectangular patch here or circular here and then we had used let us say a 3 x 3
array in the beginning, and then we went on to use very large array also, but then there
was a problem in using the rectangular array because in the rectangular array if you just
imagine there is a rectangular array like this 3 x 3 element. So, if you can just imagine
that then this element this one and perpendicular here and here they will be at the same
distance from the central point, but for that 3 x 3 array the diagonal elements will
actually see different phase difference. So, their dimensions also will be different. In fact,
we did too lot of work on that, but then we felt this is a better configuration. In this
particular case what we have we have a central element here and these 6 elements you
can call them, they are placed in the hexagonal formation or you can even say circular
array also. So, we have given the name of this as 1B7T where one patches at the bottom
and the 7 patches are on the top.
So, here what we need to do the central patch will set the reference and these
surrounding patches will get additional phase delay that is to be compensated by
reducing their dimension. In fact, after this 1B7T, we had also done 1B19T also where 12
elements were put along this here, but let us first understand the concept. So, in this
particular case, we had designed this particular antenna, and you can see that bottom
element radius is about 13.1, central one here in the top is 13.1, but the side one are
about 12.7, inter-element spacing is taken to be about 33 between this, and this which
will be same along all the directions and the air gap between the this and here it is very
important, that this air gap should be about 0/2, or it can be n times 0/2. Now, this is
very very important because only then the radiation in this direction will add up with
respect to this over here.
So, this distance is a very critical component in this entire design and just to tell you how
we did the realization here. So, over here one can actually see which is very difficult to
make out here. So, there is a small patch over here this is the ground plate this is small
patch here which is corresponding to this here, and that is only patch which is being fed
there. One can see all these 7 elements which are printed on this substrate only on one
side the top side can act as a radome, and these are supported by 4 dielectric screws. So,
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that you know they can be suspended in the air. So, let us just see the results of this
particular antenna.
So, the antenna was designed in the C band which is from 4 to 8 GHz. So, here you can
see that resonance frequency is around 5.7 GHz or so and that is a VSWR = 2 line. You
can see that the bandwidth of this particular antenna is relatively small and even the gain
pattern is like this here which shows relatively small bandwidth you can see
corresponding to this the peak gain is around 17 dB or so and the gain variation, you can
see would be something like this which would be about 1 dB gain variation. So, but this
particular thing has a nicer thing also that radiation pattern is relatively symmetrical. You
can see a side lobe levels are very small. You can see that over here side lobe level is less
than 20 dB; over here also it is less than 20 dB. So, why side lobes are less, I will go
back here. Let us just look at this one more time. So, now, if look think about this patch
here. The maximum radiation is in the broadside direction, and this one will have a
something like a beam like this. So; that means, this element and this element will
receive slightly less power compare to this element over here. So that means, it will
provide a natural taper distribution and hence side lobe performance will be good.
So, this configuration has an advantage of a natural taper distribution. Now as I

mentioned we have just seen the results of 1B7T. We have made it to 1B19T also it can
be expanded more and this kind of array is extremely useful specially for high frequency.
Now just to remind let us just see here this antenna was design around 5.7 GHz and the
spacing over here is about 25.85 millimeter, but instead of say 5.7 let us say if we go to
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millimeter wave in the order of say 35 GHz. All these dimensions will be reduced
correspondingly and that height will reduce to almost close to 5 mm or so which is still
fairly compact and also this does not require any feed network. So, this is a very good
array specially for higher frequency, because at higher frequency this total height will be
relatively small and this can be extended too much larger array and we can also get a
natural side lobe level performance also or reduction in the side lobe level. The only
disadvantage with this particular configuration is, it is relatively narrow band. So, there
is a lot of research potential which can be used to improve the performance of this
particular array, but there are several other advantages are there let me just go back.
Now, this particular element actually you can do wonderful thing. For example, if you
use this particular element and we feed here and suppose here, that will be suppose if we
feed 10o, this also 1 0o, then we can actually get a dual polarized microstrip antenna
or orthogonally polarized micro strip antenna array which can be used for MIMO
application or this element can be which is this bottom element can be circularly
polarized antenna then all this effect will be a circularly polarized microstrip antenna
array. So in fact, we will take one example where we will see an example of orthogonally
polarized array and will see that it becomes very complicated feed network, but this
space fed antenna array can really solve many of those problems. So, let us just look at
another possible configuration. This is the series fed array of gap coupled rectangular
microstrip antenna.
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So, we have already seen this particular configuration. This configuration is known as
non-radiating h gap coupled microstrip antenna, and then we have use this broadband
antenna array in the array form. I actually just want to mention to you people that this
particular air element here that is a non-radiating edges gap coupled antenna. I had done
this work in my PhD thesis work. So, I have finished at PhD work in 1983. So, what I am
telling you is about 33-year-old story and in fact, we did published papers in 84 and 85
based on these configurations and in my thesis during those days I had mentioned that
these elements can be used in an array form to realize broadband microstrip antenna, but
then the thing which I recommended in 1983.
Finally I restarted the whole thing 30 years later and then we have now designed. So,
here is another array same as this here and these are coupled with a U-shaped. You can
say bent network here. So, that is a series feed. We could still get impedance matching by
feeding almost close to the edge over here and these are the simulated and measured
results. You can see that the results are fairly good agreement and the bandwidth
obtained here is from 5.535 GHz to 5.84 GHz and that is about 5% bandwidth we get it
from this particular case here. You can also see that this is the gain plot. You can see that
the gain variation over the bandwidth is relatively small and the maximum gain of the
antenna array is about 13.4 dB. So, just to refresh this particular antenna as suggest these
3 element would give us gain of about somewhere between 8 to 9 dB. So, we could get a
larger gain by using these elements. Of course, we have done only 3 of these broadband
thing. This concept can be extended to larger antenna array and there by realize broader
bandwidth.
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Now, we will look at the another configuration. This configuration is electromagnetically
coupled dual polarized microstrip antenna. First will look at the concept here then will
use this particular thing in an array form to realize larger gain. So, let me first tell, what
is the objective of this particular thing here? So, here the requirement was we wanted to
have a broadband antenna, but we should have a very good isolation between the 2
orthogonal feed points. So, this is the configuration which we reported for the first time.
So, what we have here. So, we have a one feed network over here. Let us just look into it
what it is. So, this one if you look at here that is a micro stripline which is coupling with
the top patch which is actually suspended in the air. So, this is we have taken as a square
radiating element, because we wanted orthogonal polarization at the same frequency,
hence we took a square patch and now this feed line here is getting electromagnetically
coupled with this particular patch over here. Now here if we take this particular thing
little down below here. So, then there will be coupling and if we take little bit above their
coupling is slightly reduced, but the thing is bandwidth also increases. Since our
requirement was broadband, we chose little larger air gap and because of that what was
happening then we coupled this here and because this gap was too much input
impedance realize is relatively small. So, we used a quarter wave transformer to obtain
50 ohm matching here and then this one here is placed orthogonal to this one here it is
important to have a small gap over here. So, that improves the isolation between the 2
orthogonal feed point over here.
So, now let us just see the results of this particular concept. So, here is the fabricated
element. In fact, this particular thing we had designed it around 2.5 GHz frequency. So,
you can actually see that this is the picture of the bottom layer where this feed line as
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well as quarter wave transformer is fabricated and they are 2 of them and this is the
complete assemble antenna; you can actually see little bit of this patch here because that
patch is actually printed in the inverted suspended configuration. So, basically it is
printed underneath this one here. So, when we take a picture from here, we are not able
to see the patch clearly, but you can actually see little bit shade of that and this particular
antenna has been designed; you can actually see here that the bandwidth for VSWR less
than 2 is almost 13%. It is from 2.375 to 2.725. So, I just want to mention here.
So, this actually covers lot of different applications. So, for example, Wi-Fi application
would be from 2.4 to 2.5 GHz which is covered by this antenna. Then lower band of Wi-
Max that is from 2.5 to 2.7 GHz. So, even that has been covered by this particular
configuration here and now the beauty of this particular configuration is the isolation.
The isolation between these 2 and this is a measured value. So, the isolation over the
bandwidth over here is less than -40 dB, when actually see that reference value is -20 dB
which is over here -30 dB, -40 dB. So, that is the - 40 dB line. You can actually see that
in this range it is -40 dB, but it is even getting below -50 dB. So, it is a very good
isolation value. As I mentioned earlier our requirement was better than 30 dB. Here, we
achieved 40 dB and any isolation better than 30 dB is considered good. 40 dB is
definitely very good, and I also want to mention. So, this particular array concept you
can actually give 2 different names. One is of course, orthogonally polarized microstrip
antenna. We will talk about the array in the next slide, but then it can also be actually
nomenclature as MIMO antenna. So, basically multiple input multiple output and for
MIMO antenna it is very important that the isolation between the 2 feed should be very
good.
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So, now, we will extend this concept to a relatively larger array. So, let me just go one by
one. So, that single unit which we looked into it. So, now, that has been extended to 6 x 6
element array and instead of designing the array at 2.45, this array is designed at 5.8
GHz, which is the Wi-Max higher band and also this band has been declared free in
many countries of the world and it is of course, declared free in India also. So, just to
tell you, in India all these frequencies usage are decided by WPC wireless planning
commission and wireless planning commission comes under the umbrella of DOT which
is department of telecommunication. So, you can go to their website and you can even
download what are the frequencies used for what purpose and what are the free band. So,
that will help you to design your next antenna or your next transceiver or transmitter
receiver’s system.
So, now, coming back over here this 6 x 6 antenna array is used in the
electromagnetically coupled configuration. So, just from here you let us come over here.
You can actually see that this is the feed network, and you can actually see little bit
carefully if you notice here that what we have here that these are the line here. So, there
will be patch will be setting on top of this here. So, you can see that there is a small line,
quarter wave transformer, small line, quarter wave transformer. So, on this one patch will
be setting there and then that is the same thing over here and then you can see that this is
getting replicated here and to all of these things, we require a feed network. So, feed
network is shown over here you can see that it is a fairly complicated feed network and
this network has been printed on the lower side of the ground plane and plated through
holes were connected from the bottom side to this particular feed network. So, that a
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proper power divider takes place. So, basically over here what we have actually done if
you look into this here. So, there is a power divider network. So, since we have a array of
6 x 6. So, we have used a power divider first 3 x 1 power divider and then each 3-way
power divider has been divided in to 2. So, that we get overall 6 x 6 power divider. So,
this is the complete assemble unit and if you actually look in to here the total thickness is
relatively small, you can actually see that the total thickness is still close to about SMA
connector only.
So, now, let just see what are the measured results for this particular array? So, first let us
just look at this is the VSWR and since there are 2 ports are there port 1 and 2. Which are
basically the 2 orthogonal port here. So, if you now we will see this is the VSWR = 2
line and if you look from the bandwidth even from here, this bandwidth is anyway from
5.3 GHz to almost 6.8 GHz. So, that is a bandwidth of about 1.5 GHz. So, which is
extremely high that gives us more than 25% bandwidth. So, that is the VSWR
bandwidth. Let us just see isolation. As I mentioned, the requirement was less than 30 dB
isolation over the band, and you can see that we got a |S 21| < -30 dB or isolation better
than 30 dB right from 5 to 7 GHz and in between lot of places you can see the isolation
is almost 35 to 40 dB below now. So, that is VSWR, this is isolation, but these are not
the only 2 important things. We should also look at the gain and the pattern stability. So,
here we can see that we got a gain of about 22 dB and in this particular case one can see
that if we just look at a 21 here. So, that is about here. So, the gain variation which is less
than 1 dB and that is over a very large bandwidth of 1 GHz. So that means, this is a good
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antenna array as such, which has a fairly uniform gain over the bandwidth and also
which I have not shown here. But the radiation pattern, the radiation pattern also is fairly
uniform over the entire bandwidth. Because once you know that if the gain is relatively
constant; that means, the radiation pattern is also going to be relatively same here and
you can see that for very large range, the gain is very close to about 22 dB and in fact,
this actually covers various bands. Just to remind of a majority of the time, people are
looking at 5.8 GHz, the bandwidth require could be 1.5 here or may be people looking in
the 5.4 GHz band and that will also be you know covered in this particular array. So, one
can actually see that this particular array is very useful to cover various band and of
course, you can modify this for any other frequency band also.
So, now, let us just go to the next topic, which is phased array antenna. So, what is the
concept of the phase array antenna? Now, again you will have to go back to the lecture
which I talked about in the linear antenna array. For linear antenna array, we had
mentioned that if all the elements are fed with equal amplitude and phase then the beam
is in the broadside direction; however, if we change the phases between the elements
then the beam can be scanned in this direction or this direction depending upon how you
vary the phase. So, the phased array antenna is actually extension of that only. So, let us
just see here we have linear arrays of 8 elements.
So, what we have here, these are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 elements and first just look into
here. So, these 8 elements are fed using a corporate feed here. So, this is the amplifier.
So, from here, it is divided into 2 then this is divided further into 2 then this is divided
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into 4. So, that is a 8 element array. But in between what has been added these are the
phase control values which are added over here. So, for example, if all the phases are 0
then it will be in the broadside direction, but suppose if I start this as a reference. So, this
is 0, this is -10o, -20o, -30o, -40o, -50o, -60o then it will be having a beam shift like this,
and that beam shift can be obtained. Again from the array theory where we had seen that
 = 2d/ cos +. So, for desired angle , we can actually calculate what should be
the value of , and then you can do the beam scanning. Now the only thing over here is
that when you want to do something like this, let us say now you want to change the
beam from broadside. Let us say 10o then you want to shift to 20o. Then all the phases to
each element should vary accordingly and that possess lot of problem for larger array.
Imagine if we have an 8 x 8 array. So, 8 x 8 array would require total 64 phase control
even if one is reference it requires 63 phase shifter. Now think about if you have an array
size of 32 x 32 which means 1024. So, you need that many different phase control
devices. So, these are the challenges. In fact, many a times what people do they actually
use 2 x 2 sub array. So, that lesser number of phase shifts are required and again there is
a lot of research required for designing phase shifter. Phase shifters can be analog phase
shifter or digital phase shifter. In case of analog phase shifter, one of the device which
can be used may be a varactor diode, can be used which is given a voltage and by
changing that varactor diode correspondingly phase can be changed or in the case of
digital, majority of the time they use pin diode switches. So, by switching those pin
diodes, you can actually change the shifts in steps. So, when you change the phases in
step, sometimes there is an error known as quantization error also comes into picture.
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Now, this was a general phased array antenna. Now let me just talk about another thing,
it is an active phased array antenna. If you compare this with the previous example,
actually the additional thing what you see over here is this block over here and these are
amplifier, but I will just mention little bit more about it. So, what is being done over here
starting from here power is getting divided to various ports, and then these amplifiers are
used and this is the actually a very important thing specially today when we want to
transmit let us say very high power through the arrays. Now either we use a very high
power single source or in this particulars what we can do, we can actually use relatively
low power active sources here. So, think about an application. Suppose we have a 32 x
32 element array. So, 32 x 32 means 1024. So, if you feed even 1 W to each module that
1000 element really would mean 1 W corresponds to 1 KW of power and if we have a 10
W module to each one of them; that means, we are transmitting 10 KW of solid state
power amplifier now; however, there is a one additional thing I want to mention, the
what you see over here is a one sided; that means, this configuration can be used for
transmit purpose only, but if we want antennas also for receive purpose also. So, in that
case for receive purpose simple amplifier is actually replaced by TR module. Where T
stands for transmit R stands for receive. So, transmit receive module. In fact, you can
actually in a very simple thing. That transmit receive modules are nothing, but by
directional amplifier with proper isolation between the two. So, by using this particular
thing scheme here one can use multiple TR module and some of the TR modules may
even consist these phase shifters also, and sometimes they may even consist attenuators
also for amplitude control so that we can control the side lobe level also and in fact,
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many a times this active phase array are also used. Suppose you are using for a particular
application and there may be a jamming signal coming from some other direction. So, by
doing a proper phase control, one can actually put a null in the direction of the jamming
signal.
So, there are many applications of antenna array. In fact, there are several books are there
on phased array antenna. So, I want you to once you start working on these wonderful
array techniques, you will actually see that there are so many application, but yet there is
a one major limitation, I want to mention. Majority of the phase array antenna today are
fairly expensive. So, majority of the time, it is being used by the defense forces all over
the world. Right now commercial use of these phase array antenna is relatively very less.
So, I hope that one day when all of these thing can be integrated and the cost of
producing these arrays become less then these can be used for commercial use. So, for
that you need to work on this, come out with the novel design. There is a lot of research
possible in this particular area.
So with that, in fact, I am going to conclude the micro strip antenna itself as well as
array. So, we started with microstrip antenna array, then we looked at broadband
microstrip antenna array, then we looked at the compact microstrip antenna, then we also
looked at circularly polarized and even tunable dual band microstrip antenna. Then we
talked about various types of micro strip antenna array. So, we now conclude micro strip
antenna, and in the next lecture we will talk about helical antennas, and will see how
helical antennas can be used in different mode to realize different kind of radiation
pattern. So, with that thank you very much and see you next time, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 09
Lecture - 40
Helical Antennas-I
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on helical antennas. In the last several lectures we
have been talking about micro strip antenna, broadband micro strip antenna, compact
micro strip antenna, circularly polarized micro strip antenna and micro strip antenna
array. So, today we will talk about helical antenna and will see what are the different
modes in which we can operate helical antenna and what kind of a radiation pattern we
can get out of helical antenna. So, let’s start with helical antennas.
So, helical antenna is nothing but a, take a wire and you wrap it around in this particular
fashion and feed it at one of the side here depending upon the mode we want to excite
and there can be a ground plane in this particular side over here. So, that the radiation
can be in this direction or it can be in this direction depending upon the mode of
operation.
You can really in a very simple manner think about a helical antenna as an inductor. So,
just like we take a wire and we take that wire and wrap it around, so assuming that this is
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a wire. So, if you wrap it around something like this here then that will become a helical
antenna. In fact, you see inductors also look in a very similar manner ok, but however in
case of inductor we use inductor as a circuit element. Here we use helical antenna as an
antenna which is going to radiate in different mode. And helical antennas were actually
invented by Kraus several decades back so in fact, I am going to pick up lot of material
from John D Kraus book on antennas. So, let’s look into the helical antenna again.
So, we define the helical antenna in this particular fashion where this is the diameter of
the helix, ok and this is known as a helical axis. So, if the radiation is in this direction we
actually call it axial mode, and if the radiation is in perpendicular direction to this axis
then we call it a normal mode antenna. So, here we define this, the diameter that is a
diameter of helix and this is the diameter of the wire which we have taken.
Now this is the spacing between the two turns, ok and generally this spacing is kept
constant between the different turns. And here length L is the length of one single turn.
So, if we try to put these things in the triangular form here we can actually say
circumference will be equal to  times diameter of the helix. So, that will be this whole
thing is the circumference, but since there has some change from one point to another
point. That is why we have a S. Suppose if S is equal to zero then this particular thing
will be zero here L will be equal to C, and that would be if this precisely zero. Then
length of the one turn will be equal to the C which is circumference and this is known as
a spacing between each turn which is S.
So, we can actually apply a simple rule here since it is a perpendicular over here, so we
can say L is nothing but √(S2 + C2). So, this gives the length of one turn helical antenna.
And now here we can find out total axial length will be equal to nS, because you can see
that S is equal to spacing between one turn. So, we can say total axial length will be n
turns multiplied by S. And the total length of the wire will be n times which is the
number of turns multiplied by length of the one single turn. So, we can actually use this
formula to calculate the length of the wire, and we can also find out what is the angle.
So, what is this angle? Angle at which it is changing from here to this one? So again if
angle is equal to zero, so what will happen? S will be equal to zero and this one will be
moving just at that particular place only. So, we can actually take tanα. So, tanα will be
nothing but equal to perpendicular divided by base here. So, perpendicular is S divided
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by base which is equal to D or C and so, we take tan-1 of that, that gives the value of
angle α or you can call it a pitch angle at which it is rising.
So, there are special cases of helical antenna. One case will be when α = 0. So, α = 0
means that there is a no increase in the value of S will remain zero. And if S = 0, these
things will be repeating at the same place here, and that will give rise to loop antenna.
So, for this particular case α will be zero, S = 0 and that will be a loop antenna.
Case 2 will be a case when α = 90o, so suppose instead of moving around this, this whole
thing is just going in this direction only. And if it is going in this direction we can say
that the diameter will be equal to zero and this will be nothing but a linear antenna. So, in
a simpler way one can also think about a helical antenna is a combination of loop
antenna and linear antenna. In fact, that gives rise to very interesting characteristic also.
So, linear antenna will be in this direction and loop antenna is in this direction which is
perpendicular to this. So, hence we will see later on that axial mode which is in this
particular direction here gives rise to circularly polarized component for certain
condition.
As I mentioned most of the material I have taken from the John D Kraus book. Well he is
the original inventor and I will highly recommend that you please read his book and
specially the chapter on helical antenna. The reason is that he has actually described how
he actually invented helical antenna, helical structures were known earlier. In fact, helix
is known as a slow wave structure and these were used earlier in microwave tube. And
when he proposed that about helical antenna there was a lot of opposition, and in general
it generally happens ok, that anything somebody proposes which is new there is always
some opposition or there is a hesitation to accept that.
So, then John D Kraus had to do lot of experiments to prove the validity of helical
antenna, and hence I feel it’s a very appropriate to teach from that particular book, but
am going to add lot of things to what is already in that book because when he invented
that antenna those days we did not have very good computers and we could not do
simulation, but today with the power of the computers we can do lot of simulation. So, I
will show you after the simulation and also we have done several experiments also on
helical antenna. And will tell you where there are changes which need to be done in the
helical antenna chapter of Kraus book.
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So, let’s just look the different modes in which helical antenna can operate. In general,
helical antenna can operate in three different modes- normal mode axial mode and
conical mode. So, for normal mode what we really see this is the helical axis and one can
see that the radiation pattern maximum is in this particular direction. If you actually see
this mode here this looks very similar to if you think about a monopole antenna like this.
So, monopole antenna will have a maximum in this direction and minimum in this
direction here. So, a normal mode helical antenna the condition for that is the
circumference which is equal to D, it must be much less than .
Axial mode is obtained when circumference is approximately equal to , and one can
actually see that this is the helix axis and the maximum radiation is along the helical axis,
and that’s why it is known as axial mode. And when C ≈ n where n can be two or three
or more, in that case we see that the pattern is of conical. So, you can see that neither it is
in this direction maxima nor it is in this direction maxima, which are the cases for these
two cases. So, the radiation is maximum in the conical mode. But I want to tell you here
that majority of the time this mode is not really used. So, we will concentrate mainly on
these two modes over here.
And just to again tell you what is the difference, will take a wire again. And let’s say if
this wire we wrap it along. Let’s say a small diameter that is how it will be a normal
mode, when the circumference which is equal to D, is much less than wavelength, but
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now if we take another situation here where let’s say the diameter is relatively large and
now we have this. So, now if this circumference is equivalent to  value in that particular
case it will give rise to the axial mode.
So, in a very simple way for normal mode the diameter will be very small and for axial
mode diameter will be relatively larger ok. So, from this simple concept.
Let’s just see now what are the different charts. So, this is the helical antenna modes
chart ok and what you can actually see here this one here, the axis along this is C/ that
is normalized circumference, along this it is S/ which is normalized spacing between
each turn, and here is the normal mode. One can actually see for normal mode C/ is
much smaller, as you can see here C/ < 0.4. And S/ is also relatively small. So, in this
particular zone we can actually operate the helical antenna in the normal mode. Normal
mode would really mean if this is the helical axis, radiation will be maximum to normal
to the helical axial.
Now, this is the axial mode. If you see axial mode here that C/ ≈ 1 along this point here
ok. And S/ is given correspondingly. And these are the angles which are given here, this
is the angle, pitch angle α. You can see that that’s about 15 o, and this particular region
here actually shows that in this particular region helical antenna can work in the axial
mode and one of the nice thing about this mode also that this gives us circularly
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polarized helical antenna ok. And how we wind the wire, we’ll just tell you also how to
do that. So, if you wind in one particular way then it may give LHCP, if you do opposite
winding then it can give RHCP. So, it’s a very very simple way to obtain circular
polarization mode.
And one can also see that since this entire area can give a circular polarization, one can
actually see here. So, this is 1 and that is about 0.8 over here and this is 1.2. So, that
means that it can give circular polarization in the range from 0.8 to 1.2 if you look in this
particular direction. Also if you see this center point here this angle which is going on.
So, that is about α =15o.
So in fact, there are certain conditions to obtain circular polarization, and generally it is
defined if α is between 12 to 14 o, then it gives about circular polarization. And
correspondingly then we can calculate what is the value of S/. We’ll look into these
things one by one. Now these are the other modes you can say these are the higher order
mode where we can get a conical pattern also. These are the things which are normally
not used actually. And the conical patterns will be obtained when this is two or three as
you can see most of the time that is not really used. So, practically higher order modes
are not used for helical antenna.
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So, let’s just see the field distribution. Let me start with the center of attraction which is
right over here. And this is the case where the radiation is in the axial mode here and in
this particular case C ≈ . So, this mode is known as a T1 mode, but we’ll just see what is
really there. So, C = . So, let’s just start from this particular point here. So, if you look
at this point assuming that the field is equal to plus.
So, from here if we just complete one full turn that would be equal to approximately .
So we know that the property if the wavelength is equal to  then the field will vary from
plus it will go to zero then it will go to minus where the length will be /2, and then it
will become plus then again it is repeated. So, this plus will again come because this
distance is an approximately equal to . So, if we actually see that all these pluses are in
this particular side, all these minuses are in this particular side here.
So in fact, in reality what happens? So, these pluses and minuses they add up and give
radiation in axial direction over here. The another thing which is to be noted here that we
can actually see that plus to minus, so we can see the one field component here, another
field component here. So, we can actually replace one turn with just this particular thing
here, and then you can actually think about there is an array of these particular elements.
So, helical antenna can be approximated as n element array, and this is of course, in this
direction. So, we can actually think about as an end fire array. So, we know that end fire
array there should be a phase delay. So, one can actually think about the wave which is
coming over here, there is a progressive delay is there.
Now, one additional thing I want to tell this, as it is rising here, so there will be two
components. So, one component will be let’s say, you can say that if this is going like
this, so it will be having a horizontal component as well as vertical component. So, at
every point there will be horizontal and vertical component which we can resolve. So, if
we choose the rise angle appropriately, one can actually ensure that the horizontal and
vertical component are approximately equal and the phase between them will be equal to
90o, and that is how we can get a circularly polarized radiation pattern.
And over here then if you just look at the wire, so if it is wrapped in this particular
fashion that may give a one type of a polarization and if it is wrapped in this particular
fashion it will give orthogonal polarization. So that means, getting a LHCP left hand
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circular polarization, or right hand circular polarization is very easy. In one way you
wind the wire like this, another way you wind the wire like this here. So, this is the mode
which actually corresponds to the axial mode. Now we will look at the normal mode.
So normal mode, circumference is much smaller than wave length. So that means, now if
we start with the plus here, since the circumference is very very small. So this plus here,
remains plus here, it remains plus over here ok. So this is like, just imagine and the
current will actually go to zero over here. So just imagine for a minute that this is
nothing but let’s say monopole antenna like this here. So, in monopole antenna what we
see. So there is a plus here which gradually decreases to zero value. And what is the
typical length of a monopole antenna, that is approximately /4 for infinite ground plane.
Now, over here also, the general concept is that if we put an infinite ground plane on this
side, then the wire length of helix according to the text books they say it should be equal
to /4, I do not agree with that. In fact, the length should be always greater than /4.
When I discuss about normal mode helical antenna I will give you more details of that.
So now, for this particular configuration if I look at the end view. So, you can see that
end view of this will look like plus here, it is going to zero, it is going to minus, it is
going to zero plus. So that is the T 1 mode.
Now, the second order mode will happen where what will happen instead of plus, zero
minus, zero, plus there will be 2 variation along the circumference. So, you can actually
see here it goes to plus here, then let’s say it goes to zero, minus, zero, plus. So, this
completes one wave length. And then from plus it goes to zero, minus, zero, plus. In fact,
this is also represented here you can see that field is more over here, then it is going to
the lesser value, that it increases it is actually showing the amplitude. So, phase is shown
over here. So, you can see that amplitude is becoming maximum, going to zero,
maximum, going to zero, becoming maximum.
And then the similar thing is happening over here, this is a T3 mode. So that means, it
starts with plus, minus, plus that completes one wave length variation. Then plus, minus,
plus another wave length variation. Then plus, minus, plus. So the total variation is 3,
but as I mentioned these two modes are generally not used. So, these are the two modes
which are used most commonly. So, we are actually going to start first with the axial
mode, and then we will talk about normal mode. In fact, this is the order in which even in
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the Kraus book, he has discussed in that particular manner. So, I thought will follow that
in the similar fashion.
So, let’s just look into the axial mode helical antenna. So, for the axial mode helical
antenna, let’s start with the ground plane. We can have a varieties of ground plane
depending upon the requirement. So, here we have a helical antenna, which is actually
fed over here and this is the flat ground plane. Now we know that this particular diameter
should be approximately equal to /. Because the circumference should be equal to pi
d, is equal to approximately . So, d should be equal to / which is approximately let’s
say 0.3.
So, the ground plane has to be larger than this value here. So, generally the
recommended value is that the minimum diameter of the ground plane should be equal to
0.75. Anything larger than that is perfectly fine. And in fact, actually speaking this
much ground plane is required to reduce the back radiation. So, we would like the
radiation to be more in this particular direction. And if we take a smaller ground plane
then front to back ratio becomes poorer, and that also reduces the value of the gain. So,
that’s the minimum thing, you can take anything larger than that fine. Now if we cannot
really take larger than this, but we know that this area is anyway occupied. So, instead of
using a flat ground plane one can actually use a cupped shaped ground plane also here.
So, you can actually see that. In fact, this is also known as a cavity also. So, one can
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actually have this helical antenna inside the cavity. There are two ways to think about it.
So, you actually can think about that the whole ground plane has extended more over
here. Or other way you can actually think that whatever the back radiation which could
have gone from this here, fringing fields, now they get blocked by this particular thing.
So, by using this kind of a shape here, the front to back ratio is improved. Now, however,
if in certain application it is really very very important and critical that front to back ratio
should be very large. That means, we want very little back radiations. In that case one
can actually use this particular shape here, that is a deep conical ground. In fact, I call it
also a bucket shape, or we can even call it a glass shaped ground plane here. So, what
happens if the ground plane is in this particular fashion? Then you can actually see that
the back radiation will reduce significantly and there is an advantage. If there is a less
back radiation, then where will that radiation go, that will, radiation will go only in the
front direction. So, from here to here to here slightly gain of the antenna also improves.
So, then comes the next part. That is what should be the size of the conductor. We’ll look
into that design one by one. We are just looking at just step by step thing here. So, the
conductor size of helical antenna and right now our discussion is only on the axial mode
and not on the normal mode. So, here these are the reported thing. So in fact, the
antennas were designed at 400 MHz, 3 different diameters were taken. So, you can
actually see that at 400 MHz wave length will be 75 cms. So, 75 cms if you put it over
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here 75 multiplied by 0.004, we are talking about 0.3 cm or 3 millimeter wire here. And
then a slightly bigger diameter here and then even more bigger diameter.
Now here I just want to tell you those days since they did not have too many
sophisticated software. So, instead of doing too much simulation they actually used to do
lot of experimental work. So, people really knew how to work with their hands. So, now,
you can see, since this wire is relatively small. So, on its own this helical antenna cannot
sustain. So, it requires some supporting structure.
Now, the supporting structure cannot be a metallic supporting structure because that is
not really recommended. It can be used a wooden or it can be used some dielectric
material over here which can provide the support. If you see over here if you take a
slightly larger diameter then it is self-supporting, and if we take even much larger
diameter you can see that it will actually be there, but this has a disadvantage compared
to this. The disadvantage is that the weight of this will be very large, because these
diameters will be much larger here. So, that will have a more weight.
Also bending such thick wire is also a very difficult thing to do practically, but however,
it has a one of the biggest advantage in this particular cases, it can handle very large
power because the diameter is large. And we know that if the wire diameter is small, so
its resistance will be relatively large. So that means I square R loses will be large over
here. Resistance will be small, so I square R loses will be small. So, for very high power
application one can use here.
But however, the one thing which we want to mention, so whether you take this diameter
or this or this, there is a very minor change in the performance of the helical antenna.
And when we talk about the performance, that means a radiation pattern doesn’t vary
much, gain doesn’t vary much, even bandwidth doesn’t vary much in this particular case
here. However, in case of normal mode helical antenna we’ll see that the bandwidth is
almost proportional to the diameter. So compared to this, this will have a much larger
bandwidth, but that is only for normal mode. For axial mode there is a only very very
minor change ok and then just to show you the another support structure for this here.
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So, one can actually see here similar thing. So, you can see that there is a ground plane
here. This is a cavity type, this is a flat type, cavity type. You can always mix it over. It
can also be a, you can say bucket shape also. So, in this particular case thin wire has been
taken. So, since thin wire has been taken, it requires a supporting structure. So, one can
actually see here 3 different things have been used and then the wire has been put around
that. Over here 4 different rods have been put and the wire has been put around that. And
in this particular case here what is shown here is a solid dielectric material, these wires
have been wrapped around. It is not important that we should have a solid cylinder here.
In fact, it can have a hollow cylinder also.
In fact, the first antenna which we designed, we actually used the hollow cylinder. And in
fact, when we wanted to do, we were looking for some hollow cylinder, I used to play
badminton those days. So, we actually removed the shuttles of the badminton and we
used that box which is a hollow cylinder made of the paper and we put the wire around
that and simply put the tape. So, that it stays over there. So, that is how we actually
improvised our first antenna, when we wanted to see how helical antennas work. So,
we’ll actually discuss about more of these axial mode, how we excite, what is the input
impedance, how we design the helical antenna, how do we calculate radiation pattern and
other thing in the next lecture.
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So, just to summarize that helical antennas can operate in 3 different modes. Normal
mode, then we can talk about axial mode, and then conical mode. For normal mode
diameter is relatively very small or you can say circumference is much smaller than
wavelength. For axial mode circumference should be comparable to wave length, and for
conical mode circumference is actually equal to 2 or 3 times , but as I mentioned we
don’t use conical modes. So, we will focus only on these 2 mode. So, I just talked about
little bit about axial mode, how we support the helical antenna what kind of a ground
plane we use it, but in the next lecture will see lots of details of axial mode and how to
design axial mode helical antenna. So, with that will see you next time.
Thank you, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Indian institute of technology, Bombay
Module - 09
Lecture – 41
Helical Antennas-II
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Helical Antenna, which is in continuation of the
previous lecture. So, in the previous lecture we saw that helical antennas can operate in three
different modes- normal mode, axial mode and conical radiation pattern mode. But most of
the time third mode is not used, so mainly normal mode and axial mode antennas are used.
So, we started discussion on axial mode. So, today we’ll continue from the same thing.
So, let’s start with the previous slide which we had seen. So, this is a simple helical antenna
and we can say that the ground plane size should be at least 0.75 λ .
But let us just see what is really happening here. So, we are actually feeding it over here I’ll
also mention quickly today about the impedance at this particular point, but let’s just see the
concept wise. Its power is fed from here, it’s going from here to here and then it moves
forward. So, if you look at the current here, so current is coming here and finally the current
becomes equal to zero at this particular point. Now when the current is becoming zero, where
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part of that will get reflected back, but while all this thing is happening this antenna is also
radiating in the free space over here, because each of the turn here is effective radiator.
So, really speaking what happens the current which is going through over here, the current
which is reflected back, the amplitude of that is really very very small, because most of that
has already radiated. So, the power reflected back from here is relatively small, and hence
this particular configuration is also known as travelling wave structure. So, in case of
travelling wave basic idea of travelling wave is that the wave which is being sent here, it is
getting out, it is very little is getting reflected back. And in general travelling wave antennas
are broadband antenna, because the reflected waveform is very very small. So with this
simple concept here and also just to mention, so if we can wind the wire like this or we can
wind the wire like this here.
So, by just interchanging the wire from the here to here we can actually get left hand
circularly polarized or right hand circularly polarized antenna. So, we saw the effect of the
diameter, there is a hardly any effect of the diameter on the performance of the axial mode
helical antenna.
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We saw the support structure, and now we will look at the input impedance. So, since it is a
travelling wave structure, it has a fairly large bandwidth and its resistance is constant over a
very large bandwidth.
So, if the feed is axial feed, that means if this is the helical axis which is the axis here, if you
feed like this here, then it is known as axial feed.
Whereas, if you think about a helix like this and if you feed along this here which is
peripheral or circumferential feed, that is known as a peripheral or circumferential feed. So,
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for axial mode, R is approximately given by this particular formula and for peripheral, R is
given by this particular formula. And the beauty of this axial mode helical antenna is that the
imaginary part is close to 0 or it has a very small component and hence it gives broader
bandwidth, and if you look at the condition for axial mode is that C ≈ 1.
So, if it is 1, that will give 140 Ω, and if this is 1 that gives about 150 Ω. So 140, 150 the
percentage difference between the 2 values is not very significant. So, one can actually see
that the impedance variation is not too large. However, there are restrictions. So, it is not that
this will be valid for any particular case here, but these are valid, these are the restriction that
C can be between 0.8 to 1.2. In fact, if you recall I had shown the mode chart and where we
had shown you that C can vary between 0.8 to 1.2.
α angle is required to be between 12 to 14 O, this condition is mainly there so that we can get
good circularly polarized waveform. Because what α determines? α determines the rise of the
helix ok and that gives us the finite value of S for a given value of the diameter. So, this is
important because let’s say helix which is rising like this. So, if it raising like this here it will
have a horizontal and vertical component and we want these two components should be
equal, as well as the phase difference should be 90 0. So, this condition ensures that. And also
the other condition is number of turns should be greater than 4.
The reason for that is if you just imagine again a helix here. So, at this point current will be
zero, so that current will get reflected back. So, if the number of turns are very small then that
will come back and effect of performance of the helical antenna. So, if at least n equal to 4
turns are there, then the reflected current from the open and from here and coming down over
here will be relatively small.
So, these are the simple condition for which we can get a nearly constant input impedance
with reactive part close to zero. However, we can see that this is not really matching with the
50 ohm, so we need to match this impedance with 50 Ω. So, for that there are two different
techniques have been used. So, input impedance matching technique. So, what is done? this is
actually very old thing, which is what has been reported earlier.
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So, I am just telling you that. However, I don’t use this technique right now. I use actually the
second technique, but let’s just see what is the first technique. So you can actually see that
this is that helix tubing which is coming up here, and that helix tube which is mostly circular
and that has been actually made flatter. So, you flatten the tube and that become flat over
here, and this is the dielectric sheet which is put in between and then when this is flattened
over here and that flattened value actually is determined by this particular equation here, just
to mention here. So, we know that we would like to get a 50 Ω line, εr will be given by
the dielectric substrate, h will be the thickness of the substrate, and for this, corresponding
this Z0 50 Ω, one can calculate what should be the W and that is how it should be flattened to.
And that becomes a very very difficult thing also, and it’s a lot of mechanical work which
needs to be done. So, I prefer this particular second thing which has been used by several
people also. What in this technique is done is that we know that this is the peripheral feed. So,
we actually, this is of course axial feed here, I am talking about now when we use this micro
strip transition generally that will be peripheral feed.
So, let’s say this helix tube will come over here, and then generally what is done? We put a
dielectric sheet here with the ground plane, just like a substrate and then what you do? You
print a microstrip line on this. So, on this particular side microstrip line impedance should
correspond to 150 Ω, which is for periphery feed and on this particular side the impedance of
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the thing should be about close to 50 Ω, which is what we would like to feed and then the
coaxial feed can be put like this over here ok.
So, what is important is that from here which is let’s say 150 Ω, this is here 50 Ω, then this
length is very very important ok. So, one can use quarter wave transformer, but that is not
recommended. Because a quarter wave transformer will not have a very good impedance
bandwidth. So, generally what is recommended is use tapered microstrip transition. So, from
here to here, use a transition from 150 Ω to 50 Ω, and typically this length should be
approximately equal to /2 at the lowest frequency, then we can get a very good matching.
And in fact, we have done this, we used a low cost substrate over here. So, we used FR4
substrate, or glass epoxy substrate, whose dielectric constant is 4.4, tan  of course, was high
which is 0.02.
But since we are using only small portion, that loss was not very significant and one can use
the thickness here which can be 0.8 mm or it can be 1.6 mm depending upon what is
available.
Now, we are going to show you the different radiation patterns. Now this particular study I
just want to tell, it is reported several decades back, again the main reason as I mentioned
earlier, the software tools where not there. So, people did lot of experimental work. So they
had designed this particular antenna around 400 MHz. So, corresponding to 400 MHz, you
can just say that if you take C 0.97, it can be 1 also approximately.
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But at this particular thing, so 400 MHz is equal to 75 cm. So, 75 divided by pi. So, you can
say roughly about 25 close to that cm is the diameter ok. So, that’s fairly large diameter, even
though it may look small over here. They had taken n equal to 6 that means 6 turns are there
and they took α equal to 14O. In fact, I normally recommend since this circular polarization
ranges from 12O to 14O. So, I generally recommend take middle value which is about α equal
to 13O. Nevertheless they took this value and now I just want to show the pattern which they
had a measured. So, you can actually see here that what it shows here horizontally polarized
component, and vertically polarized component.
So, solid line is horizontally polarized. So, we can see that both horizontally polarized and
vertically polarized components are very good, giving rise to very good circular polarization.
If you look into here again the values are fairly close, even here the value is pretty close. At
this particular thing when C a is about 1.35 or you can think about frequency increase. So,
basically the helix remains same, it is just that frequency is being changed. You change the
frequency, C changes. So, one can see now that there is a deviation between horizontally
polarized component, and vertically polarized. But one can actually see here, for C  0.66 or at
a much lower frequency the 2 patterns are very very different. So, that is not really a good
circularly polarized field here. So, one can actually see right from C  0.73 up to about 1.22,
one can get good circularly polarized radiation pattern.
So, it’s a very very simple way to design the helical antenna, but yet they had to do lot of
experiments. So, these are the experiments which they had done. So, here there are 2 turns, 4
turn, 6 turn, 8 turn, 10 turns.
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Now, we know that if numbers of elements are increased, then the gain will increase and if
the gain increases beam width will reduce. So, one can actually see here this one has a larger
beam width compared to this one here, you can see it has a very narrow beam width. So that
means, this particular antenna will have a larger gain compare to this particular antenna over
here ok. And then all these things were happening, there was still lot of confusion was there
how to calculate the radiation pattern, why things are happening here, then later on
simulations where also done. So here are the simulations for single turn.
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So, for single turn they took an angle α equal to 12 O, n is equal to 1 and you can actually see
plane is phi equal to 0, but here this is a phi turn and this is a E . So E , E, which are
perpendicular to each other. So, now, these are the two patterns, now you can actually see that
these two pattern look very different. But however, if you just look into the half power beam
width area, if you see in this particular thing this is where is the axial mode is going to
happen.
So, if it’s, see in this particular region, the two pattern look almost similar to each other. And
also even though this particular turn is there, but this whole thing we’ll get rid of, especially
because of the array factor, because there are number of turns are there. So, number of turns
will actually ensure that the maximum radiation is in this direction, and will have side lobes
in this particular direction. So hence this term will be actually negligible.
So, here this is the approximation made. So, this whole pattern was actually approximated to
be cos() , because  is shown. So, cos() , cos 0 will be 1, and  is equal to 90O or plus
minus 90, so field will be 0 over here, and we are not really concerned about the back
radiation because this back radiation will be taken care by putting appropriate ground plane.
And then there was a lot of simulation done, lot of measurements were done. So, here is a
case where axial mode helical antenna actually was fabricated, you can actually see the case
studied is C was 0.95, n is 7, α is 12 O. So, we know that for this situation we will get
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circularly polarized antenna and for this particular thing they actually found this to be the
measured E theta and E phi average of that ok.
So, now this particular thing was obtained this is nothing but you can actually also think
about and endfire array ok. And now if this is an endfire array, you can think about one
element here, second element here, third here, fourth here, fifth here, sixth here, seventh and
from here to here there is a phase delay. So, from here delay, delay, delay and that delay
condition should be satisfied such a way that it gives us the endfire.
Now in the beginning people were all trying to use the concept of the endfire array, and by
using the concept of the endfire array, the results were not matching with this particular
configuration. So, then they used lot of permutations and combinations, and then they
actually, when they used this particular value of phase delay 0.76, which also corresponds to
increase directivity condition and suddenly these two patterns look very very similar to each
other.
Except for of course, there is a not resembles in the side lobe level, but if you look in to this
particular thing here the resembles is pretty good. So, in reality this axial mode helical
antenna is by default, an increased directivity endfire array. So, they did try to do many things
to do the simulation, ultimately this thing matched very well. And once this particular fact
was established, after that all the design equation all the other things became very straight
forward.
So, will start to with this thing that yes helical antenna is a natural increase directivity
condition, and I also want to mention here helical antennas are also known as slow wave
structure. So, if there is a bend over here. So, the phase delay is getting different, and that is
why the number 0.76 has been used instead of normal, if we just use increase normal
directivity it would have been equal to one, but for that the results are very very different.
So, this is the condition for the increased directivity. So, once this was established everything
else was very very straight forward.
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So, one can actually now find out by establishing that this is a axial mode helical antenna,
follows the increased directivity endfire array, then for the increased directivity endfire array
we can actually use straight forward the formula for half power beam width, which is given
by this particular expression over here, and then we can also find out what is the beam width
between the first null which is given over here. Now if you take the ratio of the 2 that is
approximately 2.25. In fact, many books write that half power beam width is about half of
this here, or this is two times half power beam width.
Now, I don’t agree with that, generally beam width between the first null is about 2.25 to
about 2.29 for majority of the cases which we actually have done the simulation. So, after
that finding directivity is very very easy. So, we have already seen the directivity formula and
we know the directivity formula is given by 4 π , where , will be in radian,

θE θH
θE θH
but I had also mentioned that formula to be used only for smaller arrays. For larger array we
are told you that you use 32400 , where , are in degrees. So, looking in to
θE θH
θEθH
this particular thing here, so if you actually take 32400 and in this particular case here
2
HPBW
we had seen that horizontal and vertical components were exactly same.
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So, half power beam width will be same for both E and H and since that is same we put this
value over here. So, one actually, if you simplify this here this divided by 52 2 comes
approximately equal to 12, and this is a square term here which goes then this denominator
goes up. So, C become C2 , square root term gets removed and that is nS  . Now at this point
now I differ from the Kraus book. In the Kraus book, in general they have written this as a
gain of the antenna, but actually we have found out that is not really the gain, it is actually
directivity of this particular antenna. In fact, I also want to mention several papers have been
reported later on and there was a one paper which we notice that they had done experiments
using 5 turns, 10 turns, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and based on all those number of turns they did the
measurement, they did lot of work and they actually then derived certain approximate
formulas for half power beam width, gain and other thing.
However, we looked into all of those things also, and what we found out that conventional
things which are given by Kraus, still will work very fine except for this one small
modification that use all of those things as directivity. But gain is given by ƞD and we found
that the efficiency is approximately 60 percent. So in fact, when we use this particular
concept, then our results matched very closely with all those different studies which have
been reported. So, actually speaking if you use this concept the design of the helical antenna
becomes extremely simple. So, hence I still recommend that you can use this and I can also
tell you that majority of the time maximum error in the directivity will not be more than 0.5
dB.
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So let’s look into now how we can design axial mode helical antenna. So, let’s say it is given
to us the directivity is equal to 24 dB, again this example is given in the Kraus book. Only
difference is that the Kraus book, it is written as gain equal to 24 dB, I have modified that to
be directivity equal to 24 dB. So, gain will be actually less so if you multiply this number,
this number you get it 24 dB corresponds to 251, just to tell you if it was 10 this would be 10
dB, if it is 100 this will be 20 dB, if it is 1000 it will be 30 dB. So, that you please remember
these some simpler things how to convert from dB to the numerical value.
So, now if you look at the gain of this, you multiply this with 0.6. So, 250 into 0.6 is
approximately 150. So, you actually think about you are designing for a gain of 150
correspondingly you can calculate the dB value, but nevertheless we’ll go with the directivity
equal to 24 dB. So, now we need to do the design. So, we know for axial mode we can
choose the value of C between 0.8 to 1.2. So, in this example they have chosen as 1.05. But
in fact, generally I take the centre value which is about 1. Now α can be between 12 to 14 O,
now they have taken 12.7, I would generally take about 13 O. Always take the middle path, but
anyway these are the things which are given in that book. So, I am just repeating those. So,
here once we know α and we know C, you can use this particular figure here. So, we know
that from here we can say tanα is nothing but S / C.
So, S is nothing but C λ tanα , we can multiply C which is 1.05, tan 12.7O that comes to
0.2366. Now I want to mention that this entire design is very generic in nature, everything is
normalized with respect to the wavelength ok. So, just depending upon whatever is the
wavelength, you can choose the values correspondingly. So, for example, let’s say you want
to design antenna at 1 GHz. At 1 GHz,  will be 30 cm. So, then this will be 1.05 * 30, will
be equal to C and then correspondingly you can find the value of d which will be C / .
And then from here we know S is 0.2366. So, S will be equal to this multiplied by  , and for
1 GHz,  is 30 cm, you multiply this with 30 and then you can calculate the value of S from
that. So, now, we know that directivity formula is given by this particular value here. So, if
we use this expression what we know, we know directivity which is given, we have chosen
C as this value, you can choose 1 also. Now S  has been calculated based on these two
chosen value, so only unknown is n. So, that is now n, n becomes now equal to 80. Now you
can actually see that too many turns are there ok, and if we take too many turns like this here
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again think about this. So, total what will be the total height of the helical antenna, that will
be n*S ok.
So, we can now see 80 times S which is 0.2366. If you are designing at 1 GHz, you have to
multiply this with 30 and suddenly you will see that it’s a very tall antenna. So, one way is
that we can actually design an antenna using 80 turns to realize directivity of 24 dB, other
thing is we can actually use arrays of these helical antenna.
So, let’s just look at the concept of how we can use this array form. So, here what we are
going to look at is a 2 x 2 helical antenna array which will replace single element this thing.
So, instead of using single term 80 turn helical antenna, one can use four 20 turn helical
antenna. As we know that if we, because the directivity is directly proportional to the number
of turns, so that means, if we reduce the turns by 4 times directivity will be reduced by 4
times.
So, directivity of each 20 turn will be now divided by 4 times. So, we need to put these 4
helical antennas in the form of 2 x 2 array. So, it is now very important that where should be
keep these helical antennas; should we keep them very close to each other or should be keep
them far away, is there a rule to put these helical antennas at a particular thing. Yes, there is a
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rule at what spacing these antennas should be put. So, over here we also know that directivity
is given by 4 πA .
λ2
So, directivity is given by 4 π × Aperture . So, we can find effective aperture by using this
λ2
formula we know what is D, we put this value here that comes approximately 5 λ2 . So, if
we assume that this aperture is square, then we can take that as a side length and that
becomes √ 5 λ . So, this is the value here, so then if you put these 4 helical antennas at this
particular spacing then that can realize an array.
So, we’ll continue from here in the next lecture. We’ll see little bit more detail about what
happens if we use different number of elements and if we go for different array sizes, and
we’ll see how we can optimize this and how that aperture is there and then we’ll also look at
the practical aspects of how to realize, and how to design these helical antennas. And after
that we’ll also talk about normal mode helical antenna. So, with that we will conclude today’s
lecture.
Thank you, bye and we’ll see you next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 09
Lecture - 42
Helical Antennas – III
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Helical Antennas. In fact, we have been talking
about helical antennas for the last couple of lectures, and we actually looked into that
there are three different modes of helical antenna- axial mode, normal mode and conical
mode. And as I mentioned conical mode is very rarely used, so we are not going to
discuss about that. And we had started our discussion about axial mode, and we had
looked into how to design a axial mode helical antenna. So, let’s continue from there.
So, we had actually seen the example which is a directivity is given as 24 dB and the
numeric value is 251.19 and I just want to mention here that this material has been taken
from the Kraus book, the only difference here is in the Kraus book they have said this to
be gain whereas I have written this to be directivity and as I mentioned in the previous
lecture, the gain of the axial mode helical antenna is efficiency multiplied by directivity
and efficiency is approximately equal to 0.6.
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So that means gain of this antenna will be 251 multiplied by 0.6, which is approximately
one hundred fifty, and we had seen that for axial mode helical antenna, C  should be
taken between 0.8 to 1.2. So, it had been taken as 1.05. I normally take this as 1, and α
was taken as 12.7 which is between 12 to 14 degree. I generally take this to be 13 degree
for my design, but this example has been given in the Kraus book. So, I am continuing
with that and once we have assumed these 2 parameter, we can calculate the value of S 
by using this expression which is nothing but we can say tanα will be nothing but S/C
that is what is coming over here. So, we can calculate the value of S  here. So, now, we
know the expression for the directivity is given by this particular expression here. So,
directivity is known, C has been assumed, S has been calculated.
So, we can find the value of n by substituting all these values, and that comes out to be
80. Now this is a very large number, so that means the entire helical antenna length will
be very very large. So, instead of using n equal to 80, the other option is that we can use
an array of helical antenna.
Here is an example of 2 x 2 array, which are actually put something like this here. These
are total 4 number of elements. So, what we can actually think about it, instead of using
one single 80 turn helical antenna, four 20 turn helical antennas can be used. So, now we
know that directivity is directly proportional to n. So that means if the number of turns
are reduced, so directivity will also reduce by the same factor, it will come to 62.8 here.
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So, now when we want to put these helical antennas, it is very important where we keep
it. Shall we keep them somewhere here, between the 2 spacing to be very small or very
large, so it is not arbitrary. One has to do some calculations here and for that we can
actually use the concept, we have been discussing that directivity is given by 4A/2. So,
from that we can find out what is the effective aperture. So, effective aperture is given by
this particular expression, and if we now substitute the value of D 0 which is 62.8/4, this
is approximately 52.
So now, assuming that effective aperture is a square aperture. Even though I don’t
hundred percent agree with this particular assumption. So, generally I feel instead of
using a square aperture, one should use a circular aperture because let’s say if this is a
helical antenna, we should really see the aperture more in the circular symmetry. But
anyway circular can be approximated as square and square also makes it easier to place
these helical antennas. So, it’s not too much of an error here, this is a fairly decent
approximation also. So, if you use as a square aperture then side length will be square
root of this which comes out to be 2.236. So, then each helix should be placed at the
centre of its aperture.
So, now you need to think about. So, if this is a square aperture here, then this will be
another square aperture and this will be another square aperture, and another one. And
we are putting the helix at the centre of 2.236. So, if this is in the centre of this, this is
also at the centre of 2.236 square, that means centre to centre distance will be also equal
to 2.236.
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So, in this case dx is equal to dy is equal to 2.236. Let’s see this thing in little more
detail. So, this is the helical antenna side view. So if you look from here, this is a n equal
to 80 turn. So, one can see that it will be a very long helical antenna, and this will be the
front view where we are basically seeing that the helix is there and this is the, you can
say, the centre and that is the ground plane size. Then comes the next part here. So, this is
again a ground plane, and now we actually have a 2 x 2 array, you can’t see the other one
because this will be behind this here. So, side view will only show 2 of these. So, two n
equal to 20 which is there and 2 x 2 array.
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So, this is the 4 helix front view. So, you can see one here, one on the other side and
these are the 4. And for n equal to 20, we just notice that the spacing between the 2 helix
should be 2.236. This concept has been extended further. So here we have 9 helix and
each helix has 9 turn. So, if you actually see in 9 into 9 is 81, which is approximately
equal to 80 turns required to obtain the desired directivity.
So over here now, since the numbers of turns have been reduced, so what will happen?
Directivity of each helix will reduce. And if the directivity of each helix reduces then
corresponding aperture area will also reduce and that means, centre to centre spacing will
also reduce. So, in this case centre to centre spacing should be about 1.49. This is
another example where 4 x 4 array has been used, total 16 helical antennas have been
used, and in this case now each helix has 5 turn. So, 5 multiplied by 16 will be equal to
80. So, now for n equal to 5 turn, aperture area will reduce further because for n equal to
5, directivity will reduce, correspondingly aperture area will reduce and hence spacing
between the elements will reduce. So, you can see that the spacing between the helical
antennas is reducing.
Now, comes the next part and that is what will be the mutual coupling between these 2
helixes, because we know that when the two antennas are placed closed to each other,
there will be some mutual coupling.
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So, here is the plot for the mutual impedance between arrays of helical antenna. So, just
to show here, so this is plot here is shown in the form of impedance, curves are given for
resistive part as well as reactive part, and this axis here shows separation between the
helical antennas normalized with respect to . So, one can actually see that the curves are
given let’s say for 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 and up to 1. And in the previous cases we had seen,
so for example let’s just go back we saw that here the spacing is 1.18, here the spacing
was 1.49, and for another case spacing was 2.236.
So, the spacing much larger than , and one can actually see that if the separation
between the 2 is approximately between 0.9 to 1, we can see that the resistive part of the
mutual impedance is almost close to 0, and also the reactive part also is close to 0, and
anyway even this finite value which is let’s say about less than 5 Ω, that is not going to
make much difference when the circumferential or the peripheral impedance is of the
order of 150 Ωs. So, this affect can be neglected and that is the beauty of the helical
antenna that you can place these helical antennas and they give us a very good circularly
polarized antenna performance, and you can use the arrays of these things. In fact,
sometimes I also mention these things like a real estate.
Suppose we want to accommodate more number of people, then what are the options?
One option is let’s we make a 80 story building ok. Instead of making a 80 story
building, if you need to accommodate same number of the people what we can do? We
can make 20 story building, 4 of them ok. And then the another option can be that we can
make 16 buildings of 5 floor each ok, so that we can accommodate same number of
people. So the same way you can actually apply the same concept here that you want to
get the desired directivity. So, either we can go vertically up or we can have smaller
building or smaller size helical antenna. So, depending upon the space available to us, we
can arrange these helical antennas for the desired gain.
However, there is another very interesting application which was reported long time
back, where what they had done? They had used these helical antenna as a feed for a
large reflector antenna. So, suppose that this is a large reflector antenna. So, at the focal
point we put these helix, and these are circularly polarized helical antenna. So, assuming
that the signal is coming from the large distance, so it will come in parallel, so they will
reflect from the reflector, and they will focus at the helical antenna or alternatively we
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can pump in power through the helical antenna, it will go there and then it will radiate
parallel if it is a parabolic dish antenna.
Now, one of the another advantage is that suppose if this helical antenna is let’s say right
hand circularly polarized, then the wave which goes reflects back from the reflector, that
will be left hand circularly polarized. So, if we transmit right hand, it will reflect back
left hand, and since between right hand and the left hand generally since the axial ratio is
fairly good, the reflected polarization will be at least 20 to 30 dB down, and if that is the
case, the performance of the helical antenna will not change much. So, this had been
used very successfully during early days when they wanted a simple circularly polarized
helical antenna.
Of course nowadays there are lot of other options, one can use a circularly polarized
micro strip antenna as a feed also which is relatively more compact compared to helical
antenna.
So, let’s just see the practical implementation of this 2 x 2 array of helical antennas, and
this designed example is again has been taken from the other books. So, this is antenna
has been designed at 800 MHz. So, just to tell you here, one can see here that there is a 2
x 2 array of helical antenna, and each array element has n equal to 6 that means, it is a 6
turn helical antenna, they have chosen as α equals to 14 degree, anyway 12 to 14 degree
is acceptable.
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So, by now using these 4 helical antennas one can get larger gain, and now let’s see how
the feed network has been done. So, the feed network is shown over here. So, we know
that the impedance of a helical antenna can be say 140 to 150 Ω, depending upon how
we feed it, but that 140 to 150 Ω in a tapper section has been used to transfer this
impedance to about 200 Ω; so this one again similar section, so transfers the impedance
to 200 Ω, transfers the impedance to 200 Ω.
Now 200 Ω in parallel, 4 of them will give rise to 50 Ω. So, at the junction point we can
feed with the coaxial feed with the 50 Ω coaxial line, and the 50 Ω connector and that
will work as a antenna. So, we have already discussed about how to design these
antennas. So corresponding to 800 MHz just to tell you, so what you need to do? Here it
is given there what is the diameter? Which is 0.3. So, corresponding to 0.3 one can
calculate what will be the C. C will be pi times this value, and so once we know the
frequency, we can calculate what is lambda and then we can find the dimension ok. And
once we choose α then we know what will be S , and once we know S and we know C,
we will know the length of the one wire, and since we know the number of turns are 6, so
the total length will be nothing but 6 times L. So, that is what we need to do to design
this particular antenna.
So, the size of the ground plane is also given over here. So now let’s see what are the
results we get out of this here. So, we’ll come to this particular here in a little while, but
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first let’s just look at the VSWR performance. As one can see that the antenna was
designed at 800 MHz, and one can see that VSWR less than 2 is there right from 600
MHz to 1000 MHz. So, that’s a fairly large bandwidth. You can actually thing about the
bandwidth is about 400 MHz approximately. So, 400 divided by 800 that is almost 50
percent bandwidth which has been obtained. I still feel the VSWR value could be slightly
improved by designing this particular tapper section more appropriately, so that it will
match better with the 50 Ω, but that’s ok, still VSWR is less than 2, in fact for most of
the region VSWR is actually less than 1.5. So, it is fairly good matched. Let’s just look at
the axial ratio.
So, here axial ratio in the numeric value is shown. So, axial ratio 1 corresponds to 0 dB
axial ratio, and axial ratio 2 actually corresponds to 6 dB. So, 6 dB is generally not
acceptable. So, we can say that axial ratio is less than 3 dB up to about this particular
region, but you can see that in the desired frequency range of 800, you can see that the
axial ratio is fairly good. Now let’s just see the horizontal and vertical component, one
can actually see that right from here to here, the 2 components are fairly equal, their half
power beam width is almost same and that is why what you can see here, this
corresponds to a very good axial ratio. So even here you can see the variation is slightly
more than this here, but still small and that’s why one can see that it is slightly
increasing, but over here one can see that the half power beam width is varying
considerably, and that is why axial ratio is becoming relatively poor.
So, now how we can calculate the directivity? one is simple thing is that we can use the
formula also, but these are the measured results. So, from the measured result also one
can calculate. So, half power beam width at this point is approximately 20 degree. So,
you can use the formula of 32400/20*20 that will give us approximately 18.5 dB
directivity at 1800 MHz, and once again I want to remind this is not the gain of the
antenna, gain of the antenna is about 0.6 times this here ok.
So, please take these things into consideration when you need to design a helical
antenna, and I also want to mention people have done lot of experimental work on
helical antenna and they have actually speaking performed experiments on multiple
number of turns- 5 turns to 35 turn, they have given a lot of complicated formulas also
where they have done the curve fitting. But I find that the directivity expression by this is
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very simple, it’s easy to design and only thing is you take efficiency to be 0.6 and then
we can design the proper helical antenna for the desired gain.
Now, there are many other applications are there of helical antenna. So, besides being
used as an antenna, it can be also used as a parasitic element. And it can actually have
several advantages. Let’s see what are these here. So, here we have a 1 helix here, and
then if you put another helix over here. By putting this over here like this arrangement,
you can actually increase the gain of the original helical antenna or one can think other
way round. Suppose if this was the original helical antenna, and by something it actually
happened that this wire got broken in between. So, even though there is no physical
connection here it is not that the directivity loss will be considerable, it is not that the
directivity will be now only given by these many turns. But actually speaking because of
this here, this acts as a parasitic element. So, this one radiates from here, the beam is in
this particular direction then these things also will get excited and net effect is that we
will still get a higher gain out of this particular thing.
So, this is one of the application we can use helix or you can think even if the wire
breaks in between, it will still work as helical antenna. Now this is a another very
interesting application where let’s say a horn antenna which is a linearly polarized. In
fact, the next topic after helical antenna you are going to talk about horn antenna; and we
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will see that majority of the time horn antennas are linearly polarized, and if you want to
get circularly polarized horn antenna we have to do lot of extra work to do that.
So but now let’s see here how that linearly polarized waveform can be very simply
converted to CP. So, let’s say this is a horn antenna, so wave is being launched in this
particular fashion, and here we have these helix and by the way there is a no feed
required here, there is no a special coaxial connector here, nothing, just you have to
support this helix somehow at this one. Right now it looks like it is suspended in the air
of course, you can’t do that. So, some support structure has to be provided for this
particular helical antenna. However, once the wave is launched it goes through here, and
then this helical antenna converts this linearly polarized antenna to circularly polarized
antenna.
So, it’s a very very easy and convenient way, except it requires a proper support. This is
another thing here where this is a normal helical antenna and now another helix has been
put around that in the space which is available in between. If you recall, I have
mentioned about monofiler helix antenna. Monofiler will have only one wire, here you
can think about, there is another wire which has been put here. So, it’s not really
monofiler, you can say it is a bifilar now; or you can actually think other way round that
this is the driven helix, and this becomes a director helix or we can call it a parasitic
helix.
Now, by putting this over here one can realize little more gain, but however, I just want
to mention that gain improvement is just about 1 to 2 dB. It is not very significant
improvement, but still 1 to 2 dB gain may be very good as it is you are not increasing the
aperture, all we are really require is a just put another wire in between. So, without
increasing the aperture we can actually get a slightly better gain out of this particular
helical antenna.
So, it’s a very good effective technique to get slightly more gain, which is of the order of
1 to 2 dB. This is the another configuration which is a Polyrod antenna, this is basically a
dielectric antenna and generally these are linearly polarized antenna. So, by wrapping
helical around this particular dielectric, and the wave is being launched here which will
go through here, and then this particular thing will become circularly polarized antenna.
The another application is that let’s say this is a corner reflector, I know we are going to
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talk about these things later on, we have not discussed about reflectors, horn antennas
and so on, but we will discuss these things later on.
So, here what we have this is the dipole antenna, which we know will be a linearly
polarized antenna and then this is the corner reflector put over here, but I can just tell you
one can do many other things, it can be just a one plane reflector, then dipole antenna or
it can be a corner reflector and many a times this corner reflector angle is changed, some
corner reflectors use 120 degrees angle or 90 degree angle, or 60 degree, 45 degree, 30
degree and here then what we get is linearly polarized antenna and again if we want to
get circularly polarized antenna, it is again very very simple just put a helical antenna
like this over here, the only few precautions need to be taken. So, whatever is the
frequency of this particular antenna, these helical antennas must be designed for the
same frequency range in the axial mode.
However, we don’t need to provide any feed point over here. So, that is why the term
parasitic comes here. So, here then what happens? The wave goes reflects back and it
goes through over here and that’s what will give us circularly polarized antenna.
Otherwise if you want to get circularly polarized antenna, for dipole we know it will be
much more hard work one has to do. So, we need to put a dipole here, then we need a
another perpendicular dipole and then those 2 dipoles have to be fed with orthogonal
polarization; that means 0 degree and 90 degree phase difference with equal amplitude.
So, all those things need to be put here, this is one of the very simple and effective way
to realize circularly polarized antenna with higher gain compared to the dipole antenna.
This is the another arrangement where this has been made more in the form of the helix
lens. So, one can actually see that this position is different than these 2 position.
Basically if you recall you might be familiar with the lens antenna. Let’s say we have a
focal length and we actually speaking, you are familiar with let’s say this kind of a lens
antenna right. So, what happens when the wave is coming from here, it sees a relatively
lesser distance and here the wave has to travel little bit longer distance, but however, the
property of this is that if the things are coming parallely, it will get focused over here, so
that is the lens effect. So, here these helical antennas can be used in such a fashion, that
they can actually act as a lens antenna and thereby the beam can be focused at a given
point ok.
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So, these are the different applications of the helical antenna. So, we’ll conclude today’s
lecture here. So, what we have discussed today mainly the design of the helical antenna
for axial mode, and for larger gain requirement what we can do? Either we make a very
large tall helical antenna, or we make arrays of this helical antenna of smaller height or
smaller number of turns, so that we can get the desired directivity.
Then we also looked at how to do the feed for multiple elements, and we actually can
feed from the backside and then use a tapered impedance matching network to match
with 50 Ω, and we saw that the results are fairly good, stable over 30 to 50 percent
bandwidth as far as the VSWR is concerned, but generally axial ratio was below the
desired value of 3 dB over 40 percent bandwidth. And even the radiation pattern was
symmetrical for fairly large frequency range from 700 MHz to close to 1000 MHz.
Then we looked at some of the applications of helical antenna, which are generally good
to convert linearly polarized antenna to circularly polarized antenna. So, in the next
lecture we’ll talk about normal mode helical antenna, how to do the design of normal
helical antenna and I will also tell you what are given in the test books, and how those
designs have to be modified to realize practical normal mode helical antenna on finite
ground plane.
So, thank you very much, will see you next time, and will talk more about normal mode
helical antenna. Bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 09
Lecture – 43
Helical Antennas-IV
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Helical Antenna. In fact, in the last few lectures
we have been talking about helical antenna, and in the last lecture we saw in detail how
to design axial mode helical antenna, and we saw that how to feed the axial mode helical
antenna, then we also saw how we can feed the arrays of the helical antenna, and how a
larger gain helical antenna can be designed either using a single element or we can use
multiple arrays of that. Then we also looked at the parasitic effect of the helical antenna
and we saw something very interesting that is the linearly polarized antenna can be
converted to circularly polarized antenna, by using helical antenna in the axial mode.
So, today let’s talk about normal mode helical antenna. Infect, normal mode helical
antenna has been a very important of let, especially in the beginning when the mobile
phones were launched. These mobile phones actually had a monopole antenna at let’s say
900 MHz the height of the monopole antenna will be /4 approximately. So, if  is
about 33 cm, it will be about 8 to 9 cm.
And on the mobile phone if you put this thing here it was not very convenient, then later
on people started redesigning the mobile phone and what they did? They actually made a
cavity in that, and this 8 to 9 cm will go inside that. However, that was the point when
the normal mode helical antenna came and so what they did instead of having a
monopole of 9 cm height, what they actually did, they took a wire around, this one here
and wrapped it around and the total height was reduced to about 2 cm.
So, basic purpose of that was that you use a smaller height helical antenna to realize the
concept of the monopole antenna. So, how monopole antenna radiates that was the
purpose that you now have a compact monopole antenna you can say, or normal mode
helical antenna.
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So, let’s see today in detail what is a normal mode helical antenna and what is the first
simple theory about normal mode helical antenna, and then we’ll look at the design of
the normal mode helical antenna.
So, let’s look at the normal mode helical antenna. So, here what we have? There is a
helical antenna ok and that is being fed you can see here, here it is being fed directly, but
will show you a different way of feeding this particular normal mode helical antenna.
Now the condition which is there is that the diameter of this should be much much lesser
than  or in reality circumference should be much less than  and circumference is equal
to D. So, D has to be much smaller than the wavelength and here we can actually see
the approximation of this as this here, where what one can see that from here to here that
is being approximated by let’s say a linear wire and then this part is approximated to a
loop, then a linear wire then approximated to a loop, then another linear wire
approximated to loop.
And we can actually see, what is the spacing between the each turn which is given by S
here. And then we can now apply the concept of the small dipole. So, for this particular
thing here we can actually consider that this as the part of the small dipole, and for that
we already know what would be the radiation pattern in this particular case. You can see
that this is about sin. So,  is equal to 0 in this, so that means, there will be a 0 radiation
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here and for  equal to 90, which is over here sin will be maximum. So, that will be like
a dipole kind of a pattern maximum here and minimum here.
Then all these loop they can be thought about n turn loop antenna. So, for loop, for a
small loop we know what is the E, you can see there is a difference, this is E  this is E.
Because for loop what we consider a loop antenna to be a magnetic dipole. So, for
electric dipole for this portion this is electric dipole this will be H field ok, but for loop
we consider this to be magnetic dipole then this will be E-Filed. So E , E change
otherwise you can see that the pattern part here is same, same sin theta, sin coming over
here which is true for small dipole and small loop.
Now, if you take the ratio of these two which generally will give rise to axial ratio. Now
why axial ratio? Because one can actually think about is that for the linear this is in this
plane and for loop it is in this plane. So, we can say that the two fields are orthogonal to
each other. So, we can actually take the magnitude of these two ratio. If we take the ratio
over here, one can actually see majority of the components get cancelled and what we
left with is some of these term here is S, D is written in the form of C, C is equal to D.
One can see that there is a  here which comes into picture.
So, then if we take the ratio, so that would be a axial ratio. Now here in fact, one can get
a circular polarization provided we take C  equal to 2 S. If this is equal to this then axial
ratio will be equal to 1. So, from here we can get this condition for axial ratio. However,
earlier no antenna was designed for circularly polarized performance, most of the helical
antennas earlier were designed basically to replace a long monopole antenna with a
compact helical antenna.
So, for that particular case to happen axial ration should be theoretically infinity, because
linear polarized antenna should have a infinite axial ratio. However, practically anything
better than 20 or 30 dB is a good linearly polarized antenna. However, this particular
normal mode helical antenna actually has a lot of advantages, when we want to use it for
let’s say mobile phone. The reason for that is let’s say this component here the linear
component will give us E-Field, and this loop component will give us the orthogonal
parameter over here.
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So, if we even design this particular antenna for let’s say axial ratio equal to say 10 dB,
or 5 dB, or even 20 dB, it is still better than a linearly polarized antenna. The reason for
that is for mobile application, specially suppose when you are indoor, in the indoor there
will be lot of multiple reflections coming from the wall. So, any linearly polarized
antenna suppose the signal which is coming up after multiple reflections from various
wall or from other object, it will also have you can say instead of this vertical here it may
become angular and then it will have both vertical as well as horizontal component. So,
in that case a helical antenna operating in a normal mode is better because now it can not
only receive the linearly polarized waveform which can be vertical, but it can also get the
other waveform which is horizontally polarized.
So, of course, “something is better than nothing” a linearly polarized antenna will only
receive linearly polarized. Suppose if the angle is perpendicular then the received power
will be almost negligible. So, sometimes helical antennas are preferable one. However,
off let there is a lot of research going on where people want a monopole kind of an
antenna, but with circular polarization. So, this concept of the normal mode helical
antenna can be utilized very properly to design circularly polarized monopole antenna.
So, let’s just look at this thing one more time. So, here is the condition which needs to be
satisfied. So, what it really means that? C  here, whatever is the value that is the square
of this if you take it equal to this, and choose things appropriately one can actually get
the axial ratio close to one. So, it is, if one uses this concept it becomes easier to design
circular polarization, and it is a very good research topic currently going on. So, if you
just work on this do the simulating do some fabrication, you will be able to publish some
papers also.
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So, let’s just see now the some examples which are given. So, this example I have taken
it from the Kraus book who is the original inventor of the helical antenna, but I will just
mention to you where I do not agree with this particular example here and where I agree.
So, let’s just start with this here. So, what they have given the design, they have given the
design for infinite ground plane and they have assumed that the wire length should be
approximately equal to /4. I have written that that is given in the text book, but in
reality it should always be greater than /4. So, but let’s just go first with this particular
example and then I’ll tell you what corrections need to be done or what modifications
need to be done.
So, let’s start with this here /4 length. So, basically now if you see the helical antenna,
One end is shorted with respect to the ground plane and the other end is open circuit here
and this entire wire length is approximately equal to 0.25. So, let’s see now how we do
the next step here. So, here in general we know that the C would be much lesser than .
So, here C has been chosen as 0.04, and if C  is 0.04 then what will be D? That will be
this divided by . So, if you divide this by , D is approximately 0.013; then α has been
chosen as 14 degree. So, once α is known we can calculate S , S will be C tanα. Now
again I want to mention here it is not necessary that you choose α equals to 14 degree,
this condition is more appropriate for axial mode helical antenna, where α should be 12
to 14 degree.
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For normal mode helical antenna there is no such condition or restriction that you should
take α equals to 14 degree. You can take any different angle also. But for this value of α
taken, S comes out to be 0.01 and then we wanted the total length to be equal to /4, so
here then we need to take this total wire length to be equal to 0.25, again that is a text
book thing not what I believe in. But nevertheless let’s complete this part here. So, this is
equal to /4. So C is known now, S is calculated and if you now calculate L, L will be
nothing but S2 + C2 , so, that will be slightly more than 0.04 and that multiplied by 6
will give us a value of 0.2 .
So, that is how the design has been given here. Now why this is being shorted here, why
it is not being directly fed? The reason for that is that if we feed it directly it will give us
a very low impedance. So, if we feed it directly here it will actually give us a very low
impedance, the reason for that is if we just think about this as a let’s say a monopole
antenna of certain height here, then we can actually calculate what will be the radiation
resistance.
Earlier we had used the symbol Rr, it’s a same thing that Rr or here it is written as Rs. So,
radiation resistance is actually calculated by using the concept of the same. You can say
that the dipole antenna with a half of that which is a monopole antenna, and I average
has been taken and that gives us a radiation resistance of only 0.6 Ω and if you try to
feed this thing directly with the 50 Ω line, that would have a real big mismatch, most of
the power will get reflected back.
So, to avoid that particular problem they had proposed this particular concept here. So, if
this helical antenna is shorted at this point here with the ground; that means, input
impedance will be 0 here, and if you look at the open end over here input impedance will
be very high. So, assuming that is approximately since the free space impedance is about
377 Ω, so assuming that is about roughly about 377. So, 377 if you divide that by
roughly 6; so after about 1 turn, that gives us roughly close to about 50 Ω impedance.
So, how it is being fed? So, this is shorted here take a coaxial connector, extend it and
then connect at this particular point and that would give us a relatively a decent matching
for this particular antenna. And for this particular antenna design axial ratio can be
calculated which is given by 2S/C2. So, 2S is 0.01, C is 0.04 square and if you see that
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number is 12.5. And for axial ratio we should take 20 log of this. 20 log of this is about
21.94 dB, which is a fairly decent axial ratio for linearly polarized antenna and one can
see that the feed has been tapped after one turn of impedance matching.
Now, based on this particular concept we actually made antenna also almost you can say
close to 2 decades back. So, what we did? We actually designed a normal mode helical
antenna around 100 MHz, for 100 MHz wavelength is about 3 meter or so, and what we
had done? We actually took a badminton shuttle I used to play badminton those days. So,
the cover of that which is a hollow cylinder, we put that over here and then we put the
wires something like this over here.
Now what we notice? We did exactly the same thing as reported in this particular book,
and we used the tap over here also. So, what we realized that the impedance was
decently matched, we still got very close to 50 Ω, but the resonance frequency was
shifted considerably and in fact, then we did multiple things also, so we actually stressed
the wire straightway then we could get the frequency for which we had designed it and
we had taken for this experiment fairly large ground plane, so which can replace you can
say or assume that it is infinite ground plane but then we realized that because helical
antenna is known as slow wave structure.
So, if it is this slow wave structure then how can this length be only equal to /4? So, this
length must always be greater than /4 ok, it cannot be equal to /4. If you choose like
this here your resonance frequency will always be off. So, then the question comes then
how much we should take it. So, if this is 0.25, I generally recommend this to be
between 0.3 to 0.4. Now again you may say that is a lot of difference that also depends
up on what is the pitch angle you use ok.
So, if you use smaller pitch angle that means if S is small, in that case this length should
be close to 0.4, if you take a larger pitch angle then this can be close to 0.3 and
nevertheless. So, you make this and take always I recommend take slightly larger length
then desired value, and then do the measurement using let’s say vector network analyzer
or something, and see what is the frequency you are getting, and if you take a larger
length than this then frequency will always be lower. So, you can just cut that little bit,
and you can use the concept which I have been telling always that when we have made
one antenna we need to make another antenna, all you do it is you use the concept of f1
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L1 equal to f2 L2. So, if you take a little larger length then frequency will be little
smaller.
So, now you know how much reduction in the frequency is there and then you take f2
which is the desired one, calculate the value of L2 and you cut that much; and that way
you will be able to design this antenna in a very decent manner and the tap can always be
adjusted little bit up here and there to do the impedance matching. So, suppose you put a
tap over here, let us say that you got an impedance of say 45 Ω, then all you need to do is
you take the tap little bit higher because impedance will be higher over here, or suppose
you have measured the impedance to be let’s say 60 Ω, then in that case you go little
lower and then do the tapping and that because this will be higher impedance this is the
lowest impedance. So, if you have measured higher impedance take little lower value, if
it is measured lower impedance go little up here; so little bit of a tuning is required.
Of course all these things are I am mentioning when you are doing straight way
experimental work, but these days we have very sophisticated tools are there. So, for
example, you can use IE3D, you can use microwave studio, you can use HFSS and so on
and by using that software you can do the optimization much better and in that case your
experimental iterations will reduce significantly.
Now this is the situation when we have a larger ground plane, but in reality majority of
the time ground plane size may be very very small. So, for very small ground plane I
want to tell you something very different, unique and that also we did it experimentally
first, and then we came out with some theoretical explanation.
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So, let’s see the concept of helical antenna on very small circular ground plane ok. So,
here you can see that this is a circular ground plane, and you can actually see it is very
small, it is even smaller than the diameter of the helix here. In fact, this actually has a lot
of practical application, because many a times we actually have a very small antenna,
and in fact I just want to tell you that this is you can see here SMA connector is there,
and then that SMA connector there is a helix one around this particular thing here.
Of course diameter should be very very small compared to the wavelength, we know that
height will be governed by how much the spacing we have taken, how many numbers of
turns we have taken, and over here now since the ground plane is very small. So, you
actually need to visualize this whole thing first in the form of the let’s say dipole antenna.
So, just imagine that dipole antenna first, so let’s say this is a dipole antenna. So, in the
case of dipole antenna we know that this length should be approximately equal to /2,
and then we talked about monopole antenna.
So, for monopole antenna we knew that the light will reduce by half that should be about
/4 for infinite ground plane, but we had seen for monopole antenna that if you take the
ground plane size very small and if you feed from here, the input impedance of this
increases and also we had seen that for a very small ground plane for a monopole the
frequency was changing drastically; and for very small ground plane this height was not
taken as 0.25, it almost became close to 0.4 also if the ground plane size is very small.
Now these things I have already mentioned when we talked about monopole antenna you
can read that again.
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So, now the same dipole antenna coming back here; so if you think of this as a dipole
antenna. So, this is an open current here open current here. So, input impedance will be
very high. So, now, you can think about a monopole antenna with a very small ground
plane as end fed dipole antenna, and the length here is not really /2 for dipole, but
because of the small ground plane this length is about 0.4 to 0.45 also. And then we saw
that the impedance was very high here exactly the same concept has been used to design
normal mode helical antenna for small ground plane.
So, all the other things remain same, again we have a C which is equal to D, this is the
spacing between each turn, and this is the length of the one turn, the total length will be n
times this particular length here. And total height will be nothing but n turn multiplied by
S over here. Now for normal mode helical antenna the diameter of the wire plays very
very important role, whereas this particular thing has not been considered even in the text
books, where they just mentioned that the total length should be equal to /4. We’ll
actually see one by one the effects of all these parameter.
So, our starting point was we actually took that as a challenge that this is a normal mode
helical antenna designed on very small ground plane, and even though I am telling about
this design here for 1.8 Gigaihertz, but I just want to mention that the beginning did not
happen like this, a beginning actually happened there was a requirement at 433 MHz;
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and 433 MHz we did the calculation. So, at 433 MHz, /4 length is about 17 cm. So, I
knew by that time that one should not take /4 distance.
So, what I took I just took a very long wire, and then I needed to wrap that around. So,
what I did. I just took out a ball pen took, took out the refill of that, and I just took a
wire and put it around there; and then we actually used a SMA connector and even
though I had thought that I will use the tap, but I just connected it like this at that time
and we took the wire and suddenly we noticed that the impedance was coming very close
to 50 Ω and then we even used some touching thing.
So, we touched the ground plane side, we actually tried to make it little larger ground
plane by putting some other metallic copper thing and all that, and we could see that the
impedance was varying quite a lot. So, anyway at that time I just designed 433 MHz only
using experimental techniques, no theoretical no simulation nothing. So, simply the refill
of the pen worked as the supporting thing, we took the wire thin wire round it put it
around put a cello tape on that, connected with the network analyzer and using my
concept of f1 L1 equal to f2 L2.
So, we did the measurement and then cut the wire little bit and we got perfect match with
433 MHz. So, it was much later we decided that why not we study this thing very
carefully and see how this performance is varying, what are the effects of various
parameter and especially now that we have very good software simulation tool. So, why
not we simulate these things and come out with the decent concept how it works, why it
works, what are the parameters, how things are radiating, how matching is done, what is
the effect of the various parameters. So, all these things we will see in the next lecture.
So, just to conclude today’s lecture. So, today we discussed about a normal mode helical
antenna for infinite ground plane, even though the text book says the wire length should
be equal to /4, which is 0.25, but our experience is that you must take always larger
than that, the wire length should be at least between 0.3 to 0.4, because if you choose
that then you can get a decent matching. And in that case we also saw that you can use
the taping for impedance matching, and it works very nicely; and then we started looking
into the concept of very small ground plane, and where we can feed the antenna directly
no tapping is required.
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So, all these things will see in the next lecture in much more detail. So till then bye; will
see you next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 09
Lecture – 44
Helical Antennas-V
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Helical Antenna, which is going to operate in
the normal mode. So, in the last lecture we did discuss about normal mode helical
antenna and we actually saw that a normal mode helical antenna should have a length of
approximately /4 that is the textbook style for infinite ground plane.
But in reality for very large ground plane or infinite ground plane, the length of the wire
of the helices should be 0.3 to 0.4. And basically 0.3 to be taken if α is large. And if α
is small, that means pitch angle is small corresponding to that S  will be small, in that
particular case the wire length should be about 0.4 and then we had started the
discussion about the helical antenna on a very small ground plane, and as I mentioned
earlier that this particular thing we actually found out experimentally so that’s why keep
doing experiments, and keep playing with these things you will always find something
interesting ok.
So, based on that initial experiment where what we had done. We took a very small
ground plane, and we took a helical antenna and connected directly to the feed and we
saw there was a decent impedance matching. So, then we have done very exhaustive
calculation, simulations. So, today we will present you those things which have actually
being just communicated for conference. So, it’s really speaking totally new, not reported
yet, so absolutely new results.
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So, let’s see what we have got to show you. So, here we are presenting a normal mode
helical antenna design on small circular ground plane, and we chose resonance frequency
as 1.8 GHz. The frequency chosen was mainly because there is a GSM 1800 is there. So,
GSM 1800 corresponds to 1.8 GHz. So, we’ll just tell you the steps which we had taken.
So, this is a 1.8 GHz. So, corresponding to this wavelength, that will be very simple to
calculate, wavelength is c divided by  where c is velocity of light, so that’s about 166
mm and I’ll just start with the length of the wire we took as 0.75  as I mentioned
because here ground plane size is very very small, and even for infinite ground plane I
had recommended length of wire to be between 0.3 to 0.4. For very small ground plane
the length of wire has been taken larger and we will see what is the effect of that here.
So, here if we take 0.75 we know what is , so this dimension is taken over here. We
chose α as 14.6 degree, you can choose any different value also and then corresponding
to this here we calculated the diameter. So, we took diameter of the helix to be 0.033, a
basic idea is that the circumference which is D should be much lesser than the
wavelength. So, that value came out to be this over here, and then for this value of the
diameter and for this chosen angle, we could calculate what is the spacing and then to
design this length of the wire number of turns came out to be 7.
So, these are the parameter I have kept these things as generic; so that instead of
designing antenna 1.8 GHz, if you want to design antenna at any other frequency, you
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can use these generic parameters to design any different antenna. So, then the next step
was to study the effect of the ground plane size as you can see here I have not mentioned
what is the size of the ground plane, and also another thing which I have not mentioned
what is the wire diameter or what is the radius of the thing, because these are the two
parameter which are not very obvious, other things are actually obvious.
Suppose if I take length of the helix wire total wire length is large, we know frequency
will reduce. So, that is very very obvious, and also seen that if S lambda is taken very
small then frequency increases. And if I take S  little larger then frequency reduces. So,
these were the very obvious parameters which were known to us. So, then specifically
what we did, because the ground plane size as well as the radius they were really
unknown factor, but once we did the simulation I can tell you the results were very very
obvious, and we could explain it in a very simple manner.
So, let’s just look at some of the simulated result. So, here first we studied the effect of
the ground plane size on normal mode helical antenna. Now as I said here our objective
was to use very small ground plane. So, here are the cases we’ll just go one by one. So,
here is a ground plane size is nothing but, we can just mention here just this is a ground
plane radius ok. So, the ground plane radius is /30, and we varied it to /20. So,
corresponding to this radius the ground plane size diameter will be /10, now let’s see
what we actually notice.
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So, for /30 you can actually see that matching is fairly decent at 1.8 GHz. But as we
increase the size of the ground plane, then one can see that if the ground plane size
increases, one can see that the frequency is reducing. In fact, so we can just write here as
ground plane radius increases from /30 to /20 resonance frequency decreases, which is
kind of obvious if the ground plane size is large. So, if we increase the ground plane,
then effective length from the helical to this increases, so hence resonance frequency
reduces.
Now, let’s just look at the impedance plot. What we can see here this is a /30 is here,
and this is /20 which is shifting up here. So, one can actually see that as the ground
plane radius is increased from /30 to /20, the entire curve is shifting up; which is
actually speaking the reason is if the ground plane size is very small that means, if we
just look at the input point of view at the central point, then this radius will actually
appear to be highly capacitive. And as the ground plane size increases; if it is increasing
to about /4, then that is more like a open will act as a short circuit, and if it is beyond
/4 it will be inductive.
But however, here now we can see the capacitive effect is reduced, and for this curve if
the capacitive effect is reduced it will shift towards inductive region. Not only the
phenomena there that it is shifting up towards the capacitive region, one can also see that
input impedance, you can see if you look here input impedance is also reducing, which is
also kind of a thing again that if the ground plane size is increasing so that means my
feeding point is shifting towards the in between value where impedance will be relatively
smaller. So, that’s what it is there. In fact, if the ground plane size becomes infinite, we
had seen that input impedance will be even very very small it will come some over here,
and that is why we could not do the matching, we had to use the center tab here.
But nevertheless one can see that for any one of these ground plane values if we choose,
we can get approximate impedance matching by directly feeding the antenna. So that
means, we don’t need any central tapping, of course by little bit optimization of the
ground plane we can do a very good impedance matching.
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So, after studying the ground plane effect the next we studied is effect of the wire radius,
and in fact this we really surprised us in the beginning because the effect was very very
drastic. So, just to show you here, so we started with a wire radius. So, there are different
cases are there. So, wire radius here is /80, that is the response curve over here and this
is 80, this is /90, then this /100, then 110, and then /120.
Or just to remind in the previous case when we had taken we had actually taken the r of
wire to be 1.6 mm, which corresponds to /100 ok. So, over here let’s see where is that
/100. So, /100 point is this one here that corresponds to this one over here. And we
had seen earlier that for this particular value, and for the chosen ground plane which is
over here /30. So, we have kept ground plane size constant for this particular study.
So, this result is same as the previous case, for this particular case here and for R equal to
/100. But now if you look at the effect of the wire radius, it actually frequency changes
from 2.1 to 1.9 to 1.8 to all the way to 1.7. Now that’s a very huge difference and if you
really think about this particular difference, does not come anywhere if we look at the
earlier concept which they had mentioned that the wire length should be equal to /4.
You can see that in this particular case effect of diameter does not even come into
picture.
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So, here wire diameter plays a very very important role. So, one can actually see that as
the radius of wire decreases from /80 to /120 what we are seeing what is the main
effect? So, if you reduce the wire diameter ok or wire radius same thing, so if you reduce
the wire diameter or radius then what will happen? Its inductance will increase; we know
that for a thin wire it has a larger inductance, for thick wire it has smaller inductor. So, if
its inductance increases so resonance frequency will decrease. But the decrease will be
so significant we did not except that much. So, that is why many a time simulation tools
are very important to see what is the real effect, how much is the effect which is
happening; and then correspondingly what is the another thing we can see here, since the
wire radius is decreased its inductance is increasing.
So, if the inductance is increasing then what will happen? The whole curve will shift
inductively up ok. So, you can see that this is the curve for /80 and this is the curve for
/120. So, you can see that the whole curve is shifting. So, by studying this effect and the
previous effect, one can actually do the optimization of the antenna. But now let just see
if you other things also. So, as the wire radius is increasing you can actually see here if
you just look at this line here which is the reflection coefficient less than -10, you can
actually see that this is the curve here then this is the curve, then here is the curve you
can see that this particular curve has a much larger bandwidth compared to the previous
case here.
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So that means in general if we increase the wire diameter then bandwidth increases. So,
over here it is not so obvious because the matching is not very good, you can see that
matching is relatively poor in this particular case. So, now, if you want a larger
bandwidth then we need to optimize this particular configuration. So, let’s just see how
the bandwidth varies.
So, here is a effect of wire radius on the band width of the normal mode helical antenna.
So, one can see that this is the percentage bandwidth along this axis, and this is the radius
of the wire. So, if the radius of the wire is taken as /120, you can see that the bandwidth
realized can be about 7% or so, and this bandwidth increases if we increase the radius of
the wire.
So, depending upon the requirement, one can choose appropriately the radius of the wire.
But just to tell you now again with the help of these two curves, one can do a proper
optimization; let’s say we need a larger bandwidth. So, for larger bandwidth what we
need to do? We need to take this particular case here where this is /80. Now for /80 we
can see that impedance is not properly matched. So, how do we do the matching for this
particular thing? This particular curve should be shifted up, but if we reduce the radius
then bandwidth will also reduce. So, we don’t want to do that we don’t want to reduce
this thing, but we would still like to shift this particular thing up here. So, now, what we
need to do it is, we need to see what was the effect of the ground plane.
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So, one can actually see that here is the /30 is the ground plane, and from /30 if you go
to /20 the whole curve shifts up here. And also if you do that from /30 is this, the
frequency reduces. So, now, if you just look at these two things, and then look at these
two curves here. So, now, what is the conclusion then how do we do the optimization.
So, instead of taking a ground plane size as /30 for this particular case, what if you take
this ground plane size as /20, what will happen this curve will shift up? One can
actually just go back again, we can see that this curve will shift up from here you can see
how much is the distance where it is shifting up.
So, if that much distance is shifted up here, we can see that it will be decently matched;
then other thing is that if we increase the ground plane size, we notice that if we increase
the ground plane size, the frequency reduces from here to this value. And in fact if we
look at this curve here, corresponding to this here frequency was anyway very high. So,
by choosing the larger ground plane this can shift over here; however, it may not shift
exactly to 1.8 which may be the desired band, it may shift up to here; after that you have
a choice. One choice will be that you increase the ground plane size even more, so that
the curve will shift up which will reduce the frequency, or the choice is we can increase
the length of the wire slightly, which will reduce the frequency mode.
So, by doing these kind of a thing, we can do a proper optimization, we can get a good
impedance matching also. So, by combining all these things, so finally we optimize the
antenna and looking at this bandwidth here, so I am going to now show you the results
which we had optimized.
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So, here we fabricated the antenna. So, let just see here simulated result, one can see that
we design this antenna at 1.8 GHz, one can also see that the matching was pretty good
actually, you can see that we are getting a very nice reflection coefficient over here and
you can see that it is the bandwidth for VSWR less than 2 or in this case, reflection
coefficient less than -10 dB. So, you can see that this is the bandwidth which we have
obtained in this particular case over here, and then we did the fabrication so you can see
that the measured results are fairly close to the simulated results here. But I just want to
tell here. So, what you can see over here is a very thick wire which has been bent like
this here, it’s not so easy to bend such thick wire, you can actually see the number of
turns you can count here.
So, from here 1 2 3 4 you can count the number of turns, and you can see that here the
ground plane size is relatively small, and this small size ground plane actually we had
optimized for proper impedance matching, you can see over here the antenna is directly
fed with the connector. So, there is a no tapping is required in this particular case here, it
is being directly fed over here ok and you can also see the total size of the antenna. So,
the total height of the antenna is actually less than 6 cm, actually it is close to slightly
more than 5 cm.
Now, had we designed this particular antenna at 1800 MHz as a monopole antenna for
this kind of a small ground plane, the height would have been much larger compared to
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this particular case here. Now this particular antenna in fact since we have used a very
thick wire, a large power can be fed through this particular thing, and it can handle that
large power also. I2R losses will be very very small, and there is another reason also of
taking the thicker wire, because a thick wire can support itself. Had we taken a very thin
wire, then there would have been two effect the thin wire would have a very less
bandwidth, and also a very thin wire would not have supported by itself, then we would
have to put a some kind of a supporting structure in between and then we would have to
put a tape over here, or in the supporting structure we need to cut the grooves and then
this would have gone here in between.
Of course the total weight of this antenna is slightly more than had we taken a very thin
wire, but nevertheless one can see that the matching is fairly good, and depending upon
your requirement you can choose a thin wire or thick wire and as I said for thin wire you
need to provide a support, for thick wire weight becomes more, but it actually is a self
sustaining structure.
Okay now, for the radiation pattern of this one here; so most of the time normal mode
helical antenna here, it is almost the radiation pattern of this is almost like a dipole
radiation pattern. However, in this particular case there is a small difference than the
dipole pattern. For a ideal dipole pattern which is like a figure of 8 right, because
maximum radiation will be this and minimum radiation will be in this direction. So, had
it been a normal dipole antenna, it would be figure of 8 like this here, and the cross polar
in case of the dipole antenna is very very small, but in this case cross polar component is
not small, it is almost as high as close to 20 dB instead of a 40 dB, which is practically
realized by a dipole antenna or you can think about a monopole antenna over a very
small ground plane size.
So, helical antennas are very good, it can actually speaking it can give us a small height
antenna, it also has a little bit of the other polarization also, it is not just complete
vertically polarized E but it also has a horizontal polarized component also. So, it is ideal
for indoor application and in fact, in some applications where we need to have a circular
polarization. I can just tell you the thing is that you take this diameter little larger you
take C lambda little larger, and in that case you will be able to design circularly polarized
antenna.
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We can actually go back and look into the slide, if you want circularly polarized or other
component. So, just look at this component over here. So, if you look at this one here, so
this is a 2S/ C2 ok. Now suppose if we take C large, if we take this as larger value if
this is large, then this will reduce and if this reduces my axial ratio will improve. So, by
increasing this particular value, in fact just to tell you here. So, suppose if we take
instead of 0.04, if we take let’s say double of this as a circumference. If we take double
of this it will be four times, this will reduce to about 3 here ok and instead of doubling if
we let’s say make it 3 times like this here. So, if it is 3 times then correspondingly one
can actually see here if I take C as 0.1 suppose, so which will be 2.5 times more. So, if it
is 0.1, 0.12 will be 0.01 that will give us axial ratio of 2 ok and if we take slightly more
than that we can even get axial ratio smaller also.
So, basic thing is that C  can be increased, and if we increase C  if we just look into here
the curve which we have shown. So, if the requirement is of a better horizontal as well as
vertically polarized component, or we want closer to the circularly polarized; all you
need to do it is increase this diameter significantly, of course, correspondingly you may
have to increase the ground plane size also little bit so that impedance matching and
other thing can be done, but you can use the software tool to design helical antenna
properly.
So, just to summarize the result, so today what we have seen; we saw normal mode
helical antenna we started with a on a very large ground plane, and there generally
speaking we can take the total wire length between 0.3 to 0.4, but then that requires a
tap feed and also matching becomes difficult. But many places when we require a very
small ground plane, then what we can do it is we can take a very small ground plane and
then feed the helix directly, no tapping, no other impedance matching network, nothing is
required, but you need to do proper parametric study for the case which you want to do.
However, the design equations the curves given by us should really help you. So, even if
you don’t have sophisticated software tool, you can still use these curves which are given
to you and these curves can be used to design antenna at any frequency.
So, because we have kept everything in the form of lambda, so you can take any
frequency calculate the , and calculate the corresponding value. So, let’s say you want
/20 or /30 as a ground plane size, or you want to wire diameter which can vary from
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let’s say /80 to about /120, or correspondingly you can take thinner or thicker wire
also. So, these are the things which are very easy to design, you can utilize these thing to
design optimum helical antenna. And as I said helical antennas have multiple
applications, so most of the time normal mode helical antennas are replacing
conventional monopole antenna, so that it as a reduce size and also there is a lot of
research potential on the normal mode helical antenna, where these can actually replace a
linearly polarized monopole antenna into somewhat circularly polarized monopole
antenna or you can say modified normal mode helical antenna.
So, there is a lot of research scope. So, you need to do that and if you do that you can
publish papers, you can do lot of research, you can get M. Tech or PhD by choosing this
particular topic. So, just to summarize overall, so helical antenna 3 different modes are
there- normal mode helical antenna which is a compact antenna; then axial mode helical
antenna which gives us circular polarization, and it can give us left hand or right hand
circular polarization simply by wiring like this or wiring like this. So it so convenient to
get circular polarized component, and as I said circularly polarized helical antennas have
been used as a feed for the reflector. So, this is circularly polarized antenna, if it is right
hand side it goes there after reflection it become left hand circularly polarized, so that the
interference is very very little.
So, circularly polarized antennas of course, have lot of application, and you can see here
for helical antenna you don’t need a separate power divider, you don’t need a equal
power division, you don’t need a phase shifter, you don’t need 0 to 90 degree; and the
another beautiful thing is that you can get fairly decent bandwidth, you can get 30 to
40% of the bandwidth. Of course, there are many other things are there, for example in
axial mode helical antenna we talked about basically the symmetrical thing, where
number of turns are increasing like this; however, we also know that at the end current
will go to 0.
So, some disturbance is created by the top one or two turns. So, there are lot of papers
people have done the work. So, instead of having a straight normal, the last two turns
they have actually reduced the dimension. So that the effect of that is nullifies that
current, and then it becomes a better circularly polarized antenna. There are lot of other
things are also there for example, instead of using a uniform helix, people have also used
tapered helix like this. So, the tapered dimension should not vary too much, because we
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know for circularly polarization, we need the condition should be that C  is between 0.8
to 1.2. So, slightly tapered helical antenna gives us even better bandwidth, and better
both bandwidth VSWR bandwidth as well as axial ratio bandwidth.
So, these are the different things which are coming out in the literature, and I still feel
there is a lot of scope to do optimization because when these theories were reported
several decades back, people did not have computational power, but they did lot of
experimental work. In fact, what I find that today’s generation doesn’t do too many
experimental works, but they do lot of simulation. Well you got the good simulation tool,
so generate lot of curves, do parametric study, but I also want to tell you that when you
do the parametric study computer will give you some results.
Software will give you the result, it is your responsibility that you should understand
what is going on and also you should explain why it is happening. So, these are the two
things which are very very important and my basic definition of engineers is that
engineer should have logical and analytical ability. So, apply your logic to explain those
results which you are getting from the simulation, and then analyze those results to
actually come out with a proper design. So, if you do the proper design and simulation,
then only our prime minister’s mantra which has been broadcast repeatedly, and he has
been always saying “make in India” but in fact, I have added one sentence before that
make in India will happen only when we do design in India. So, we have powerful
software tools, so do that design, do a proper optimization, understand the concept
behind the antenna, and then do the practical thing.
I want to mention that in India we import several lakh crores of worth of antenna. So,
there is a lot of scope but before that you need to do the design and then once you do the
design, do the optimization, and then do the fabrication. And in fact, I also want to
mention for normal mode helical antenna; as I mentioned one of the option is to go like
this here, however people have come out with the printed version of helical antenna also.
So, what they have done is they take a let’s say flat PCB.
So, on one side here let’s say they print a ground plane, and then over here let’s say a line
goes like this and then underneath another line goes like this, then on the top line goes
here and then underneath line goes here and then what you do you have a plated through
whole here, platted through whole here, plated through whole over here.
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So, of course, it is not going in a circular fashion, but it goes like this goes down, comes
here goes down. So, there is a printed version of helical antenna is also possible today, so
one can actually do the design of that also. So, you do the design, do the simulation and
that would be a very very low cost helical antenna, and if you design one of those,
fabricate one of those and that can be put in mass production to realize the requirement
of the industry.
So, thank you very much and we’ll see you next time, and in the next lecture we’ll start
talking about horn antenna; and we’ll talk about various types of horn antenna, and then
we’ll also see how to design horn antennas ok. So with that bye and we’ll see you next
time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 10
Lecture – 45
Horn Antennas-I
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Horn Antennas. But horn antennas are known as
standard gain horn antenna, so that is one of the major applications of horn antenna. And
another application where horn antennas are used extensively and they are used as your feed
for large reflector antenna. So, these horn antennas are placed at a focal of the parabolic
reflector, and that is how the excitation takes place.
But just to tell you about the standard gain horn antenna. So, I just want to tell something
practical experience which we gained. So, I have been teaching horn antenna since 1992 at
IIT Bombay. But it was actually in around 2005 when I started my own company Wilcom
Technologies Private Limited which was incubated through IIT Bombay, and we had supplied
some antennas to the industry. And then they asked me have you calibrated the gain of the
antenna? I said yes we have done that testing, we have done the simulation and these are the
result. But they said no, have you compared with the standard gain horn antenna? And we
said no we have not done that is there no till then we are not satisfied. So, then I went through
the internet and I saw.
So, typically any standard gain horn antenna, the cost would be about at least 1 lakh rupee,
and I did not want to spend that kind of a money and I felt that since I have been teaching
horn antenna for more than a decade, why not I should design myself. And then even though I
was teaching this course for so many years, when it came to the final fabrication then I
realized lot of things are not available; and one of the major thing which I found, it was not
available was how to properly feed the horn antenna; and then we started doing lot of work
we did the design, and then we fabricated ourself and so on.
Today let us start with the horn antenna, and we will tell you what is there in the text book
and what needs to be modified, what are the things given in the text book and then we will
also tell you something which is not given in the text book. So, let us start with the horn
antennas. So, today we will start about horn antennas.
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So, in the horn antennas these are the commonly used horn antenna. So, what are these here?
There is actually a E-Plane Sectoral horn antenna, this is H-Plane Sectoral horn antenna and
this is Pyramidal horn antenna.
So, what it is actually need to start with the let us say this is a rectangular waveguide, and in
the rectangular waveguide we operate this rectangular waveguide in the fundamental TE10
mode, and what TE10 mode implies that there is a one half wavelength variation along this
direction. So that means, along this direction there will be a /2 variations, and 0 variations
along this particular direction here. So, one can actually see that since it is a metallic body.
So, the voltage will be 0 here and voltage will be 0 here, and for /2 to happen. So, this
voltage which is 0 here goes to the maxima and comes to back to 0 here.
So, this is the electric field variation or voltages variation along this particular axis, and you
can see that these fields are uniform. So, there is no variation along this particular direction.
So, this is the E-Plane. So, if we flare only in this particular direction it is known as E-Plane
Sectoral horns. So, basically the width of the waveguide has been expanded in this particular
direction and orthogonal to E-Plane will be H-Plane. So, if we expand this whole thing in H-
Plane direction, this is known as H-Plane Sectoral horn antenna; and if the dimensions are
expanded in both the direction that means, in E-Plane as well as in the H-Plane, this is what
the configuration looks like and this configuration looks something similar to a pyramid, and
hence it is known as pyramidal horn antenna and this is a conical horn antenna.
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So, basically it is a circular waveguide. So, you can see this is a circular waveguide and then
one end of the waveguide is expanded, and that becomes a cone. So, this is the reason why
this is known as conical horn antenna, but today we will concentrate mainly on the Sectoral
horn antenna, and then we will go to pyramidal and then much later we will go to conical
horn antenna.
So, let us first start with the simple rectangular waveguide, because we need to understand
how a rectangular waveguide works. I am sure all of you might have taken electromagnetic
wave course, where you would have studied rectangular waveguide, but just a quick brush
up.
So, let us say a rectangular waveguide is defined by it is board wall and this is known as a
narrow wall. So, this broad wall dimension is given by a, and this one here is height is b. So,
for fundamental TE10 mode as I mentioned. So, one corresponds to that E-Field varies from
here to here, which is a one half wavelength. So that means, this is 0 fields here and this one
goes to maxima and then goes to 0. So, that is half wavelength variation. So, one implies that
and 0 means uniform field distribution, so that is what it is. So, now, for this particular case
E-Field varies sinusoidally along a, and is uniform along b which is what it is, and H-field
will be perpendicular to this E-field here.
Now, waveguides are defined are by its different band. So, this is X-band waveguide and
there is a symbol for that and that is known as a WR90. There is a very specific significance
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of this number actually, what these numbers really imply that a dimension is equal to 0.90
inches. So, if instead of 90 suppose if this is a 230, then that will be 2.3 inches will be a;
suppose if this is WR 2300. So, if it is 2300 it will be implying that a will be equal to 23
inches and this waveguide is designated to operate in the frequency range of 8.4 to 12.4
gigahertz.
So, let us see what is the reason, why it works in this particular frequency region; so first of
all now this is the dimension which governs the value of a. So, a is equal to 0.9 inches, and b
is given as 0.4 inches. I just want to mention here that majority of the other waveguides, they
actually have b approximately half of a. So, here this is 0.9 half would have been 0.45, but
which is actually 0.4 over clear. Now for this waveguide we define cut off wavelength, and
cut off wavelength is given by a very simple formula which is equal to 2a and 2 multiplied by
a is 0.9 inches convert that into centimeter by multiplying by a factor of 2.54.
So, cut off wavelength is given by this number here, and then we can find out from here what
is the cut-off frequency. So, cut off frequency is given by c/ , and here c is 3 x 1010 cm/s,
because this dimension is in centimeter. If it was meter then it would have been 10 to the
power 8 meter per second then we have to convert this into meter. So, any way if we simply
this, this comes out to be 6.56 giga hertz. So, this is the cut off frequency of this waveguide.
So, in general I want to mention that waveguide is considered as a high pass filter so; that
means, below this frequency it will be at attenuated and the propagation will only take place
above this frequency. So, now comes the next question; if the cut off frequency is 6.56 giga
hertz, then why this waveguide is defined from 8.4 to 12.4 and why not from 6.6 to 12.4 or
other number. If a waveguide is known as high pass filter, then a high passed filter as a
characteristic that any frequency higher than that it should pass.
So, why again this particular limit; in fact, if you look at this limit it looks like it is a band
pass filter, where that is not a correct thing let me go step by step. So, rectangular waveguide
as a cut off frequency which is equal to 6.56 giga hertz; whereas, if you actually see it is
defined that X-Band waveguide was from 8.4 to 12.4. So why there is a discrepancy between
this number and this number; now as I mentioned the rectangular waveguide is nothing, but a
high pass filter. So, below this frequency there is a attenuation, so it does not really
propagate; but however, just if you think about at 6.6 giga hertz, attenuation is still very high.
In fact, I would like to show that if we take attenuation in the vertical axis, and then if we
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take frequency. So, suppose we have a attenuation in this vertical axis and frequency is going
in this way and let us assume this is the cut off frequency.
So, attenuation is very high at cut off frequency, and this attenuation slowly starts decreasing
and then it remains nearly flat. So, from here to here roughly about 1.3 times fc which is the
cut off frequency, we have a relatively very small attenuation. So, that is why from the
frequency region from fc up to about a roughly 1.3 times fc, it is still attenuation is still very
high and hence it is not very useful thing. So, when you are designing a horn antenna, you
must ensure that you are working in a proper region where attenuation in the waveguide itself
is relatively small.
So, let us continue from here further. So, this is 6.56 and if you see this operative frequency is
8.4. If you take the ratio of this to this, that is actually equal to about 1.28 which is close to
1.3. Then comes the next part why there is a limit on the higher frequency. The limit to the
higher frequency actually comes because as the frequency increases that fundamental mode,
10 mode may actually become a 20 mode or the orthogonal mode may get excited. So,
majority of the time horn antennas are operated in the fundamental TE10 mode.
However, there are some special cases where we use different modes, and when we go to that
topic later on I will tell you where there is a difference, but right now we will focus upon that
horn antenna generally will work in the fundamental TE10 mode and for this particular
waveguide this is the operating frequency range and if you really see this is fairly large
frequency range.
So, if we take entire frequency of around 10.4, you can see that the bandwidth is close to
about 40 percent or so. And of course, one can choose different things also. So, instead of
WR90 suppose you take WR230 or WR340 then correspondingly this range will be different.
So, we will have to use that particular waveguide wherever we want to use the antenna.
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So, now let just look at the Sectoral horn antenna. So, this particular thing here shows E-
Plane Sectoral horn antenna.
We know that this is a dimension, this is b dimension and this is the field variation along a
and now this is the E-Plane and it is being flared in the E-Plane over here. So, since it is being
flared up here this is why it is known as E-Plane Sectoral horn antenna. Now let just look at
the axis also. So, this side here is x axis this one here is y axis, and this is z axis. Now when
the wave is launched from here it is going to propagate in this particular direction, and if the
wave propagation is in this direction then E and H field will be perpendicular to that. So, in
this case E is in this direction, H is in this particular direction.
So now, one can see that E only as a component which is in the y direction. So, we have a E y
over here, and this Ey.
E1 is just the constant and this is the cosine variation along this particular axis; and one can
quickly check it. So, when x‘ is equal to 0, x‘ equal to 0 is at the origin. So, if x‘ is 0 cos0
will be 1, so that will have a maximum value. If we go to the edge here, at the edge x‘ is
equal to a by 2 half of this waveguide dimension. So, if this a by 2 that will become cosπ /2 =
0. So, that is why it goes from maximal to 0.
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So, that is the amplitude component; now this amplitude component which is at the
waveguide that is being expanded to the aperture of the horn antenna. Now at this particular
thing there will be a phase distribution also. So, phase distribution what is actually
happening. So, from here the wave is getting launched from here. So, phase along the
aperture will not be constant and that is the term here and this term can be better understood
by the next slide.
So, this is the side view of the Sectoral horn. So, from the side if we see we will see the
dimension b, and then this is expanded in this particular plane here. The total dimension will
be b1 and this is b1/ 2 and then you want to define the phase center of the horn antenna.
The phase center of the horn antenna actually not physically visible as such, one as to
imagine and extend the dimension. So, this is what dimension b which has been flared to b1,
and if we extend this b1 over here that will meet at this particular point which is the central
point, and if we extend this here; so where ever this part is extended that become the phase
center of the horn antenna. So, from here to this particular point, we are defining the
dimension as ρ1 and this is Z axis as before.
So, now if you look from this point to this here, if this is ρ 1 distance then we can see that if
this was something like this here. So, all this dimension will be also equal to ρ 1, but if we
look at the aperture of the horn antenna, then what we see? The distance will be from here up
to this point here, or add the edges the total distance from here to here will be ρ .e So, now, the
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phase error which will come into here, so this is the phase error. So, first let us find out what
is this particular distance. So, this distance will be equivalent to total this distance minus ρ1.
Now, this distance here will be nothing, but ρ1 square plus y dash square, and square root of
that. So, if you see here it is slightly written and different form,
if we take ρ1 inside this will be ρ1 square and that will cancel this it will be ρ 1 square plus y
dash square, and that is what it is ρ 1 square plus y dash square will be this total distance and
from here we subtract minus ρ1. So, now, this is the distance  from here to here and that
distance now can be simplify this expression, if we expand this here now please notice I have
use the term here approximately. Why approximately? Because higher order terms have been
neglected; so if you just look at the first term here, so first term will be 1 plus half of this
value.
So, this is a1 plus half. So, you can see these two terms will get canceled, and that half will
come here and half y dash square divided by ρ1, part of 1 ρ1 will get canceled. So, this is delta
y now that is the distance. So, the phase error in terms of degree will be given by the term
which is k. So, the k times this particular value here. So, that will be the phase distribution
and one can actually see that. So, when y dash is close to 0 which is at the center point if you
look at. So, there will be no phase that will be the reference phase, and as we go above here
go to the extreme point here. So, y dash will become half of b, so that will give us the
maximum phase error.
So, if this is considered as a reference phase, maximum phase error will come at the edges.
So, one can actually see here, so phase error you can say starting from here as a reference,
and this phase error will keep on increasing like this here. So, here sometimes student do ask
a question what if we instead of taking a horn antenna like this why not we take horn antenna
something like this here. So, then there will be no phase error. Yes at the periphery of the horn
there will not be a phase error, but when we talk about we talk about the way which is
coming here and then we talk about a plane wave here, and if you are talking about a plane
wave over here that is what will be parallel to this here. So, phase error will come into
picture.
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So, by making a horn antenna of this shape, it is not going to make that phase error will
become equal to 0; however, there are alternate techniques to balance out this phase error and
that is actually many a times one actually uses a lens antenna over here. So, something like
this here if we use the lens antenna. So, lens antenna will have a very small width at this
particular point, and over here width will be larger. And if the wave which is propagating
through the dielectric media, will actually experience more phase delay compared to the end
over here. So, that is how the phase compensation can be done. So, it is a very very common
practice to employ one can actually just use one side of lens also like this here, or can use a
lens like this also. So, both the things are possible and basically these are done to adjust for
the phase error.
But otherwise if we do not have that option, then what we do we put a restriction that this
phase error should be relatively small. So, let just see some examples and first we will start
with the directivity curve.
So, I just want you mention here these directivity curves have been reported in the literature.
So, these things are there, so let us utilize the knowledge which has been given by so many
researches in the past. So, what I want to show over is that this is the normalized directivity,
because one of the dimensions of the waveguide is constant which is not being changed.
So, a is constant. So, that is what it is coming over here this is . So, it is basically
normalized with respect to that. What do we see over here? This is actually the horn aperture
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dimension which is b1. So, basically b1 is getting increased in this particular thing; that
means, we are increasing the aperture dimension. Now what are these different curves here?
These are the different curves for different value of ρ 1. So, if ρ1 is 100  that means, the horn
antenna is very very large, and over here you can see ρ 1 is about 6 . So, it is relatively
shorter, so that means the length of the horn antenna is relatively short.
So, suppose that we have fixed horn length which is 6 , and then now for this fixed 6  let
us see what is happening. if we increase the value of the b1 continuously. So, what happens?
You can see that the directivity is increasing and then the directivity becomes maxima, and
then its starts reducing. So, why it is reducing? The reason for that is let us say now we are
increasing the aperture; so this distance is nothing, but equal to the ρ1 plus b 1 by 2 whole
square. And the b 1 is relatively small phase error will be relatively small, but as we keep on
for the fixed length of ρ1, as we keep on increasing this dimension. So, what will happen?
Phase error will start increasing and now let just see the wave is propagating in z direction,
and what we have seen E-Field is like this.
So, if E-Field is like this here, but now there is a phase error. So, because of the phase error it
will not be aligned in this, it will be now aligned like this then it will get aligned like this,
then it will if the phase error becomes 90 degree it is actually going in this direction. That
means, contribution of this will be negligible or not there, but if you increase the phase for
the now what is happening? This plane vector will be like this. So, this was starting was in
this direction, and this is in the opposite direction. So, what will happen? even though you are
increasing the aperture this field and this field here they will start canceling each other, and
hence directivity will start decreasing.
So, there is an optimum value up to what level you can increase the value of b1 till then you
can get a directivity which is increasing, after the directivity will start decreasing. So, let us
just look at this curve again. So, one can actually see that as we keep on increasing the value
of b 1, we can see that the directivity is increasing and then it is starts decreasing. The same
thing happens here suppose if I take this particular length you can see directivity is increasing
up to this here, and then it starts decreasing if you take this one here directivity starts
decreasing after this value.
So, from here we can actually just draw the line from here. So, if you think about this is 6 ,
if you draw the line somewhere over here you can see this is the value of b1. So, I have
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written here ρ1 is 6, then b1 is approximately this value. If ρ1 is 10 you can just again draw the
line here and that is this value here and if you go to 100 one can actually draw the line here,
you can actually say that will be somewhere here which is 40; and if you actually put this
thing here this whole thing can be actually a drawn a line can be drawn through here, which
will go through the maximum value and that equation is given by
Now, these are the values which are given and this is what it suggests that this is the value for
which we get maximum directivity, which is over here. So, let us see now this corresponds to
how much phase error.
So, maximum directivity occurs when b1 is equal to this particular expression here; and we
also know that maxima phase error occurs when y dash is equal to b1/2 that is at the end of
the aperture. So, now, we can find the value of ,  expression was given over here
and we know that the phase term will have a 2π times this here, and where S is given by
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this term here you can actually see y’= b1/2. So, that will become b1 square by 4, 2 is already
there and this ρ1 and the  is coming because of that 2π/ which is the k term by phase, it is
coming over here.
So, now if we substitute this value of b1 over here, so S optimum according to this is
substitute the value it comes out to be 1/4, and do we put s value equal to ¼ over here this
whole thing becomes max equals to 90 degree. So, this is what majority of the books tell you
that I do not agree with this particular thing, phase error is just too high and I do not
recommend that you should go to this particular phase error. In fact, let us go back and look if
the directivity curve one more time. So, what we really see here is that this is the point where
we get the maximum directivity, but this point also implies 90 degree phase difference.
But just think about it that instead of this phase error if I had taken up to this point only; then
I would have got little lesser directivity, but this is linearly increasing and we know that
4 πA
directivity general expression or directivity is nothing but we can say ; and area is
λ2
nothing but a dimension multiplied by b1, here a is constant and we are increasing b1. So, it
should have been linearly increasing, but over here it is not increasing. So, if you just look at
this particular point only, we said this is the maximum directivity point absolutely right. But
however, if you look at a theoretically had this phase error not come into picture, and if we
draw the line vertically up it would have actually gone somewhere here. So, we could have
got the directivity this much here if there was a lesser phase error.
In fact, I never ever recommend that you design the antenna for about 90 degree phase error.
In fact, our recommendation is design most of the time only for a phase error of about 45
degree.
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And I also want to show you now the E-Plane pattern here. So, this is the E-Plane Sectoral
pattern this is known as the universal pattern, and this universal pattern if you look into that
this is the E-Plane curve here, this is the field variation; and this one here basically
corresponds to when the phase error is very very less, and if the phase error is very very less
we can see that there are sharp nulls are there; where as if the phase error if you see now for
1/8, you can see that some nulls are coming they are not very sharp. But if you take phase
error equal to 90 degree, you can see now this is the variation and if you see this value this is
about close to minus 10 dB and you can see this is a much border region and this is radiating
in the undesired direction and minus 10 dB is like 10 percent.
So, 10 percent of the power is getting radiated here, here, here and everywhere. So, resulting
into the lower gain and hence lower efficiency, so in fact if one takes this kind of a number
here max 90 degree then efficiency obtained is of the order of 50 to 60 percent; where as if we
take number something like this here, then the efficiency can be 70 to 80 percent. So, we
would rather like to design an antenna which is more efficient rather than going with this
particular phase error.
In fact, I also want to mention this entire thing can be also explained in the form of the array
theory also. So, I will mention about that in our next lecture how this E-Field pattern can be
explained using a very simple array theory concept also. So, just to summarize we started
talking about horn antenna, and we looked into various types of horn antenna they can be E-
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Plane Sectoral horn, H-Plane Sectoral horn, Pyramidal horn and conical horn antenna and
much later will talk about variations of these horn antenna also.
So, we looked into another part that is the directivity of the horn antenna increases up to a
point and after that it starts decreasing. The main reason is that the phase error starts
increasing, and because of the phase error the field starts canceling each other and hence
directivity decreases efficiency decreases.
So, we will continue from here in the next lecture, so till then bye have a good time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 10
Lecture – 46
Horn Antennas-II
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Horn Antenna which is in continuation of the
previous lecture. So, in the previous lecture we had started discussing about the E-Plane
sectoral horn antenna and before that we actually looked into a rectangular waveguide and we
saw what is the field distribution and most of the time we operate these horn antennas in the
fundamental mode.
And we have seen that for a rectangular waveguide the field distribution is sinusoidal along
the length a and it is uniform along b. And I had also mentioned about them when we talked
about E-Plane sectoral when we flare a in this particular direction, we saw that as you keep
on increasing the value of b1 phase errors started increasing and directivity started decreasing.
But now let just also look into the array theory concept of it.
Suppose now we have a field which is uniform over here. So, we can actually think about it is
nothing but an array of this particular thing. And along this here field is varying sinusoidally.
So, just think about from here to here, let us look into the array theory. In array theory, what
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we do? We have number of elements here say let say 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and here there is a
sinusoidal variation. Now in the array theory when we are talking about I did mention to you
that if the spacing between the element is reduced significantly; array factor for a array was
given by
nφ
sin
2
AF =
φ
n sin
2
But if number of elements increase and the spacing between the element reduces then that
array factor reduces to the sinc function which is nφ . So, now, for these aperture here,
sin
2
nφ
2
what we can actually do we can apply the array theory instead of calling array factor, now we
call it space factor. So, we can see that since the field is uniform along this direction. So, for
E-Plane radiation pattern side lobe level will be given for the uniform distribution, and side
lobe level for uniform distribution we have seen would be of the order of minus 13 to minus
13.5 dB. Whereas, in this plane here since the field is varying sinusoidally and we have seen
for cosine distribution side lobe level is less than 20 dB, but of course gain will be also
slightly less in this particular plane.
We will remember this particular concept and we talk about E-Field then we will see these
things here. So, now, let just very quickly go through what we had discuss in the last lecture.
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We started with the E-Plane sectoral, we expanded in this particular direction.
Then we found out what is the phase error.
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And then we looked at the directivity curve. And we saw that as b1 increases, directivity
increases initially then starts decreasing mainly because phase error is increasing in this
particular for these particular values.
And then we went through the derivation and we saw that max = 90 degree is the value for
which directivity is maximum. However, I also mentioned I do not recommend this much
phase error, because this much phase error actually speaking reduces the efficiency of the
antenna. So, we generally recommend phase error of about 45 degree.
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Then we had looked into the E-Plane pattern in the previous lecture, we will just re look in to
a. So, when the phase error; that means, S is equal to very small value which is 1 by 64 here
so for that the phase error will be small and this will be the pattern. And you can actually see
that this value here if you draw the line here somewhere so that is about minus 13, minus 13.5
dB. So, this is the pattern because, E field is uniform along this direction and that is why we
have a side lobe level which is 13.5. But when we look at the phase error of 90 degree, one
can actually see over here side lobe level is of the order of minus 10 dB and that is definitely
not desirable lot of power gets radiated in this particular direction and hence overall
efficiency of the antenna decreases.
If you take max equal to 90 degree typical efficiency may be of the order of 50 percent to 60
percent. However, if you take this value here where max is 45 degree, we can see for this
particular case here you can see that side lobe levels have definitely reduce from here to here,
we can see little bit of a dip also; so that means, radiation in this direction is much lesser than
radiation compare to this particular value here. So, naturally this will give us a better
efficiency. So, I generally recommend this one here and we can get about 70 to 80 percent
efficiency if max is taken around 45 degree.
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Now, let just look at the next one which is H-Plane sectoral horn antenna. So, what we do
over here is that this flaring is done along the H-Plane. We know that this is E-Plane H-Plane
is in this direction. So, the flooring is done in this particular direction here. So, in the
previous case, b was expanded to b1, here a is expanded to a1. Now as far as the field
variation is there it will remain same as before, except that earlier it was expanded in this
direction now it will be expanded in this direction here.
So, we can actually see Ey that will be the component in this direction. So, this E y, let us
amplitude is let say E2 and the variation is given by
Again when x’ is equal to 0 which is the origin. So, at this particular value, cos 0 will be
equal to 1 so we will get a maximum value, and at x’ = a1/2 which is at the H is over here this
will be a1/2; that means, it will become π/2, cos π/2 is equal to 0. So, that is the field
distribution along this here.
Here again if you look at it, the phase error if we take this as a reference point then the phase
error will keep on increasing and the maximum phase error will be obtained when x’ becomes
equal to a1/2. In previous case it was y’ = b1/2, because clearing was done along this
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particular direction. So, here also then similarly, we can write max to just to differentiate the
notation inside of S, earlier we have written here T and ρ 1 becomes ρ2 and b1 becomes a1 over
here otherwise the concept remains the same.
If you look at the directivity curve we see a very similar trend. So, what we have here? Again
now this is the normalized value of the directivity because the dimension b is not changing so
it is normalize with respect to that and wavelength.
And over here dimension a1 is changing so that means aperture size is increasing in this
particular direction. And what we have here? The length of the horn antenna is increasing. So,
from here to here you can see there are different cases, here the length is 100λ which would
be very very large compared to this which is about 6 λ. I just think about it suppose you are
designing an antenna at say 3 gigahertz. So, at 3 gigahertz wavelength will be 10 centimeter.
So, if it is 100 λ that would be this whole length is going to be 10 meter. So, you can
imagine, it is a very very long antenna.
At the same time if you think about 3 gigahertz λ is 10 centimeter, this would imply this is
about 60 centimeter which is actually equal to 2 feet long. And now this dimension is
increasing. So, we can actually see that as you go over here the directivity increases and then
its starts decreasing.
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Same thing is followed just as before. So, here again if you look at the point where this is a
maximum directivity, so corresponding to again 6 λ if you now draw the line, this is about
4.24. And if you go over here for 100 λ if you draw the line somewhere here, it is about
17.32. If you recall earlier, this number was about 14.14 for E-Plane sectoral, whereas for H-
Plane sectoral, it is 17.32. And if you draw the line draw from here, if you draw from here,
curve which goes through this enter so that will be like an equation which is given by
And now you might wonder why these things are different. Let me just cover the next slide
and then I will explain why these numbers are little higher compare to the previous case.
If you use this particular expression, we can find out maximum directivity, we just saw is
given by
δ =
max
We know maximum phase error occurs when x’= a1/2. So, we know max = 2πt where t is
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so now let us substitute the values. So, t we put over here and here what we are going to do
for maximum directivity we know a1 should be this. So, if you substitute the value here, t
optimum comes out to be 3/8 and if you put the value of 3/8 here and π, we write in 180
degree. So, 2 into 180 into 3 by 8 gives us 135 degree phase error. And again this is my
recommendation that please never ever use this much phase error; phase error is too high not
recommended.
Now the question comes; why in the previous case we allowed the phase error of 90 degree
for E-Plane and why phase error of 135 degree is allowed for the H-Plane. And the reason for
that is that for E-Plane what is happening; field is uniform for the entire region. So, if you
look at the center point where the phase is 0 that is the reference and if you look at here this
entire amplitude, let say goes to 90 degree and that is not doing contribution. But now if you
look at in H-Plane, so in H-Plane, what is happening? Field is varying sinusoidally. So,
maximum here and it is 0 over here; and when we expand this whole thing what happens,
maxima is also getting expanded, whereas end points are 0. So, at 0 level, there is really no
difference, contribution will not be there. Hence we can tolerate little larger phase error
because amplitude is going to 0 at the end.
So, even if that 0 if even if that is pointing in the other direction still the middle portion is
getting expanded which gives rise to larger directivity. So, theoretically we can say that
maximum directivity is obtained for phase error equal to 135 degree. I will tell you my reason
also why I do not recommend this value. So, again just look into this here. So, even though at
this particular point we say that phase error 135 degrees allowed, but just if you draw the line
from here corresponding to this point hard the phase error been 0 instead of getting this value
over here for the directivity, it would have gone vertically up and would have gone here. So,
it could have been this much directivity which would have been much larger compare to this
here if the phase error was relative small or negligible.
Hence I do not recommend phase error of 135 degree at all. And we will see later on what are
the implications of these things.
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But let just now look at the radiation pattern which is now as a universal radiation pattern for
H-Plane. What we have here? Normalize field in this direction, and this is actually nothing
but we are showing the values of a here. And these are the different curves for different value
of the phase error. So, this 1 here let us start with here, this corresponds to the very small
phase error, you can see that this is a factor is much smaller over here. And now let just see
this particular here, if you look at the side lobe level that if I draw the line here you can see it
is much below 20 dB.
In fact, if you recall now for a uniform distribution we saw the side lobe level was much
higher that was close to 13 dB, but if it is a cosine distribution side lobe level are of the order
of minus 22 dB or so and these things are very similar to the array theory which you convert
to space factor over here. Now corresponding to this here what do we see? So, here phase
error is very very small, this is the curve for which you can see that the phase error is 45
degree, and then we see this curve here this is the curve for phase angle error equal to 90
degree.
If you see over here compare to this you can see that the amplitude has increase significantly;
that means much more power is being radiated in the undesired direction. And in fact, 135
degree phase error will come somewhere in between this curve and this curve here, because
this is 1/4 this is 1/2 and 135 degree corresponds to 3/8 which curve will be in between here.
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So, you can see that radiation will be taking place in the undesired direction and hence over
all directivity of the antenna decreases.
So when you are going to design a horn antenna please remember for E-Plane sectoral horn,
horn antenna try to design for a phase or of about 45 degree, for H-Plane sectoral horn
antenna I can recommend anything between 45 degree to 90 degree phase error depending
upon what are the requirement for the given application, but do not take beyond that.
So, now we will see the combination of E-Plane sectoral and H-Plane sectoral and that is
known as pyramidal horn antenna.
Let just look at the pyramidal horn antenna. So, in the pyramidal horn antenna the expansion
is done in both the planes. So, this is also expanded this is also expanded. So, this is the side
view; side view you will see only this portion which is over here and the top view if you see
that will be this part here. So top view we are seeing from a and this is the expansion over
here.
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So, now, if you look at the field distribution; field distribution will actually have the similar
amplitude distribution because the field variation is only in the one direction which is a
cosine distribution. Again we can put it if x’ is equal to 0 cos 0 will be 1 so that will be E 0.
And that x’ = a1 / 2, this will be π/2 which is equal to 0. But however, if you see the phase
error; phase error has increased much more now because what you see now that the phase
error now is the sum of the 2 phase errors. So, in one time what we are doing? We are going
in the let say in a direction and then we are going in the b direction. So, the phase error will
be much more over here for pyramidal horn antenna.
And then comes the next part condition for physical realization, in fact actually there is a only
1 condition even though you see here 3 equation. The actual condition is that p e should be
equal to ph where pe is given by
and ph is given by
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So, let us see what are these things here. So, if you look into here; we actually call it distance
from here to here there is actually known as the distance from aperture, aperture is also
referred some times in books as mouth of the horn antenna and this one over here is known as
neck of the horn antenna.
We actually what we are looking at here is the distance from here to this point so that is you
can call it a neck and this is the mouth. So, neck to mouth distance for this case as well as for
this case should be same. Now I want to mention here few things here. So, it is this distance
from here to here and this distance from here to here that should be constant. Whereas, what
we are earlier looking at is the phase center; now phase center for this particular case is
different in the phase center in this case here. The reason for that is here the flare angle over
here may not be sane as flare angle in this particular direction. The reason for that is we can
actually have a larger phase error in the H-Plane and we can have a lesser phase angle error in
the E-Plane, because the amplitude is uniform along this. So, that is why since the flare angle
will be different phase center will be slightly different in the 2 cases.
However, for physical realization from here to here and from here to here it should be same.
So, we can just say it looks like a P, but actually it is ρ e and ρh. So, ρe and ρh should be same.
Now how do we calculate the expression for ρ e.? So, I just want to mention I will give you
some hint here. So now, let say this is the angle here, so for this particular angle, if you look
this part here, one triangle and you need to imagine this as a another triangle. tan α is
given by this distance divided by this distance here. So, this distance is nothing but b1 / 2
divided by this distance here which has been taken as ρ1.
Also the same thing can be written for this here that this tan α of this will be this distance
which is b/2 divided by this distance here that gives you one expression. And now we know
that distance from here to here will be nothing but ρ 1 minus this particular distance. And this
distance we have seen the tan of this angle will be b/2 divided by them. So, simplify this
equation for this term which is ρ e; similarly you do the same thing simplify it for the term
here ρh and then put this condition over here; and these are the expanded thing. You can see
that basically these terms are coming as I said you need to just do little bit of a calculation use
that concept of tan angle and then take the 2 ratios simplify it you will get this particular
expression. So, this is the only condition which we need to put for physical realization.
Now we need to design let say horn antenna.
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For designing a horn antenna there are 2 important things which we need to know: first is,
what is the frequency at which we are going to operate? It is very very important to know at
what frequency we are going to operate horn antenna, because we know that let say are
rectangular waveguide will be expanded to pyramidal horn. So we must know; what is the cut
off frequency of the rectangular waveguide and what is the operating frequency range of the
waveguide. Until and unless we know that we cannot just choose arbitrary.
So, for example we had seen that for X band which is from 8.4 to 12.4, any frequency in that
particular band 8.4 to 12.4, we can design pyramidal horn antenna in that frequency band and
for that we need to take WR90. Similarly suppose you want to design antenna at say 30
gigahertz or you want to design antenna at 1 gigahertz you must choose proper waveguide
which will have that operating frequency range; then comes the next part once frequency is
given, so we choose the waveguide dimension.
The next part will be we need to design horn antenna for a given gain or directivity. There are
2 possibilities are there: I have given the directivity curve for E and H-Plane which where the
normalized E and H-Plane. So, we can use that to find the overall directivity of pyramidal
horn. So, if you look into this here so we saw the normalized plot which were λ DE by one of
the term here and then λ DH by then other term. So, this part is actually already known from
those code directivity curves and then we can find out what is the directivity.
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Alternatively we can find the directivity of the horn antenna from its aperture. So, what is the
aperture? So, aperture area theory if we apply it says
And at the aperture what is the area of the aperture a1 multiplied by b1. If you look at the
directivity expression over here, the length of the horn antenna does not come into picture.
So, one may think that where directivity is independent of the length, but that is not the
correct thing.
And we can see here that the gain of the horn antenna is almost half of this particular value.
So, if you look into there, this means that the efficiency of this particular antenna is only 50
percent. And I actually want to mention all those optimum dimensions which we had seen
they really give raise to an efficiency of only about 50 percent, but I also want to mention that
some books do take instead of 0.5 they take as 0.6 also. So, some books take this 60 percent
efficiency some people or some books take 50 percent efficiency, but we show you much
later how to get even better efficiency.
But right now I will go with this text book approach, and we will see how things can be
simplified and designed. So now, we had seen for a optimum pyramidal horn antenna for first
we had looked into the sectoral. So, we have seen for E-Plane sectoral, this was the optimum
dimension, for H-Plane sectoral that was the optimum dimension. Now again here an
assumption has been made that ρ2 is approximately equal to ρh which is not always true, this
will only happen if the aperture size is relatively small compare to the length of the horn
antenna.
When we talk about the length of the horn; the length is actually taken from the neck to the
mouth. And this we had seen these are the values of the ρ e and ρh these values as I mentioned
these have been obtained for the physical realization of the horn antenna. Now what we have
here equation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, if you combine these equations and by combining these equations
one actually gets equation
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Now that may look like a fairly complicated equation over here, but just 3-4 steps that will
take for you to combine the equation you can actually just see here what needs to be done.
We have a1 b1 here, so now a1 b1 is given by this particular term over here and this term has
been approximated by this here. So, these terms over here we can actually take square of this
everything. So, a1 square b1 square; square root will get rid of it and then this term here is
given by the term over here and this one comes over here. So, you can actually see that all of
these things will come in this particular expression.
And then what you can see over here that term φ or you can say x also for simplicity if
you see here x is in the numerator and over here x is in the denominator that is how it has
been arranged. And where the expression x is it is nothing but ρ e divided by λ you can see
that. So now, what we need to do with this we need to solve this equation for I will just use
the term x here even though this is known as φ ; so we need to solve for x and for that what
we need to do we need to start with the trial.
And this is the good trial equation, so if you try with this equation it is possible that this left
hand side may not be equal to right hand side so you may have to do some trial. So, I am just
going to just show you very quickly, but in the next lecture I will show you more detail. So, if
you calculate this from here the trial value then you can calculate rest of the parameter.
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There are some design, equations are given there is a design for 11 gigahertz is given for a
given value of the gain over here. So, that is the solution.
I am just very quickly going to show you the trailer of the next lecture.
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So, you can choose starting value of x then you do this you do all f these calculation and
finally, you can do the design. Alternatively if you actually read the Kraus book, in the Kraus
book this graph is actually given over here. So, for any value of the game which is over here
draw the vertical line and read the corresponding values design is over.
It is a very very simplified way of doing the thing; however, I want that you people look in to
the derivation from this part. First I would like that you people do some practice drive this
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particular expression for this condition and then derive this particular expression from the
previous equation and in the next lecture we will continue from here.
So, with that just to quickly summarize. Today we restarted with the E-Plane sectoral horn
antenna, we looked at the field distribution and we saw that for very small phase error the
side lobe level will be of the order of minus 13 dB or so, but as the phase error increases side
lobe level increases and efficiency decreases.
Then we looked at the H-Plane sectoral horn antenna, and we notice that because of the
cosine distribution side lobe levels were below 20 dB and phase error can be little larger
compare to the E-Plane sectoral antenna. And then we talked about the pyramidal horn
antenna, and there is one main condition for physical realization you can say that for E-Plane
sectoral or H-Plane sectoral the length from the mouth to the neck should be same. And then I
showed you the equation and very quickly I showed you how graphically you can solve the
problem also.
But in the next lecture we will see these things in more detail, till then bye do some practice
because as this say ‘practice makes man perfect’. I still do not know why they do not say-
‘practice make woman perfect’; in fact I said that some time and one lady responded that
‘women are perfect so why mess with the perfection’. But I would like to say ‘practice make
people perfect’. So, please do some practice, read this examples from the book and we will
continue from here in the next lecture, till then bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 10
Lecture – 47
Horn Antennas-III
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on horn antennas. In fact, in the last few lectures
we have been talking about horn antenna. So, we started with the rectangular waveguide
and we saw that if the rectangular waveguide is like this that E field is perpendicular
going like this, and the E field goes form the maxima at the center and at goes towards 0
so in fact, this plane here is H-plane and this plane here is E-plane. So, if we expand the
whole thing in E-plane it is known as E-plane sectoral horn and if we expand in this
particular direction then it is H-plane sectoral horn antenna. And then we talked about
pyramidal horn antenna in which what actually happens that we expand in this direction
as well as in this direction.
So, let us continue from there. So, we had seen that this is a pyramidal horn antenna and
that was the side view and the top view.
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And then from here we had also seen that the amplitude variation will be given by this
cosine function, where if x’ is equal to 0 which is at the center field will be maximum,
and at the edge x’ will be a1/ 2. So, that will be cos π/2 will be equal to 0. And in the
terms of phase, the phase terms will be actually summation of both the phase terms in the
E-plane as well as in the H-plane. So, the phase error will be much larger. And condition
for physical realization actually there is only 1, and that is ρ e should be equal to ρh and
the values of ρe and ρh can be obtained from the parameter dimension.
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And then we had actually seen that the gain of the pyramidal horn antenna which has
been taken as this particular term which is 4 π Area that is in normal directive
2
λ
expression, and area is here aperture area which is equal to a1b1.
Efficiency has been taken equal to 0.5, and I want to mention that we will just look into
the design given in this particular book of Balanis, but; however, we will tell you what
things can be done so that we can improve the efficiency to even 70 percent or 80
percent. So, now, we will continue from here. So, we had seen that for optimum horn
antenna dimension a1 is given by this expression, b1 is given by this expression which
was approximated to this particular expression. This expression is only good if the
aperture dimensions a1 and b1 are relatively small. Only in that case this approximation is
valid. And then by using these equations I had mention that by combining these
equations, one can actually get a equation something like this here. Where if you notice
this is actually, even though looks like a x or, it is φ .
So, φ here is everything on the left hand side is in the numerator, and φ this side
here is in the denominator. And these things have been obtained simply by combining the
previous equations. So, if you combine these equations you will get this expression over
here, and where we can actually see that ρe is given by this expression, and once we
solve this equation for x or φ then we can find out ρe and all the other parameters.
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So, we actually just shown you this particular example. This example is again given in
the Balanis book. So, here X-band antenna is to be designed and for that the first step is
to choose the proper X-band waveguide. Because that desired frequency at which
antenna is to be designed this 11 gigahertz and the gain is 22.6 dB.
So, corresponding to this frequency we need to find the waveguide. And this particular
waveguide has been chosen because this actually works in the frequency range from 8.2
to 12.4 and these are the waveguide dimensions that is this actually waveguide is WR90.
And as I had mention WR90, that 90 really implies 0.90 inches. So, a here is 0.9 inch
and then b is 0.4. So, from here we can actually do that design procedure starts like this.
So, first where the given value of the gain you find out the numeric value and then for
the given frequency f we find out what is λ, and then b is written in the terms of λ as
well as a is written in terms of λ.
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And then this is the initial guess, if we use this particular guess as we will see solution is
relatively close, but for given value of G0. So, the φ value is given by 11.5539.
Now, if you substitute this value of φ in this particular equation we will actually see
that left hand side is greater than in the right hand side. So; that means, this φ value
has to be decreased. So, if this is decreased this LHS will decrease and this will increase.
So, after a few iterations if you do a properly iterations will be less, but you can see that
the φ value is about 11.11. If you compare with this here it is within 4 percent error,
which is fairly good starting point. And if you use this starting point then we can arrive
to the solution quickly. And then once φ is known or we can say x is known then we
can find out all the other parameters like ρ e ρh and then a1 b1 and other dimensions and
that completes that design.
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Now, one thing is you can do all of these equations or there is an alternate way very fast
way and this particular curve is given in the Kraus book. It is actually always a very
good idea that you read different books you read different journals so that you can get the
things quickly. So, with this particular books says that this is the plot here which is gain
plot is over here and all the other dimensions are shown in this particular direction here.
So, for example, we want to design antenna let say at 19 dB gain, all you need to do it is
we draw the line vertically. So, corresponding to this you find out what is the value of L λ
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which is the distance from here to here, which we have also given the nomenclature this
is the known as the neck of the horn antenna this is the mouth of the horn antenna.
So, or you can say this is aperture and this is the joint. So, this distance is given by the
term over here and correspondingly a Hλ a Eλ or just you tell you these a Hλ a Eλ
basically are shown in this particular book, but whereas we have taken these as a1 and b1.
So, just you need to do that correction, and then you can see that we can get this
particular values and that actually completes a design.
And if you look at the result of these things here now, here is one of the radiation pattern
of pyramidal horn what it shows here that this part here shows the H-plane, but this will
be symmetrical in this side. Just to save the space only half the portion is shown here and
this is the E-plane pattern which is shown over here. Now let just see little more carefully
if you look at this E-plane pattern you can see that there is a fairly visible shoulder over
here which is at the level of around minus 10 dB.
Now, this is happening mainly because of the large phase error, you can also see that the
null directions are not very sharp whereas if you recall for error theory when we talked
about the space factor concept. So, for uniform field distribution this should have been
generally somewhere here around a minus 13 dB or so, if the phase error was negligible.
So, because of the high phase error this radiation pattern is not very good, it has a larger
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side lobe level. And you can see that for this entire particular range over here the value is
about minus 10 dB below. 10 dB below means 1 percent power.
So, you can see that all this directions power is radiating which is not really the desired
power. Now let just look at the H-plane pattern, where H-plane pattern where we had
seen that there is a cosine distribution along H-plane and for cosine distribution, if we
apply that array theory there should have been somewhere side lobe level would have
been close to minus 22 dB or so, but now because of the phase error, one can see that
whereas, no sharp null at all. All you we see here is these are the shoulders which are
coming up here again this problem is mainly because of the large phase error and
because of the large phase error only the efficiency of the horn antenna taken in these
design examples is only about 50 percent and some books do we take as 60 percent.
But however, if we take better antenna design then we can get efficiency of 70 to 80
percent also. So, I would like to mention that from here when we read all of these things
and I just want to mention when about 10 years back I have started my own company
Wilcom technologies private limited which is an IIT Bombay incubated company. And
we had design several antennas and we get these antennas to the telecom operators and
other people. And then they actually ask have you calibrated these things using standard
gain horn antenna and in fact, we had not done that, but we knew that our things are
correct, we even told them that we have done lots of other microstrip antennas we know
how to do the gain calculation, but no they wanted everything to be calibrated against
standard gain horn antenna. And then I went through the internet and saw, most of these
standard gain horn antennas we saw the prices are approximately 1 lakh or so.
And I did not want to spend so, much money and since I have been teaching horn
antenna since 19 you can say 1993 94. So, I felt why since I have been teaching why not
at design my own horn antenna. And then when I wanted to manufacture the horn
antenna I realize that lot of these things which we have discussed now, they talk about
the phase error they talk about aperture dimensions waveguide dimension, but they really
do not give too much detail about how to feed, what should be the feed dimension, what
should be the feed location and other thing. So, then we real decided that let us do
something more carefully and let see what all we can do. So, it was basically that a need
and that is why they always say you know when there is a need then only you start
looking into the thing.
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So, after that we decided let just do some simulation and experimental work. So, here is a
horn antenna. You can actually see that this is the where we are feeding the horn antenna.
You can actually see the side view from here, but can actually see this dimension b over
here and this is where we are feeding it. And if you look from the top we will actually
see only the coaxial feed over here. So, now, what is important that what should be the
height of this particular feed, what should be the diameter of this particular feed, and
what should be location of this particular feed, with respect to the shorting position.
So, I will just tell you quickly we will open the suspense right now and then we will
show you what all is happening. So, after doing all of these that is what we really
realized that this is really nothing, but a monopole antenna. And we know that how to
design monopole antenna and this monopole antenna sees a large ground to plane. So, we
know that for monopole antenna if you change the length frequency we will change if
you change the diameter, bandwidth will change. And then comes the next part that what
should be the location. So, since this is a shorting post here. So, if this is a short and if
this is λg/4 distance then this short will act as an open circuit. So, there will be no
loading, on this particular probe at this particular point; however, if this distance varies
there will be some loading on this particular probe and impedance will change.
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So, now after giving you the suspense now let see how the values change. So, we
actually designed antenna at around 900 megahertz. There was a reason because we were
designing antennas at CDMA band as well as GSM 900 which covers from 820
megahertz to 960 megahertz. And hence we chose this particular design as our first
design. So, I am just giving the basic parameters here, but we will show you the
parametric study of different parameter. So, just to tell you here, probe length is around
75 mm and one can actually see that at 900 megahertz wavelength is 33 centimeter half
of that will be slightly more than 80 mm. So, we took slightly less than that to account
for the diameter effect.
Then this is the radiance which is 3.5 mm and this is equal to 7 mm diameter. Then we
have taken the waveguide dimensions has a is 240. So, that we have a cut of frequency
lower than this value here and this is the b value. And these are the aperture dimensions’
capital A and capital B we have been writing as small a1 and b1 which is really here
capital A and B. And this is the horn length which is from you can say from the net to the
mouth which is about 250 mm. So, now, let see one by one what are the effects of the
different parameter.
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So, the first effect is the effect of the probe feed length. So, here what you can see the S 11
plot as well as the impedance plot for 3 values of the probe feed length and these are 70
mm, 75, 80 mm. So, one can actually see that this is the plot for 70 this is the plot for 75
80. So, as one can see that if we increase the probe length from 70 to 80 which is what I
have written here. Then what will happen if we increase the probe length then resonance
frequency decreases. So, one can see that the resonance frequency decrease from about
895 to 790 megahertz. This is actually straight forward in the sense that if we can even
see that approximately L1f1 is equal to L2f2. So, if you increase the length frequency will
reduce and as for as the Smith chart is plot is concerned, basically as we change the
dimension what we can see that the impedance plot is basically rotating.
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What we can see here is that the input impedance curve is rotating clockwise. Now let
see the effect of the probe radius. Now as we change the probe radius and you can see
here that different 3 values are there. So, radius is 2 mm 3.5 mm 5 mm. So, if you
increase the radius. So, what do we expect if we increase the radius in general you can
say that fringing fields will increase and that will reduce the frequencies slightly. So, one
can actually see that from here to here, to here frequency is reduced slightly; however,
the major effect of this is that if we increase the radius bandwidth increases.
One can actually see that if this is S 11 which is line here is minus 10 dB. So, you see that
this is the bandwidth corresponding to the radius which is 2 mm and if we increase the
radius you can see now that the bandwidth has increase and if we increase the radius
further one can actually see that the band width has increased further. And there is a
small effective change in the radius on the impedance plot.
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Then let just look at the effect of the probe feed location. So, what we have shown here
for 3 different values of the probe feed location. And this is 60, 67.5, 75. Now these are
approximately equal to λg/4 at the desired frequency. Now one can actually see that by
changing the probe feed location you can see the change in the frequency actually
speaking there is no change in the frequency; however, there is a significant change in
the impedance plot. What one can see that if this distance is small? If this distance is
small now one can just go back look at the figure. If this distance is small then this
impedance looking from here recalled transmission line, where transmission line we
know if this length is less than λ/4 then this input impedance becomes inductive. And if
the length is more than λ/4 input impedance here will be capacitive.
So, that impedance will do the loading effect, and one can actually now see. So, for
shorter distance one can actually see for shorter distance input impedance will be
inductive. So, one can actually see the shift along the inductive region. In fact, this
particular concept can be used to optimize the feed location, so that we can get a proper
impedance matching with the feed probe.
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And then now let see the effect of the horn length. So, here aperture dimensions are fixed
as before I mentioned I will just go back here. So, the aperture dimensions are 450 by
320. And what we are showing you is the effect of this particular horn length change.
So, one can actually see for the fix aperture as we increase the horn length, one can
actually see the frequency efficiency has been shown for 2 different values of the
frequency. These are basically you can say close to the 2 band edge frequencies. So, one
can actually see that at lower frequency efficiency somewhere here and this frequency
efficiency is poor. And as we increase the horn length you can see that the efficiency is
increasing. Now if you use that concept of the optimum pyramidal horn antenna which
will actually give us a very poor efficiency that will correspond to somewhere over here
corresponding to this horn length.
However, if we increase the horn length, and one can see that if the horn length is greater
than 150 mm which is over here if we choose this here you can see that this efficiency is
greater than 72 percent. So, anywhere around there and then if we actually take the horn
length greater than 250 mm which is somewhere over here then we can see that
efficiency is close to 80 percent.
Now, here we can actually see there is a no point in keep on increasing the horn length to
even 450 or so, you can see that efficiency is relative constant. So, after certain point
there is a no increase in the efficiency; that means, that the phase error after this is
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relatively very small, but this much phase error is acceptable for a decent frequency. So,
one needs to choose some of these parameter so that is why I do not over emphasis that
you do all those optimum calculations and do all of those things. So, basically what you
do that you try to use the horn antenna with the relatively lower phase error. In fact, I did
mention and that earlier that what we had seen that in the books they mentioned, for E-
plane you can actually take maximum phase error as 90 degrees, and in the H-plane you
can take phase error up to about 135 degrees. I do not recommend this at all. I suggest
that for E-plane maximum error you should plan to take is about 45-degree phase error.
So, choose the length and dimensions accordingly. Similarly, for H-plane you can take
phase error between 45 degrees to 90 degrees, but lower the phase error better will be the
efficiency.
So, yes we read lot of good things in the book, but the thing is when these things were
written those days we did not have these sophisticated software tool. So, many of these
things were done analytically or they had done some approximations to derive or they
had use these analytical expressions to come to the result; however, those days because
of the lack of the sophisticated computer simulations and software. So, now, we have all
these tools. So, utilize these tools. So, do not take everything what is there in the book as
the final thing. The books actually give us the guiding thing they give us the theory you
read those theory, understand the concept and then apply your logical and analytical
ability, to improve upon the performance of the antenna. And also please remember
whatever is your application you need to do optimization according to that particular
application.
Sometimes you may have a restriction on the length; sometimes you may have a
restriction on the aperture. So, you need to look at what are the restrictions where you
need to put and then also many times you have to see that you would like to get a very
good reflection coefficient. If you are feeding very high power or you need to see that I
need a better efficiency. So, it all depends upon what is the actual requirement. So, do not
think that that everything given in the book is the final word, you should read the books
understand and I always encourage the people to read the books because like when I
wrote a book on broad man microstrip antenna it took me about 2 years to write that
books. And also I put my 20 years of experience in writing their books.
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Similarly, like books written by Kraus or Balanis and other people. These people have
put decades of their experiences in a writing these books. So, we should read these things
and also I strongly recommend that you should read the journal papers also, because in
the journals you will always see the latest things happening around the world.
So, with that let us go to the next part that is let us now look at the effect of the horn
aperture on the directivity. So, here what we have done we have kept the length fix and
the aperture dimensions are increasing. You can see that 360 450 540, but what we have
done aspect ratio has been kept constant.
So, in this particular case you can see that when this is the dimension that is the
directivity curve here. If we increase the aperture dimension we can see that the
directivity is increasing, but when we increase the aperture further you can actually see
yes in the beginning it is increasing, but towards this point here if you see at this point
the directivity is actually same for these 2 aperture. And if the directivity is same for
these 2 aperture then why take a larger size.
So, what is the reason why directive as started because, the reason for this is that our
length was fixed and if the length is fixed. And if we keep on increasing the aperture area
then phase errors starts increasing. So, this is now for a simple practice for you people.
Take these dimension the length is given to you which is 250 mm calculate what is the
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phase error for different frequency values, and we will know that why directivity is
decreasing at this particular level here.
So, based on these dimension then we actually did the fabrication. So, here is the
fabricated antenna picture you can see that this is the coaxial feed over here. This is the
another view from taken from the front. You can see that that this is the probe length over
here these are the aperture dimension.
So, we have done the simulation using IE3D also we have done simulation using CST
microwave studios software also. And then we have done the measurement also. So, you
can see that the results are in reasonably good agreement, and the bandwidth for this
minus 10 dB is almost close to about 50 percent.
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And let just also look at the radiation pattern. You can see the radiation pattern E-plane
as well as H-plane, and here are the frequency values 700, 850. We can see frequency is
increasing, and this is the gain plot. You can see the gain is slightly increasing. So, that is
a reason because aperture is fixed frequency is increasing and we know that the
directivity is given by 4 π Area . So, if the frequency is increasing λ will reduce hence
λ2
gain will increase.
Now, here you can since see that the side lobe levels are fairly low, because the antenna
which we have designed that has the relatively very good efficiency greater than 70
percent. So, phase error is less hence our patterns are also relatively good. So, we will
conclude the todays lecture here. So, what we saw today, pyramidal horn antenna, we
looked in to the typical designed equations given and how we can do the design;
however, as I said those optimum design which are given in the books they assume
efficiency of 50 percent or maximum 60 percent. So, hence those are not really the
optimum dimension because they have given the design for larger phase error. Whereas,
then after that we gave you the parametric study of what should be the location of the
feed point.
What should be the diameter, what should be the length and we have given these
dimension for a given frequency and you can do the frequencies scaling. In fact, after
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using these 900 megahertz we also designed another horn antenna at 1800 hundred
megahertz. And the results were very similar as we had shown you for this particular
case here. So, we strongly recommend that do not take phase error more than 45 degrees
where E-plane and for H-plane some relaxation is there 45 degrees to up to absolute
maximum is 90 degrees. And then we also showed you what are the experimental results
which were in good agreement with the simulated result.
So, in the next lecture, we look in to horn antennas and many other things. So, with that
bye, we will see you next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Indian institute of technology, Bombay
Module – 10
Lecture – 48
Horn Antennas-IV
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on horn antenna. In the last few lectures we have
been talking about horn antenna. Until now we have covered E-plane sectoral horn
antenna H-plane sectoral horn antenna and pyramidal horn antenna. So, let us look into
other types of horn antenna and we will start with the conical horn antenna.
So, a conical horn antenna basically uses circular waveguide, which you can see over
here. And then that circular waveguide is flared. So, in this particular case we actually
have let say a small diameter d here, for the waveguide and then we have the diameter
here dm which is the diameter of the aperture. So, we have only one dimension in this
particular case in case of pyramidal we had dimensions a and b whereas, over here we
are just increasing the diameter.
So, we have one less dimension to optimize. And over here then this is the length of the
horn antenna. In this particular case phase center will be only one, where as in case of
pyramidal horn antenna the phase center for E-plane as well as for H-plane are slightly at
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a different position, but over here there is a one common all you would need to do if you
just extend this dimension extend this dimension it meets at this particular point here. So,
this is the length we can say and this is the slant length here and that is the diameter.
So, again for this particular case, this curve here shows the directivity curve. So, what we
can see here directivity is along this axis and this one here shows the diameter of the
horn aperture. And these are the various number of cases that is for L equal to 75 λ, 50 λ
down to 0.5 λ that is the length of the horn antenna.
Now, one can actually see that for a given value of L let us start with let say 0.5 λ, if we
take this here when as we increase the diameter, one can actually see that directivity is
almost increasing linearly. And then it actually becomes maximum here and after that it
is decreasing. The reason for the decreases is as before phase error has increased
significantly which results in reduction of the directivity. Now if we just take another
other case of let say length equal to 2 λ. Now if we you keep on increasing the diameter
one can see that the directivity is increasing, but over here now this corresponds to the
maximum value and then it is starts decreasing, but if you really see the corresponding
maximum value which is close to let say 15.78 or let say less than 16 dB.
But had this thing gone up linearly, then instead of having this over here this linear
would have gone like this. So, if you just look at the vertical line from here to
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corresponding to this that would have been close to 18 dB. So; that means, at this
particular point we have lost directivity of close to 2 dB which really results in to the
lower efficiency of the horn antenna. So, let just see corresponding to first what the text
book say, and then will tell you what actually should be done. So, corresponding to these
maximum values, one can actually say that the gain of the conical horn is optimum when
the diameter is given by this particular expression. If you recall this particular expression
is very similar to that of the pyramidal horn antenna or you can say sectoral horn antenna
which was in H-plane
So, we had seen that in H-plane the variation is cosine. So, for cosine variation, what we
notice, that the phase error can be little larger than for the uniform thing, but when we
look at a circular waveguide, for a circular waveguide in this plane it is uniform, but;
however, this value which is maximum that value keeps on reducing as we move towards
circle. So, really speaking amplitude here is much smaller compared to the amplitude
over here. And you can almost say it is relatively not uniform and we had also seen when
we discussed about the error theory that if you take a square aperture versus circular
aperture circle aperture always had a lower side lobe level.
So, in this case also we can actually see similar thing happens here. So, this one is
relatively closer to the expression, which corresponds to H-plane sectoral horn antenna
and if in the maximum phase deviation if you put it again it comes out to be 135 degrees.
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Now, my recommendation is that phase error is too high. So, I do not recommend this
high phase error. In fact, again in this case we can see that phase error is very high 135
degrees. And I strongly say that I do not recommend this high phase error value. I
generally recommend a phase error of about 45-degree absolute maximum can be 90
degrees.
Now this is the one way. You can look into it the alternate way is you can actually look at
the curve given in Kraus book, and here again very similar to the pyramidal horn antenna
gain is shown along this axis, and over here it can be the length of the horn or the
diameter of the horn. So, let say if our requirement is to design a conical horn antenna at
20 dB. So, at 20 dB draw a vertical line and correspondingly you can read the value of L λ
which you can see is 6 here. And corresponding to this you can read the value of D λ
which is between 4 and 5. And if you use this value you will get approximately gain of
20 dB.
However, I do not recommend this thing as it is, what I suggest is you can take little
larger length which will reduce the phase error and hence improve the efficiency of the
horn antenna.
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But; however, for this larger dimension what we can see here there is at the measured
pattern of conical horn. So, here this side E-plane pattern is shown. You can see that E-
plane pattern is over here. One can see big shoulder over here. And this is the H-plane
pattern. Now this pattern is slightly different compared to the previous one which we
have shown for pyramidal horn antenna. In a sense that this shows the normalized value,
here you can see the normalized value is 1 and going to 0 here.
So, for example, if you look at the E-plane pattern, and again only half side of the E-
plane pattern is shown same thing will be repeated on this side. So, just to save the space
it is not shown over here. Similarly, H-plane pattern is given in this side it will be on this
side also, but not shown over here. So, now, let just see corresponding to this particular
case here for E-plane pattern one can actually see that there is a huge shoulder over here,
corresponding to this value which is about 0.37 as you can read from here that is about
minus 8.6 dB. And this higher side lobe level is mainly because of the larger phase error.
So, if you reduce the phase error one can improve the performance and that is why I do
not recommend phase error of 135 degrees. We should take phase error even less than 45
degrees.
In fact, I am going to show you some example where people have reported in the
literature, and there they have taken much smaller phase error even of the order of 10 to
15-degree phase error. So, that is why I want to tell you. So, what we read theoretically,
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but practically people are not using these particular things, we will show you that
practical example little later on.
But now I am going to show you a conical horn antenna with the difference. And what is
the difference here? So, what we have done instead of using a coaxial feed like this over
here which I had given you the design detail for pyramidal horn antenna. What we have
done for pyramidal horn antenna? We had put the coaxial feed like this here, now, when
we were doing something like this here. So, what happens if you take a coaxial feed like
this here, normal that will be the monopole antenna. So, monopole antenna will radiate
like this here E-plane will be this, like this.
And then this one here reflects back and comes over here. So, we came out with them
idea that instead of using this particular concept why not we use a microstrip antenna.
So, if you look at this outer dimension that is a circular one, which you can see here, also
that is a 3D view. So, that is this outer one here. And then you can see this particular
thing here this is nothing, but suspended circular microstrip antenna. In fact, what we
have done, we have provided a support to this particular suspended this thing using a
metallic post at a suspended in the air and we have used a roughly about one mm thick
metallic plate which is suspended and then you can see that this is being flared. Now I
will just tell you what it does. So, basically we know that a microstrip antenna is
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relatively easy to design and whatever is the radiation pattern of the microstrip antenna
that will get enhanced.
So, basically horn antenna actually enhances the gain of the microstrip antenna. And
even though I am just showing you write now for a single feed, but will tell you what all
the other things we can obtain and different types of polarization can also be obtained by
modifying the circular microstrip antenna. So, first let see the results then will come back
to this slide and see what all we can get.
So, now just to show you the radiation pattern, which for comparison the gain of the
suspended circular microstrip antenna was approximately 9 dB because it was suspended
in air hence the gain is relatively large efficiency is very good. And then we use this
circular microstrip antenna integrated with the conical horn, we got a gain of about 12.5
dB. So, you can see that the gain has been enhanced.
And this is the radiation pattern which you can see over here. So, you can actually see
Eθ, E∅ plot here, and you can see that the back radiation is fairly small it is less than
about 20 dB or so. And these are the parameters which has shown over here one can
actually see we can increase the gain.
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So, based on these then we did the fabrication and this is the measured result of
integrated conical horn antenna which you can actually see here this is the smith chart
plot one can get a fairly good impedance matching and this one is the S11 plot. So,
measure band width for S11 less then minus 10 dB, is from 27 to 22, 10 megahertz. In
fact, this one meets the band width requirement for 3G transmission. A 3G transmission
takes place from 2110 to 2170.
So, you can see that this one covers the entire 3G transmit band so one can actually
transmit very high power, also because we have use a metallic plate. In fact, one can
even pump in even a kilo watt of power through this particular antenna. So, microstrip
antennas if property designed can give raise to a very high gain. Now I just want to
mention here we actually have done lot of other simulation we have just shown you one
particular result, but just to mention now for example, for circular microstrip antenna we
just use one feed, but now if you use 2 orthogonal feed, we can get both vertical as well
as horizontal polarization whereas, if you use a conventional horn antenna with the
monopole antenna it is very difficult to get both the orthogonal polarization.
So, one can get a single polarization, but not both the polarization. Now again here what
we also did, so that same circular micro strep antenna what we also did instead of
feeding with one angle 0 one angle 0 which will give us 2 orthogonal polarizations we
also use the feed as one angle 0, one angle 90 degree. So, that gives us circular
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polarization. So, we use that along with this conical horn antenna. So, again we saw that
we could get circularly polarized antenna, but with the higher gain. So, depending upon
the aperture which you take for horn antenna you can realize a fairly large gain also.
Then the whole concept we also extended to the pyramidal horn antenna.
So, for pyramidal horn antenna, instead of taking a circular patch what we did we took
square patch or rectangular patch we have tried with both. So, again with let say square
patch or rectangular patch if we use single feed you will get linearly polarized horn
antenna, but with a higher gain. And again there we can use 2 orthogonal feed and if it is
square then you will get 2 orthogonal polarizations with higher gain and the isolation
will depend upon whatever is the isolation of the circular patch. So, that particular
application will be very useful for mimo antenna, which is multiple input multiple
output, but it will give 2 orthogonal polarizations.
So, there also if we use rectangular width microstrip antenna of different dimension let’s
say L and W then these L and W can be resonant at 2 different frequencies if we again
use 2 orthogonal feed again the same horn antenna can be used to enhance the gain of the
antenna. So, this particular thing I just want to mention. So, from a point I did not know
how to feed the horn antenna, and then we have had to do lot of study we studied the
parametric study looked into the things we did the fabrication and later on we actually
went on to invent a new type of antenna itself. So, we actually reported this particular
antenna for first time and we have even published paper where we have used microstrip
antenna integrated with horn antenna.
In fact, I feel that the next research will be where you combine concepts of different
antenna and put into different configuration. So, for example, we combine microstrip
antenna with let say horn antenna. Similarly, you can do lot of other combinations to
design you can say different type of antennas or you can design absolutely new type of
antennas or you can even design exotic antennas and so on. And that is reason I have
been saying many a times I have said that that antenna design is not just science it is also
about art, and why I say art how you fit the whole thing in a given space available to you
or for a different application where you need to put it.
So, now we notice that this horn antenna has a real problem and that real problem is that
the E-plane and H-plane radiation pattern are not symmetrical. We notice that that E-
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plane and H-plane patterns are not very good. One can see over here that we have a
basically major problem in the E-plane, because of the high shoulder. And because of the
higher shoulder what happens lot of power gets radiated in this particular direction
whereas, H-plane is relatively better. So, then lot of research has been done, and lot of
papers are there where people try to reduce this shoulder. So, let just look at a few
techniques today and then will also continue in the next lecture.
So, will start with the one of the technique where what it is known as a dual mode
pyramidal horn antenna.
Now, what this really is now recall pyramidal horn antenna, we had seen that we operate
that horn antenna for TE10 mode. And for TE10 mode we are seen the field distribution
which is maximum at the center and has we go to the H field becomes 0 over here. So,
field is 0 it goes to maxima it goes to 0 here, and since the variation along this plane is
sinusoidal, that gives us a lower side lobe performance, but since the field is uniform
along this access. So, that gives us a poor side lobe performance and also this problem
gets more because of the larger phase error also. So, then the combination has been done
instead of exciting this 10 mode which is coming over here step has been used over here.
So, that this particular dimension now supports the 12 mode. What is 12 mode; that
means, field variation 1 means 1 half wave length variation right; that means, half wave
length variation is there, but what 2 means; that means, 2 times λ/2 variations along this.
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So, one can actually see that if you will just put over here you can see the direction here.
So, if I just say that this is minus than 0 plus 0 minus. So, that is the one wave length
variation or you can say 2 times λ/2 variations, if you now excite this mode as well as
this mode, and that mode is getting excited because of the change in the dimensions over
here which supports this particular mode.
So, now when the wave which is launched over here, which is basically predominantly
this and from here this mode gets excited which gets super imposed on this. So, one can
see if we add these 2 thing, what one can see here this field is going in this direction and
this one here is let say if I say all plus, plus maximum and here it is minus maxima. So,
plus maxima minus maxima will give rise to close to 0. As we move along here this
minus is becoming 0 and then it becomes let say plus now this is same as this here. So,
field will get added up here.
And it will gradually add up, maximum field will be here it will reduce to this value here.
Similarly, the same thing is happening here field is close to negative value here negative
maxima this is let say positive. So, one can actually see that this is the TE 10 mode which
is uniform along this here and this higher order mode which is 1 2 modes the 2 means 2
half wave length variation along this direction. So, one can see that this is in the opposite
direction of this. So, field gets cancel. So, we get a field 0 here and then fields getting
added up. So, we get maximum field which goes to 0 maximum field which goes to 0,
and again similarly we already know that in this direction field variation was anyway
sinusoidal. So, if you look into this particular case here. So, this multi-mode pyramidal
horn antenna basically will have a symmetrical radiation pattern.
And this kind of a symmetrical radiation pattern is required; just imagine that we have a
parabolic dish antenna. And this horn antenna is being used as a feed. Now if the field is
not symmetrical in both the plane then what will happen it will give raise to a asymmetry
in the radiation pattern also. And these larger side lobe levels are very undesired when
we are trying to feed parabolic dish antenna. So, that is why we need antenna which
actually has a symmetrical pattern, because it is going to feed a symmetrical
configuration with low side lobe level so. In fact, there are 2 main applications which I
mentioned in the earlier lecture that horn antennas are known as standard gain horn
antenna. So, we do not want also there that the radiation pattern should be relatively
changing. Second thing is that it is used as a feed for reflector antenna. And most of the
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time we would like to have a symmetrical configuration and hence these corrections are
required. So, that we get a symmetrical radiation pattern.
So, we just looked in to the pyramidal horn antenna. Similar concept has been also
applied to the conical horn antenna also. So, what you can see here that it is starts with a
circular waveguide and then other diameter circular waveguide is added to that and then
flaring is done. So, basically this circular waveguide supports let say the fundamental
mode then this particulars circular waveguides supports another mode here and if you
look at again the field distribution say it is uniform over here and it is going to 0 over
here, but even vertically it is uniform and then it is relatively becoming small, but now
on this here if we superimpose which is you can see here this is in the opposite direction
and then we have a 0 in the same direction going there.
So, if you take the superposition of the two. So, this one is in the opposite direction. So,
we get field equal to 0 here. So, if you look at this particular thing this dual mode horn
antenna has a symmetrical field distribution. And if the distribution is symmetrical
radiation pattern will be also symmetrical. Now instead of using a step we can actually
use also the tapered configuration also. In fact, I just want to show you that and then I
will come back over here.
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So, instead of that, instead of using a step over here one actually use a step-less or
tapered distribution here. So, what actually happens? If you take a step then let say the
step will be somewhere here, now normally what is done let say if the step is here. So,
just imagine this dimension like this here.
What is done you take the center point of that and draw the line like this here. So,
basically if you see this particular area which is this part has been removed and this art
has been added. Now performance wise this is very similar to the previous case, then you
might wonder then why should I use the second case over this one here in fact, when we
were working on very high power application. So, we found out that when you are
looking for a very high power application, because of this step discontinuity and this
particular point heating loss was much more. Because what happen? Think about let say
the water flow. Suppose if you are injecting the water, let say water is coming and then
there is a change in the diameter, what will happen water flow will be like this here,
towards the end the water flow will be relatively less.
Or you think about that you are sending the water from the larger diameter to the smaller
diameter. So, what will happen when you have a larger diameter at this portion water will
try to reflect back, but instead of that if you use the taper thing then what will happen
water will relatively smoothly go over here. So, you can apply the concept of the water
flow in the microwave also. So, basically now you can say current flow or power flow
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there will be less turbulence. In fact, we did the simulation for the stepped one as well as
the tapered one. And we found out at the power losses were relatively much lesser for the
smooth transition one. So, for the application where you are actually going to transmit
very high power, and just to give you some example, there are some radars they transmit
megawatt of power also.
Even the some of them are pulse, but even let say pulse power of one megawatt with the
duty cycle of say 10 percent, still means 100 kilo watt average power. So, it really means
lot of power may get lost at the interface and that may cause lot of heating at that
particular joint then you have to provide cooling of that particular section. So, it is better
sometimes to use this taper section.
Or there is another thing you can use and this is known as a corrugated horn antenna. In
fact, this is one of the practical example. I will show you and you can just look at the
figure I will show you this thing in more detail, but I want you to just have those figure
here. Say in this figure if you see we have lot of corrugations have been added over here.
In fact, I also call these things as a crocodile. If you look at the crocodile mouth looks
like this here and these are also known as the teeth. So, that is like a crocodile tooth here,
but what I want you to look into this here see what is the diameter over here that is about
3.5 λ and what is the total length 6.4 λ 4.5 λ. And then there is a additional 1 here even if
you just add over here that is about 10.9 λ. So, if you just use this dimension as this
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dimension. Try to calculate what is the phase error, and you will see that the phase error
of this is way before or much less than 135-degree phase error. So, you can see that
people when they design practical things they do not use that kind of a high phase error.
So, I will continue from here in the next lecture. And we will look into more things about
corrugated horn antenna how the teeth dimension should be chosen what should be the
depth of the teeth what should be the diameter, what should be the thickness of the teeth,
what should be the gap between the teeth and so on. And will also look at how to design
very broad band horn antenna.
So, to summarize, today we talked about conical horn antenna, and then we also talked
about microstrip antenna feed to the conical horn antenna, and I did mention to you
about that instead of conical horn one can also use pyramidal horn, antenna along with
rectangular microstrip antenna to get orthogonal polarization or circular polarization. So,
all the advantages of microstrip antennas can be obtained by using this horn antenna.
And the advantages of horn antenna would be it will increase the gain of the antenna
without having any additional power divider network. So, with that we conclude todays
lecture and will see you next time about more things on horn antenna. Till then, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 10
Lecture – 49
Horn Antennas-V
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on horn antenna, which will conclude the topic of horn
antenna. In fact, in the last several lectures we have been talking about horn antenna we
started with the rectangular waveguide, than we talked about E Plane sectoral horn antenna H
Plane sectoral horn antenna and then we went to pyramidal horn antenna after that we talked
about conical horn antenna and we saw that the phase error given in the books is not very
good in general that is very high one should take lesser phase error to obtain better efficiency.
Then we also looked in to use of microstrip antenna as a feed inside the horn antenna. So,
then in that case we can obtain all the advantages of microstrip antenna, and the advantages
of horn antenna which is of higher gain. So, we can get multiple polarization or we can get
multi band with higher gain without using any feed network. And then we had seen that E
Plane and H Plane sectoral horn antenna in combination with pyramidal horn antenna, we
notice that the E Plane pattern is actually not very good, it has a higher side lobe level
compare to the H plane.
So, then there has been a lot of research which actually focus upon how to make E Plane
pattern relatively more symmetrical with H Plane, and also get read of that high side lobe
level performance of E Plane. So, we started with that we looked in to a few possible
configurations, which one nothing but using a dual mode horn antenna. By using dual mode
horn antenna what we did was that you excite 2 different modes within the horn antenna, so
that it creates symmetrical radiation pattern in both E Plane as well as H Plane.
And then we started looking in to the corrugated horn antenna. So, today we will continue
from the point where we left. So, we will start with the corrugated horn antenna and we will
also look in to the different design, which actually gives very broad band characteristics.
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So, with that let us start with Corrugated horn antenna I had shown you this picture in the last
lecture now I will elaborate upon that. So, what we see over here? Here is the point where
things are getting launched here; so that you can see here this is the guide waveguide and
then you see here all these teeth are here number of teeth are there.
And you can see that the total length is very large compare to the diameter, and which really
gives rise to very less phase error, you can actually calculate that what will be tan α ?
tan α will be half of this which is 1.75λ divided by more than 11λ, and that gives us a
very small phase error. Now let see how this corrugation has been done, it has been done very
beautifully I want to just mention now one by one. So, if you see here it starts with that this
particular dimension is equal to λ/2; now what are this really signified.
So, see over here it is a short circuit and if this dimension is λ/2, if we apply transmission
line theory looking from this point. So, transmission line theory says if the characteristic
impedance of the line may be anything, but if the length is λ/2 then the load impedance
becomes the input impedance. So, load is short circuit it will become also short circuit. So, if
this particular depth is λ/2, this whole thing will act as a short circuit even though it may not
be short circuit.
But that is really not at all a useful thing that is not corrugated horn antennas are supposed to
do. What corrugated horn antenna supposed to do? That they should make the field
symmetrical in the E Plane; so now, if you see what has been done. So, this λ/2 transition
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slowly becomes λ/4, now this may not give you true picture, but this dimension shows over
here. So, this dimension is λ/4, what does λ/4 really does? So, anything which is short circuit
here and if this dimension is λ/4 a short will act as an open circuit.
So, that mean something which was seen short over here, now it sees a open circuit; and if it
is open circuit over here, you can say that in case of open circuit current will be equal to 0.
So, now, you recall E Plane and H Plane even though this is a conical horn, but just recall E
Plane and H Plane what was the situation? For E Plane we had a uniform field here, and H
Plane field goes from maxima to 0, maxima to 0.
So, now over here we can see that since there is short circuit, which behaves as an open
circuit that boundary condition of short circuit is not satisfied. So, now, the question is then
why use from λ/2 continuously tapering it down to λ/4, and after this λ/4 it continues a λ/4.
So, there is a basic reason is that when we take this λ/2, it almost acts like a short circuit. So,
the wave sees continuity, than slowly slowly these dimensions are changed, instead of abrupt
changing. See in fact, there are some applications where we have seen, that they do not even
use this particular section at all.
They state by go continuous from here to here, and then they use λ/4. So, in that case what
happens? λ/4 means this short circuit will act as an open circuit. So, what happens if the
wave is launched if it is short circuit sees an open circuit? So, what will happen? There will
be a discontinuity. So, then power will try to get reflected back from here, and that causes
problem with the reflection coefficient. So, hence this is one of the very beautiful thing,
which people have done there from λ/2 gradually changing it to λ/4; so that the current does
not see abrupt this continuity and hence reflection does not take plates.
See is a very slow discontinuity happening and then here this particular entire length provides
kind of an open impedance at this particular point, which actually reduces the current, which
has done gradually from here. So, then this particular thing will actually make E Plane
relatively symmetrical with that of H Plane, or you can say E field here will go to 0, E field
will go to 0 and it will be maximum in this particular region. So, this is a nice transition
which they have done, you can actually see here some of the points which are written there
that λ/2 corrugation keeps wave bounded and then it is gradually reduced to λ/4.
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So, this is the transition state, this is the guide state when the wave is guided in to this
particular conical horn antenna, and then basically it is transmitted through here. Then comes
the next point and that is how many teeth should be there in the wavelength, what should be
gap over here?
So, for that let see the next slide. So, here we have just shown one of the segment here; one
can actually see that these are the teeth as I mentioned we call it crocodile teeth also.
So, the thickness of teeth is given by t, and the width of the gap is w. And we have written
here some general guidelines. So, what we should do here? I will start with the depth of the
gap which is over here. So, depth of the gap which is given here that should vary between
0.25λ to 0.5 λ. So, now, if it is 0.5 λ, that means if this thing is 0.5 λ. So, short here will act
as a short so; that means, there will be low attenuation at all and then if 0.25 λ is there then
this short here will act as a open over here; that means, a larger attenuation.
So, as we saw in the previous example what they had done was they started with 0.5 λ and
then went on to make it 0.25 λ, but; however, many applications they do not use that large
transition. So, sometimes they straightaway use 0.25 λ, it is acceptable it will provide a large
you can say decay in the current along this access there may be a little problem with the
VSWR, but other than that you can use a shorter this thing here, then comes the next part how
many teeth should be there?
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So, our recommendation is that there should be 4 to 10 teeth per wave length, you need not
take more than that and definitely do not take less than that. So, depending upon the
application you can choose between 4 to 10 per wave length. Now you might wonder well
that is a lot of variation. So, I will give you certain recommendation also. So, depending upon
the frequency of operation you can choose these values. Suppose let say we are operating at
say 30 gigahertz. So, at 30 gigahertz, λ will be 1 centimeter; and if you take number of teeth
has 10 then that means, there will be 10 teeth or every teeth will be perhaps to be port at a
distance of one millimeter, which may become very difficult to realize it experimentally.
So, for very high frequency well λ is small, you can take smaller number of n. Now similarly
if you think about at design at 3 gigahertz, at 3 gigahertz now wave length is 10 centimeter.
So, if you take n equal to 10 that at every one centimeter you need to put one teeth, then
comes the next part what should be the width of the gap and teeth thickness. So, width of the
gap in general can vary between 0.05 λ to 0.2 λ, depending upon how many number of teeth
one has taken. So, corresponding to that one can choose again between this value.
And in general teeth thickness should be less than the width of the gap. So, that can be you
can say less then this and this is also less than that. So, correspondingly w and t and you can
chose it and again first you need to design the frequency of operation, then you decide
number of teeth and after that you chose the value of the width and the teeth.
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So, we will just show you one of the practically available corrugated conical horn antenna,
this is commercially available. There is only one difference here I just want to high light that
we can see that the corrugation has been obtained in the entire circumference.
So, it is not like as I mentioned corrugations are really important more in the E Plane over
here, it is not really important to do it in H Plane. But here the corrugations have been done in
the entire circumference this is more for the manufacturer ability, so that easy manufacturing
can be done. Again if you just visually see the phase error of this is not very large, in general
which should choose smaller phase error for better and more efficient horn antenna.
Let us look at another application. So, this particular thing here is a multi mode horn antenna
again, what this you is actually it is not using a conventional waveguide, it uses a square
waveguide; and if you use a square waveguide then both TE 10 as well as TE01 mode can get
excited with equal amplitude and phase in square.
So, what you need to do? So, if we just use of normal probe, then we have to put a probe over
here and we have to also put a probe over here; and then that particular thing has now been
changed. So, 45 degree angle bent has been done, so what happens? So, even the 1 0 0 1
mode are exited, and now here the sum is there. So, you can actually see the summation of 1
0 and 0 1. So, for example, 1 0 E field will be uniform like this, for 0 1 E field will be
uniform like this, H Plane field variation will be sinusoidal for this H Plane variation will be
sinusoidal in this.
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So, the net result will be that field will be symmetrical like there, but; however, this
configuration is not use very commonly mainly because of the manufacturing problem. In
fact, over here the proposed configuration which I had mentioned about using a microstrip
antenna is fantastic. So, you can use a square microstrip antenna with 2 orthogonal feed,
which will excite 1 0 mode as well as 0 1 mode and then we can use a waveguide.
So, microstrip antenna will be definitely a very good solution in this particular case, which
will be actually speaking utilizing the advantages of microstrip antenna as well as horn
antenna now we will want to show you another configuration.
Now, this particular thing is actually speaking does not really you can call it a conical horn
antenna, it is more like a circular waveguide with flange; but the purpose is somewhat similar
to the conical horn antenna. Now what this particular thing is, what you actually see here; that
this is a circular waveguide; and along this waveguide these are the circular flanges all
around.
So, the circular waveguide with flange and there are these 4 chokes are their actually. So, that
what happen suppose if the wave is coming through here, then the scattering will not be
much; also most of the time this particular waveguide actually has been use as a feed for the
parabolic dish antenna. In fact, we actually have seen this particular thing. So, several years
back we used to have large parabolic dishes which of the 8 feet diameter or even 16 feet, and
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this 8 feet diameter dish antenna they use to receive the signal at 4 gigahertz. Nowadays of
course, we have a different type of dish antenna they are receiving the signal at 11 gigahertz.
But 4 gigahertz was very common till about a decade back. So, there this is a let’s say
parabolic dish antenna and this horn antenna along with flanges was use; and in fact this
particular antenna was supposed to work from 3.7 to 4.2 gigahertz. So, that is a fairly large
bandwidth of 0.5 gigahertz, and just to tell you little bit about. So, that particular bandwidth
was enough to accommodate 70 TV channels. So, each TV channel in India occupies
bandwidth of approximately 7 megahertz. So, 7 into 70 that is about 490 megahertz which is
approximately 0.5 gigahertz.
And. In fact, actually speaking we had talk to the space application center people and they
mention that they had some requirement, and they wanted to use this as extended C band. I
just you tell you C band is from 4 to 8 gigahertz, but yet 3.7 to 4.2 gigahertz is known as C
band. So, again practically something’s are little bit different. So in fact when we were
looking in to this particular thing, so we came out with an idea, why use this waveguide
circular waveguide with flanges which has a very large area? And remember if this is a
reflector, and if my this size is large.
So, let say the wave which are coming from the satellite, they will reflect from the reflector
and it will come here, but at the focal point if this aperture is large, there will be lot of
aperture blockage. So, it is always a good idea to have the feed as very very small. So, we
came out with an idea why not we use microstrip antenna. So, what we did? We actually
removed this waveguide; we had this think put on the terrace of our department electrical
engineering department at IIT Bombay.
So, we remove that feed brought it in lab measured the VSWR, measured the radiation
pattern of that and than once we knew what are the parameters we are looking at and then we
design microstrip antenna. And in fact our microstrip antenna design since we have already
covered that in much more detail, I just tell you quickly what we did. So, we just use the one
circular microstrip antenna, and then we use another circular microstrip antenna, which was
suspended in the air and these 2 antennas where electro magnetically coupled, and that gave
us the bandwidth of 3.7 to 4.2 gigahertz; and then to get the beam symmetry and the radiation
pattern symmetry what we did, on this circular substrate which we had cut we actually put a
copper file a rounded.
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So, that created a kind of a cavity, and this was use to get symmetric radiation pattern. Then
later on to realize that extended C band what we did? The bottom circular patch was also
suspended in the air, and then the top circular patch was also suspended in the air and we got
the band width right from 3.7 gigahertz tell 4.5 gigahertz and just to mention now the size the
size of this antenna was just about 6 centimeter diameter, compare to 18 centimeter diameter
and also the total height of this antenna was just about 1.2 centimeter whereas, the other
dimension was close to 12 centimeter.
So in fact, after we made this fabricated tested, then instead of putting that horn antenna well
I will still call it a horn antenna even though it is a circular waveguide with flanges. So, we
replace that put our microstrip antenna, and we actually watch TV on that day, and all our
students gather together and we watch the TV because this one was using our own microstrip
antenna along with the available dish antenna. So, it was really nice enjoyable experience and
the size was reduce and the picture clarity who was fantastic.
So, now we will look in to the next configuration which is broad band horn antenna. So,
basically what is the principle behind getting a broad bandwidth? So, let see over here what
you actually see over here is a this is the normal horn, which you can see here this is a
pyramidal horn and in this particular dimension here you can actually see that this whole
thing is a metal, and that is exponentially tapered. And now let see at this particular point you
can see that there is a feed over here, feed is connected to this particular point, and over here
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this is a short circuit shorter wall and the coaxial feed is connected over here; and this
particular thing gives us a fairly broadband horn antenna and just to show you the picture of
commercially available horn antenna.
So, can actually see here this is the coaxial feed that feed is connected over here that goes all
the way connects to this part, and you can see that this is the actually E Plane, and the
exponential taper is provided along this thing here.
H plane nothing to be done as such. Now over here when the feed you can see here this feed
here sees a very narrow dimension, and as you move along the feed sees a relatively larger
dimension. So, basically this exponential tapper provides a very good impedance matching.
So, at higher frequency you can say matching is provided here, lower frequency matching
gets provided over here and this exponential tapper in general they are known for broadband
impedance matching. Now these kind of an antennas have been designed for very broad band
operation, and these are commercially available for bandwidth from 1 to 12 gigahertz or even
1 to 18 gigahertz or 2 to 18 gigahertz, we have also seen very large horn antennas which are
match from 300 megahertz to 3 gigahertz also.
So, these are really ultra broad band horn antenna, and these are use as standard gain horn
antenna in the labs in general. So, using this concept you can either design your own broad
band horn antenna or you can buy it choices yours, but this is the real standard antenna which
is used in most of the practical applications. Now the principle just to tell you little bit in
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more detail about this also. So, majority of the time impedance matching is fairly good;
however, the gain of the antenna is not uniform over the let say bandwidth of 1 to 12
gigahertz, you can actually even understand that let say my aperture is fixed.
4 πA
So; that means, if you look at it what is the directivity? Directivity is given by e; now
λ2
A is area, in this case A will be A1 x B1; and now λ is varying, and λ is varying from what 1
to 12 gigahertz corresponding to 1 to 12 gigahertz what will be λ, 30 centimeter to 2.5
centimeter, and if you take a square of that gain varies very drastically over the bandwidth.
So, at 1 gigahertz gain is relatively small, and at 12 gigahertz or 10 gigahertz gain is
relatively large, but again it is not very large as we have seen the length is fixed. So, if the
length is fixed and if this dimension is also fixed, but we are changing the frequency.
So, frequency means λ is getting change. So, phase error will be dependent on that. So, for
very high frequency because of the accumulated phase error, gain does not increase too
much. So, general 1 to 10 gigahertz bandwidth may have a gain which is increasing like this,
and then it becomes relatively flatter or there is a small variation over here. So, this is the one
thing which we normally use it.
Then there is a another concept of designing the horn antenna; over here if you see it is
actually a combination of the previous one, and a new concept has been added over here. So,
let see what it is. So, here actually speaking if you see this is the; you can see relatively a
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flatter configuration over here, as you can see this is the thing and this dimension here is
exponentially taper, and which if you see from the this side here you can see that this is the
portion over here.
I will just go back to this particular thing here, if you look the side view from here what you
will see? This rectangle and then you will see this particular portion as the metallic portion.
So, the same thing over here you can actually see this has that metallic portion, and that is the
rectangular and this is a made of a solid, so that is the thickness of the metal. Now again there
are a few things are also there question is now which metal to be used. So in fact, there are 2
popular metal which are use to make these horn antenna, one of them is made of aluminum
mainly because aluminum has a light weight, and another one generally metal use is a brass
metal is use, the problem with the brass is that it actually has a higher weight.
So, many a time’s people do use aluminum to make the horn antenna. So, over here now let
just look at this figure. So, one can actually see that this is being tapered over here, you might
wonder then what is the difference in this and the previous case. Even the feed is very very
symmetrical, you can see that this is the short here coaxial feed is put over here, the
difference you can see that here the tapering is not done, this is relatively compact also; and
what is the compactness here? You can actually see this dimension is only 29 mm, that is
really really small and compact, but this dimension is exponentially tapering.
However there is a additional concept over here, and that concept is of aperture matched what
is this aperture match concept. So, even the way is launched here if this is terminated write
here, then there is a lot of diffraction takes place and also it sees an open discontinuity, so part
of the wave will get reflected back; however, instead of having a sudden open this whole
thing is given a curve shape. So, what happens that the current which is being coming over
here, that starts rolling around this, there is a no edge diffraction taking place, and then this
current here rolls around and this one here actually is a microwave absorbing material.
So, whatever the thing roles around here that gets absorbed here. So, what is the reflected
value? Close to 0, so nothing gets reflected back. So, one of the beauty of this particular
configuration as that the reflection coefficient is very very good. In fact, most of the time for
this kind of a configuration one can actually easily get VSWR less than 1.1 over a very large
bandwidth. The another thing is because of this matching, there is a no you can say edge
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diffraction, and because of that also the gain is relatively better all these edge diffractions do
not cause too much of the phase error problem.
So, let see the results here. So, here the results are shown here, you can see there are 3
different curves and gain is shown over here versus frequency. You can see frequency varies
from 2 to 11 gigahertz. So, let see the result without this aperture first. So, here is the result
which is without the aperture, you can see that the gain is relatively small then this is the
configuration where aperture has been added, so by adding this aperture you can see that the
gain has improved. At certain point you can see that corresponding to let say this here value
which is 4 gigahertz, if this is about say 4 point something.
Correspondingly this point is close to 7; you can almost see 2 and half to 3 dB improvement
in the gain and then of course, at this point improvement is not much. Now this has been
compared with the horn antenna of dimension, instead of 29 mm very large which is about
140 mm. Now 140 mm if you see for that gain starts at a higher value, but after that the gain
remains kind of saturated even it is falling down. The reason for this to fall down here
because of the large phase error. So, if you just look at this performance here, performance of
140 and 29 they are almost same where as the size if you see approximately 30 to140 that is
more than 4 times the size, and gain is not even more. So, you can see that there what large
phase error can create problems to the gain. So, by using this compact antenna, one can
actually realize fairly decent gain plot and very good impedance matching.
So, with that I would like to conclude the chapter on horn antenna of course, there are lot of
other things are available on horn antenna, there are books written on horn antenna, but for a
course like this I think our idea is to give you the idea about various types of horn antenna,
and the most important thing I want you to remember that in general try to keep the phase
error small, so that you can improve the efficiency, and the same time do not go over board
also. As we saw that if you keep on increasing the aperture length significantly, the efficiency
remained constant error 80 percent. So, follow the guidelines which we have presented in our
parametric study and other thing, and hopefully you design your next horn antenna without
much difficulty.
So, with that thank you very much and in the next lecture we will talk about new topic, new
types of antennas till than enjoy yourself and have a good time bye.
706
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 11
Lecture – 50
Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Antennas-I
Welcome to today’s lecture on Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic antennas. In fact, today we are
going to talk about Yagi and Uda antenna first, and then we will talk about log periodic
antenna. Now you might wonder why I am talking Yagi-Uda and log periodic antennas
together, as we will see later on that there are a lot of similarities between Yagi-Uda and log
periodic antenna and of course, there are lot of dissimilarities also. So, we will see, what are
the differences between the 2 different types of antenna?
But just one of the major difference between Yagi-Uda and log periodic antenna from the
performance point of view is, that in Yagi-Uda antenna we try to optimize for higher gain
whereas, for log periodic antenna we try to optimize for larger band width. So, we will just
see now one by one, let us start the topic Yagi-Uda and log periodic antennas. So, we will
first start with the Yagi-Uda antenna.
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So, we will start first with the linear dipole with a reflector. So, what we really have here is a,
you can see here there is a one dipole antenna and a reflector has been put behind the dipole
antenna.
Now, we know that for a dipole antenna the radiation pattern is Omni directional; that means,
it is Omni in this particular field; that means, H field is around this which is uniform, and E
field is 0 in this direction and E field is maximum. So, E field actually is a like your figure of
it goes here maximum comes to 0, then becomes maximum here and then goes back to 0.
Now when put a reflector and there is a condition that dimension of the reflector must be
larger than the dipole antenna. So, if this dimension is larger then what happens? This
reflector will reflect a signal which is going towards this here.
So, the wave which is going to radiate from here sees a reflector deflects back, and radiates
more in this particular direction. So, generally speaking when you put a reflector behind a
dipole antenna, one can see that now there is a more radiation in this direction whereas, there
is a less radiation in this particular direction because of the reflector which has to be lager
then the ground plane. So, typically for a dipole antenna gain is around 2 dB, but a dipole
with a reflector has approximate gain of 5 dB.
So, after this now we will talk about what is a Yagi-Uda antenna. So, Yagi-Uda antenna
consists of this started with this that there is a one reflector here, then there is a fed dipole,
and then there is a director. So, this director here has an important role here now the question
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is why the name Yagi Uda. In fact, these were 2 different Japanese author. In fact, Yagi
proposed separately this concept, Uda proposed this concept also separately and then later on
it actually became known as Yagi-Uda antenna just like in our music industry we have for
example, Shankar Jaikishan, Laxmikanth Pyarelal similarly now there say Jodi in scientific
community also which is Yagi-Uda antenna.
So, in this particular case now a Yagi-Uda antenna consists of, this is a 3 element, we will see
the general case also. So, there are 3 element Yagi antennas, which has a one fed dipole one
reflector and one director. Now we know that length of the dipole should be given by l+d
equal to 0.48 λ, if you choose this length then what we have seen then the input impedance of
the dipole is real impedance, and if we satisfy this condition input impedance of this is
approximately 68 Ω, and now when we put the reflector as I have mentioned length of the
reflector should be greater than length of the dipole and then length of the director.
Then comes the next part what should be the spacing between the elements. So, as a starting
point let me must mention and then we will see what are the ranges; typically this spacing
should be about λ/4, and typically this spacing also should be of the order of λ/4. And if we
do that then this whole combination acts as an end fire array. So, let us is look at the concept
of why it act as an end fire array. So, you have to actually recall the array theory if you recall
array theory, we talked about if there are 3 elements which are fed with let us say equal
amplitude, but different phases then what happens? If the phases are different then the
radiation can be in different direction for example, if all the 3 elements are fed with same
phase, then it will radiate in the broad side direction; and if the phases are in different values
then it may radiate in different direction and the phase condition can be obtained. So, if you
want the radiation to be in the particular direction, which will be end fire array.
So, for that case we know that Ψ which is given by βd cos (Φ+ δ ) . So, there cos Φ is
measured, Φ is measured from this axis. So, Φ should be equal to 0. So, cos Φ will be cos 0
means it will be 1. So, now, for maximum radiation psi also should be equal to 0, so this
implies that δ should be equal to -βd; and if d which is the spacing is approximately λ/4, then
what is the value of δ? So, δ will be now -β which is 2π/λ. So, 2π/λ multiplied by λ/4 which
gives us a value of π/2. So, the phase difference between these elements should be equal to
π/2, now how that is achieved?
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Now, first of all now let us talk about the differences; in case of a linear end fire array all the
3 elements would be fed then one angle 0, one angle -90, one angle -180, but over here we
are feeding only one element. So, this element when it radiates another element because it is
in the close proximity then think about this here, this one will radiate like this, and that is
getting coupled to both this one here as well as the director. So, now, this length which we
have chosen given by this particular expression that will give us real impedance, we can say
that the phase will be something like one angle 0, if I assume one to be the distribution.
So, now this is excited. So, this field will go there; now this length is larger than this here and
we know that if the length is larger than λ/2, in that particular case the impedance of this will
be inductive and if the length is smaller than λ/2, then the impedance of this will capacitive.
So, now, just think about this. So, this is inductive which will be let say angle 90 degree, then
this will be angle 0 degree, this will be angle -90 degree. However, these things also have a
resistive component. So, we are not feeding this antenna here, but because of the mutual
coupling some impedance will be there. So, it was still be a largely capacitive impedance and
largely inductive impedance, but still it will have some real value also.
So, because of the real value phase angle of this will be not precisely 90 degree, this will be
also not precisely -90 degree, that is why we have written here this should be approximately
λ/4. Some optimization is required to compensate for the fact that this is not really exactly
one angle 90 degree and this is not exactly one angle 90 degree, but nevertheless if we have
something like this here, we can get a gain of about 7 dB. Of course, theoretically maximum
possible can be about 8 dB, because if this combination gives us about say 5 dB or so then
additional you can say aperture may give maximum 8 dB, but our experience is generally you
get about gain of approximately 7 dB. So, after this initial thing now let just see the general
Yagi-Uda antenna array configuration.
So, general Yagi-Uda antenna consists of one reflector one fed element, and it can have
number of directors. So, here the concept is if you have more number of directors gain will
increase, but if you think about any organization more number of directors does not mean
gain in the organization. So, sometimes these wires are better than the human being right just
on the lighter science.
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So, now let just look to the configuration here. So, here we have a fed dipole, and this one
here is a reflector which is defined by the length which is l reflector here, this is the length of
the you can say driven element that is why Ldri, and this is the spacing between the director
which is Sdir and this is the length of the director.
Now, it is not necessary that all the elements in that director should be of equal length;
however, for simplicity majority of the time people do take these lengths to be equal, but
there are many cases where what they do? They generally take initially larger length of that
director and then towards the end the length may be slightly less, but right now let us assume
that these directors are of equal length and then the spacing. So, this is the spacing between
the reflector and the fed element, and these are the spacing between the directors; and as I
said in the simplified way all these spacings are taken equal. So, one can see that here we
have a number of a directors, and the purpose of having number of directors is basically to
increase the directivity. So, now, let us see what are the typical values of the different
components:
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So, we will start with the feeder length. So, usually folded dipole, and just to tell you here
these values have been taken from the Balanis book, I will tell you where I agree and where
we do not agree 100 percent with these values. So, let us just look at these one by one. So, to
start with the feeder length, now it shows here 0.47 to 0.49. I do not really agree with this
value here, if you recall the previous expression I had said l+d should be 0.48 λ. So, if the
diameter is 0.01 λ, then feeder length should be about 0.47 λ because that will be 0.48 λ -0.01
which is 0.47.
So, this will generally not be there, most of the time you will see feeder length can be about
0.44 to about 0.48 λ. So, small change here, and then the reflector length; reflector length
must always be greater this here. So, suppose if you have chosen 0.47 you can choose about
0.5 here. So, generally reflector length should be larger, you can take a larger value. If you
take a larger value of the reflector, there will be definitely an advantage where what we will
see is that the back radiation is reduced. So, you can actually imagine about let us say think
about the dipole antenna. So, let us say dipole antenna is here. So, this dipole antenna will
have a radiation pattern E Plane pattern is like this right, and it will be same in this direction.
So, now, one can see does not radiate in this particular direction, maximum radiation is
perpendicular to it. So, now, when I put a reflector behind this, so what will happen now? So,
this is radiating maximum when this it will go reflect pack from the reflector, and now this
field here is maxima it is reducing. So, even this part will get reflected, but now if you see
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this is actually also going to radiate slightly less here, slightly less here and almost close to 0
here. So, if I take a reflector length little larger, then there is a no harm if you take a little
larger even this wave will get in reflected back.
So, you can take a larger reflector length and if you take a larger reflector length, what it will
do? It will actually speaking improve the front to back ratio, but many a times we have a
space constraint also. So, that is why the recommendation is it must be greater than the dipole
and if you can take little larger there is no harm, because your front to back ratio will only
improve. So, let just look at the other dimensions now. So, you can see here if it 0.47 you take
larger than that, but you can take a larger value if the space allows. Now for the director
length typical director length can be 0.4 to 0.45 again I do not recommend 0.45. So, it can be
from 0.4 to about 0.44 λ.
So, small change over here and then comes the next part spacing. So, you can see here
reflector spacing is around 0.25, but generally 0.2 to 0.25 is acceptable. Now here it is given
that the director spacing can be 0.3 to 0.4, I generally do not recommend that. So, what I
recommend is generally director spacing of may be 0.25 to 0.3, because instead of taking a
larger spacing I do recommend that you can take more number of elements and by taking
more number of elements you can actually enhance the gain. So, it is not necessary that what
you read in the book, and also please remember when these books were written those days we
did not have the power of computers. Now a day’s lot of computation can be done, lot of
things can be changed, and optimization can be done hence we start with the initially guess
and then we do the optimization.
So, here is the next one now. So, what is the advantage of having more number of directors?
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So, let us see the curve here. So, this is the directivity curve versus number of elements. So,
again I would like to mention one thing. So, even though this is given in the books here, but
generally consider this as directivity, but I do not agree with this curve, you generally would
not get this value, you can probably optimize may be you can try to get the limited value of
this. But generally my experience has been that practically gain is around 1 dB less than this
value. So, this is the good starting point. So, for example, let say if you have 3 elements this
is the number of total element. So, if you go up here 3 element is somewhere like this, you
can see that it shows about 8 dB gain.
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But we will see that practically you get generally about 7 dB gain or so. So, will see some of
these cases one by one, and now let just see how to realize these antenna. So, here is an
example this example is of a 3 element printed Yagi-Uda antenna. So, we are not using the
wires. In fact, majority of the time earlier Yagi-Uda antennas actually use the typically here
they had use the aluminum rod, aluminum rods over here, aluminum rods here and then they
will provide the support over here. And generally in the earlier design they had used the balun
over here, balun is what balance to unbalance. So, coaxial feed is there. So, at coaxial feed
will be then connected to balun, and that balun will give provide the balanced feed. Over here
we have use the little different concept; here balun has been replaced by a micro strip to the
two equal and opposite current values here.
So, you can actually see over here, this is basically a substrate and we have chosen a low cost
FR4 substrate, and I will tell you the pros and cons of that also. So, for this substrate ε r is 4.4,
h is 1.6 mm the disadvantage of this substrate is the tan δ is of the order of 0.02; advantage of
this is that it has a low cost. Now let us just come back over here. So, what we have that this
is the driven dipole, and this is the reflector and this is the director and one what you can see
over here? These dark grey colors basically are on the front side of the substrate and this is on
the back side of the substrate. If you recall when I was talking about dipole antenna, I had a
mentioned about this particular configuration, but since it has been a long time when we
cover dipole antenna I just quickly go through it.
So, what we really have here? This portion here is printed on the back side, and the top you
can see over here. So, the connecter is connected from the back side let us say SMA
connector and the SMA connector ground is soldered to this part here, and the SMA
connecter central pro feed point is soldered over here and then; that means, this will be
unbalanced point, and from here it is tapered. So, over here the width of the line will be same
as the width of this particular line. So, this transition basically acts as a balun. So, from
unbalance we are getting a balance. So, here since these are in the opposite direction, it
provides plus and it provides minus here. So, that is our effective you can say dipole antenna
very simple feed technique, and here is a reflector and director.
Then comes the next part; so we have designed this antenna at 1.3 GHz; so the wave length at
that value will be λ will be 230 mm which is nothing, but c/f. Now even though we have
chosen εr 4.4, but effective dielectric constant is much smaller; unlike if you recall micro strip
antenna if εr was 4.4, effective dielectric constant was close to 4, but over here it is much less
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than that. The reason for that is there is a no ground plane in the back side of this here. So,
basically this is the only part which is the dielectric material rest is all air. So, think about
again a dipole antenna. So, the dipole antenna will actually radiate in the omnidirection; so if
since the dipole is like this here, it is going to radiate like this.
So, only this particular part is confined within the dielectric material, this one is entire air this
one is also air. So, the field which is like this here that field only the little part of that field is
confined within the dielectric material. So, that is why ε effective is of the order of 1.3, 1.4; and I
want to mention here if instead of 1.6 mm, there are substrates which have 0.8 mm thickness.
So, if you take 0.8 mm thickness then this εeffective will be of the order of approximately 1.2,
and if you take even thinner substrate then εeffective can tend towards 1. So, because of that here
when you want to do the design. So, we know that this particular dipole length should be
given by let say l+d equal to 0.48 λ.
But now here λ is not free space λ. So, λ here will be now 230 which is free space λ, λ/ε effective;
and that is how the length has been calculated. And you can see the reflector length is larger
than this, and the director length is smaller than this. I want to emphasize here this is not the
optimum antenna, one can still do optimization. In fact, this antenna I had designed it more
than 15 years back and we had done the transfer of technology, because we had created a set
for antenna trainer system. So, it is more for the educational purpose not really the optimum
Yagi-Uda antenna. So, let us see what are the simulated and measure results for this particular
case.
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So, here is the simulated and the measured S11. So, one can see that this is the measured
simulated result it was designed at 1.3 GHz, the measured result is slightly off over here;
however, if you look at the S11 less than -10 dB, which is approximately VSWR 2; so, if you
draw the line over here, and calculate the percentage bandwidth. So, the measured bandwidth
is approximately 15 percent. Now let us just look at the gain plot. So, this is the simulated
gain plot, you can actually see that this is about 6 dB, it is actually less than 7 dB, and these
are the measured plot. So, now, you might wonder that gain is not even 7 dB, when I had
shown that I had said that the gain can be approximately 7 dB.
In fact, when I mentioned about the gain equal to 7 dB that was the situation when these
dipole antennas are in the free space, in the free space there is a no dielectric medium; now
over here now all the patches are printed on the substrate, and this is a lossy substrate; and the
wave is propagating along this direction. So, since the wave is propagating along this
direction part of the wave is propagating through the dielectric medium and here it is a lossy
dielectric medium, and that is why the gain is reduced. So, if you take a better quality
substrate for example, there are substrates which have a tan δ equal to 0.001, instead of this
FR4 substrate which has a tan δ of 0.02 you can get an advantage of approximately 0.5 dB.
So, yes you are losing a gain of about 0.5 dB, but FR4 substrate cause is approximately 30
times less than the expensive substrate. So, you have to decide whether you want to pay more
money and get little better gain or pay less money, and have a slight reduction in the gain it is
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not a major reduction, but there is a small reduction. So, you have to see performance versus
price.
So, now let see the radiation pattern. So, here is the radiation pattern E Plane pattern and H
Plane pattern. Now many a times when you do this simulation you will actually see x y plane,
and you see here x z plane. So, it is important to understand what are these x y plane and y in
x y plane we have a E Plane.
So, let us just remember x y plane and x z and we will see the figure. You can see here it is
actually shown here this is x y. So, x y plane if you look at, that is the plane of, you can say
substrate. So, in this particular plane you can see that E field will be there, E field is what in
this plane? Field will be 0 in this direction and it will be a maximum and going to 0 here. So,
this is the E Plane and what is the x z plane? x is this; z will be perpendicular to that. So, that
will so x is in this one z is this. So that means, this is now going to be our H Plane. So, that is
how you have to see. So, many software give you different kind of a thing for example, this
one was simulated using CST microwave studio. So, they generally defined as x y or x z
plane; where as if you look at IE3D most of the time they will write E θ and Φ = 0, or Φ = 10,
or Φ = 90 degree plane.
And that EΦ when Φ = 0 or 90 degree plane. So, you must understand the nomenclature, but
basically if you have understood that if this is the dipole antenna is like this. So, H Plane will
be in this particular fashion, and that is what is the x z plane. So, you can correlate quickly,
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and then E field is in this plane which is nothing, but x y plane. So, that is how you can say
this is a E Plane pattern. So, that is let us just look into the pattern then. So, you can see that E
Plane pattern is relatively narrower compare to the H Plane pattern. So, you can actually see
here and that is expected because in E Plane pattern it is a directional pattern more likely a
dipole direction, and that is why array factor has to be applied to this whole thing. So, this
one is actually speaking acting like a E Plane relatively narrow, this is the front radiation this
is the back radiation.
And over here you can see a H Plane. So, you can see that there is much wider beam width
over here compared to this; because this one H Plane correspond to the omni-pattern to the
omni-pattern we are multiplying the array factor. And over here it is a directional pattern,
which is getting multiplied by the array factor; and that is why the beam is relatively
narrower over here compared to them. So, we will conclude today’s lecture at this particular
point; so for what we have discussed we have actually seen that we start with, let say dipole
antenna, then behind the dipole antenna you put a reflector. So, combination will give us
about 5 dB, and then we keep adding directors if you have just add to one director then will
get approximately 7 dB gain. So, that is for 3 element then after 3 elements, if you add in
other 3 element; that means, aperture is increase by 2 times.
So, instead of 7dB you can get about 10 dB or so. So, that is how by adding more number of
elements you can actually increase the directivity or the gain of the Yagi-Uda antenna. And
the band width of Yagi-Uda antenna depends upon the bandwidth of the dipole antenna. So, if
you take a larger width you will get a little larger band width; however, bandwidth gets
limited because of the reflector and the director position. And we also looked at the very
simple feed network where we had use the coaxial feed, and that coaxial feed actually was
connected to the ground part and the top part was connected to the top of the substrate, and
then half of the line went up there other half went down there, and those two were at the
opposite phases.
In the next lecture now we will see some of the recent developments where people have used
the Yagi-Uda antenna for different concept; by using the different concept they are able to
increase the band width of the Yagi-Uda antenna, and also we will looked at the different
ways of feeding the Yagi-Uda antenna.
With that thank you very much and we will see you next time bye.
719
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Department of Electronic Engineering
Module - 11
Lecture - 51
Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Antennas-II
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on Yagi-Uda antenna as well as log periodic antenna. In
fact, in the last lecture, we had discussed about Yagi-Uda antenna and we saw that by adding
more number of directors, we can increase the gain of the antenna and we also saw very
simple technique how to feed a dipole antenna. So, that we do not require extra Balun. Now
we will talk about today how to increase the bandwidth of the Yagi-Uda antenna. So, it is a
very strange thing. In fact, Yagi-Uda antennas were originally designed for higher gain and
log periodic antennas were originally designed for broadband antenna, but as we say you
know we are never satisfied, we always want something more, we always want that it is like
it says [FL]. So, in Yagi-Uda antenna also so people were able to get a higher gain but
bandwidth was always a limitation.
Today we will talk about Yagi-Uda antenna, how these are modified to obtain broad
bandwidth. So, we will start with the first configuration which is a broadband quasi Yagi-Uda
antenna. So, let us see why we call it a broadband quasi.
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Let us start with the presentation. So, we are starting with a broadband planer quasi Yagi
antenna. So, what we really have here. So, let us just see this particular antenna has been
actually designed around X-band. So, you can see here the frequency centre frequency is
around 10 GHz or so. So at 10 GHz, what will be the wavelength? That will be 30 mm, so
what will be half of that which will be 150 mm, but what you see over here is much lesser
than that over here.
See the dipole length half of that is about 4.2 here, another half is about 4.2 So, the total
length is actually much smaller than the half wavelength which is coming to be about 15 mm.
The reason for that is the substrate chosen over here has a very high dielectric constant. So, ε r
here is about 10.2 and the thickness of the substrate is given by 0.635 because of the larger
value of the εr large amount of field is confined within this particular high value of εr and
hence effective dielectric constant increases which reduces the overall length here. So, you
can see that this is a normal dipole antenna, but the feed over here looks different. So, let me
explain, how it has been obtained and all these things have been taken from this particular
paper which appeared in about August 2002. So, here is the feed point and that feed point you
can see here is divided into 2 parts.
Now, why because here you need to feed this with let us say 1 angle 0, we want to feed this
with let us say 1 angle 180 degree. So, you can say +1 and -1. So, we need a phase difference
between the two to be equal to 180 degrees. So, you can see from here power divide is
divided equally. So, one path goes over here and another one is going over here, you can see
this length is much larger than this length because this length actually is λ/2 larger then this
length over here and that additional λ/2 length provides 180 degrees phase shift. So, you can
see over here and then you can also see that the line widths are slightly different because
quarter wave transformer has been used to do the impedance matching. So, that is what is this
part here and then you can see here this is going here feeding with equal power and opposite
phase difference.
Now, concept is slightly different you can actually see here that power is fed from this
particular point. So, from here, it is divided into 2 path. So, one path is going like this here
and then another path is going like this here and you can see that this path is much longer
than this path, the reason for that is we need to feed this dipole antenna with let us say 1 angle
0 and this has to be 1 angle 180 degree. So, that 180 degree phase difference is provided by
additional λ/2 length. So, when we divide from here, equal power is divided in the 2 path here
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so that means, let us say amplitude will be a angle 0 and this will be a angle 180 degree or we
can say it is -a. So, the dipole will we get equal amplitude and out of phase feed here and you
can also see here that the width of these lines are not same that is mainly to do the impedance
matching you can see over here this is nothing, but a quarter wave transformer which has
been used to transform the impedance for matching with the 50 ohm line.
Now, the reason why it is known as quasi because it is not really using the concept of the
Yagi, what was the concept of the Yagi, it has a 1 reflector antenna then it has a driven
element then it has a director and there were space at λ/4 distance and there the idea was to
provide 1 angles 0, 1 angle 90 degree and then 1 angle -90 degree on either side which
radiates in the you can say in the end fire direction, but over here the concept of Yagi-Uda is
done, but it has been optimized for larger bandwidth. So, here the parasitic patch which is
over here this has been optimized in such a way that this particular thing over here excides
get coupled to it and because of the coupling there will be a loop in the smith chart of course,
here we can only see the input return loss. So, one can actually say here simulated and
measure and one can actually see this has a very large bandwidth you can see that this is the
-10 dB line here and you can actually see from here bandwidth is very large it is almost 48
percent at X band.
Normally Yagi antennas are not supposed to give 48 percent. So, it is actually specially
optimized to get larger bandwidth, but it is at the expensive decrease in the gain you can see
that even though it has a very large reflector ground plane is acting like this, this is at a dipole
antenna and even if it has a director; if it was the original case of Yagi-Uda, gain would have
been much larger, but here optimization has been done mainly for the large bandwidth hence
gain is relatively small from 3.4 to 5.1 dB within this particular band; however, in the same
paper, they have given an another design where they have optimized this whole thing for
larger gain, but for larger gain then they got a lesser bandwidth and this bandwidth was much
smaller compared to the bandwidth over here and that would be more closer to the Yagi-Uda
antenna which gives normally a larger gain, but smaller bandwidth so; that means, depending
up on the requirement these dimensions can be optimized either to get larger gain or to get
larger bandwidth.
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Now, let us look at another configuration. So, here the feed configuration is relatively simple.
Now the earlier paper was published in 2002, this paper came a few years later and probably
they studied that configuration and then did the simplified feed network. So, let us see how
the feed network has been simplified. So, here there is a ground plane which is on the back
side and you can see that this is the top one and you can see this is the strip which is directly
connected to the one-half of the dipole antenna then you can see this is the top view you can
see the top view will be nothing, but this microstrip line and then that is connected to this arm
of the dipole and then there is a you can say parasitic element.
Now, over here the backside; backside will consists of this ground plane and you can actually
see that there is a line going like this over here. So, that is the line. So, this if you super
impose you will get this configuration. So, here the emphasis was that the feed network is
relatively much simpler compared to the previous case where they had used the power divider
network and then additional λ/2 length here that part has been simplified the rest of the
concept remains similar and here in this case they got the bandwidth of about 40 percent at
X-band and this is the paper. So, earlier paper came in 2002 this came in 2004 and you can
actually see these are the different dimensions of the antenna then let us just look at another
configuration.
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Now, this one here again has a different feed network and it has one more director also, let us
just start with the feed network here. So, what this is? This concept is known as this CPW
feed where this one and this one; these 2 act like a ground plane and this one here is the
central fin, just think about a coaxial feed. So, in the coaxial feed generally what we have we
have a centre pin and then along that centre pin in the circular manner the coaxial feed is
actually there, here just think about instead of have a ground plane in the circular fashion,
now we only in this side and this side.
So, what we need to do it is we need to connect this and this and generally these 2 are
connected. So, if we connect a SMA connector over here for example, so, the SMA
connector; the metallic portion is soldered here and here which will actually form combined
ground plane and the centre pin of this SMA connector is connected here. So, that is how this
particular feed is done and again you can see that you do not need a power divider network or
so and also the advantage of this configuration is everything is printed on one side of the
substrate only, there is a no backside. So, backside no printing has to be done so; that means
no alignment also has to be done. So, here what we can see here. So, the centre pin is going
here feeding the one half of the dipole antenna and the ground one here is connected to the
other part of the dipole antenna.
Now in this particular case, you can see now, there are parasitic elements and you can see
these parasitic elements are very small compared to the fed dipole antenna unlike in a Yagi-
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Uda antenna, generally this dimension is somewhat comparable to the fed element and also
these are generally spaced at λ/4 distance, but here these are very close because the reason is
here again it has been optimized for larger bandwidth. So, that is why the name Quasi Yagi
antenna is there, it uses the concept of Yagi, but not really complete Yagi. So, that is why
Quasi and this is a CPW feed here. So, in this particular case, we have been able to obtain a
bandwidth of 44 percent at X-band, you can see that in the previous cases also, we got a
bandwidth of the order of 40 to 48 percent. So, it is similar to that, but here because of this
additional thing, the gain peaks is around 7.4 dB, but please remember, this is a peak gain and
not the gain over the entire bandwidth, now this paper came in around 2007.
Now, similarly there are lot of other cases are there for Yagi-Uda antenna. So, just to mention
here, there are Yagi-Uda antennas. So, which actually let us say this is a normal Yagi-Uda.
So, in between they will put a smaller duel band Yagi-Uda antennas also; that means, in the
same space what they do let us say we have a one reflector then let us say we have dipole and
then we have a director. So, this one will operate at one frequency then let us say the smaller
version of that which is this is a smaller version and this will be put in between these things.
So, this will actually like a second band. So, that is how dual band Yagi-Uda antennas have
been also realized.
Then there are many Yagi-Uda antennas what they also do they actually utilize this concept
this one will give us one polarization and in this case see a dipole gives vertical polarization,
but if you see like this now it is horizontally polarizing. So, what they do they use the
elements like this fashion and then they use perpendicular to that also. So, the array is also
put like this here. So, by putting this particular thing they can get the dual polarized Yagi-Uda
antenna; however, I do not recommend very strongly these orthogonally polarized Yagi-Uda
antennas. In fact, instead of that one can actually use a let us say a rectangular microstrip
antenna or circular microstrip antenna and then you can feed at the 2 orthogonal point and
you can get a desired polarization.
Yes, one can use either 2 Yagi-Uda antennas perpendicular to each other or you can use the
modified version of microstrip antenna or you may say that microstrip antenna will be this
one occupies lesser you can say overall space is still large, but it has a lot of vacant spaces
and then wind loading will be relatively less that is the argument we have heard before, but
actually speaking instead of that what you can do instead of using a let us say a rectangular
microstrip antenna or if they want a same frequency dual band then one can use a square
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microstrip antenna with 2 feed, but that will block the whole thing. So, instead of that one can
actually use a cross shape I have shown you a cross shape micro step antenna also. So, if one
uses a cross shaped antenna it will almost look similar to this here but the feed network will
be very simple you just need to feed here and feed over there. So, one can actually use
modified micro step antenna there also if you want to get a larger bandwidth you can use the
concept of the stacked configuration to realize a larger bandwidth also.
Now we will go to the next topic which is a log periodic antenna and as I mentioned in my
introductory thing, Yagi-Uda antennas were originally designed for higher gain and log
periodic antennas were originally designed for broad bandwidth, but we did see that in the
last one decade people are working on Yagi-Uda antennas or rather I would say quasi Yagi-
Uda antennas to increase the bandwidth, but now we will talk about log periodic antennas and
log periodic antennas actually speaking can give bandwidth from let us say 1 GHz to 10 GHz
or let us say 300 MHz to 3 GHz.
1 is to 10 bandwidth can be very easily achieved using log periodic antenna. In fact, I will
also show you one design example where they have almost got 1 is to 15 ratio also. So, let us
start with the log periodic antenna.
This configuration here shows a log periodic dipole array antenna. So, instead of dipole
element many other variations have also been used, but this is one of the most popular one.
So, I will focus on the dipole array elements here. So, what we have here let us start with. So,
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we have a one dipole antenna we have another dipole antenna we have another dipole
antenna we have another. So, we have n number of dipole antennas over here and you can
actually see that these dipole lengths are arranged in such a fashion that if you extend this
here they meet at this particular point. So, basically you can say that the dipole dimensions
are varying in the angular fashion. So, instead of dipole antenna as I said other things are also
possible, but this is the by far the most popular one here.
Now what we have the next is the feed network. So, you can actually see that this is the feed
here. So that feed you can see is connected over here and since these are dipole antenna we
need a balance feed. So, let us assume right now it is one angle 0, one angle 180 degree then
we will see also how Balun can be designed, but now what we can see is that this dipole
antenna now this feed is actually connected over here and this one is connected over there.
So, you can call it a cross connection, but the purpose of the cross connection is to provide
180 degree phase shift between this and this and then from here to here you can again see
there is a phase shift of 180 degree then there is a phase shift of 180 degree.
Let us just see quickly, what is the difference between Yagi-Uda and log periodic antenna?
So, in case of Yagi-Uda antenna, reflector antenna was slightly larger than the driven and then
there were director element director elements of generally of the same length, but over here
all the dimensions are varying in the angular fashion. In fact, I will use the term in the
logarithmic fashion and we will see how the logarithmic thing comes into picture, but what
we also want to mention over here that in case of the Yagi-Uda antenna, we generally have a
spacing of about λ/4 and we had seen that for λ/4 spacing and for end fire radiation the phase
difference between the element should be 90 degree, but in case of the log periodic antenna as
we saw that the phase difference between the element is about 180 degree. So, for 180 degree
what we need is that the spacing between the elements should be approximately λ/2. So, it is
different than Yagi-Uda there the spacing between the elements was generally λ/4 here we
take generally as λ/2.
Then comes the next point which λ we should take because here if you are talking about a
broadband log periodic antenna and as I just mentioned the ratio can be 1 is to 10 or 1 GHz to
10 GHz then the question is we should take λ for which value 1 GHz or 10 GHz. So, I will
just tell you the spacing also varies in the log periodic manner. So, let us see the figure once
again. So, here we just talked about the dipole antenna which are multiple of them are there
and which are fed with 180 degree phase difference. So, now, the lengths of these dipole
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antennas vary as a ratio τ. So, this is known as a ratio or scaling factor τ and let us just first
talk about the length.
Now, here I just want to mention I have shown here this length as L 1 which is the largest
length and then this is L1 L2 and it will go to L n, but there are some books where they have
mentioned this length as Ln and they start from here L1. So, please do not get confused. So,
just remember here in this case we are taking the length which is largest one as L 1 smallest
one is Ln and then similarly now these are from, you can say the apex point these are the
distances which is given by R. So, you can say from here to here, it will be R 1 then R2 and
then Rn and so on.
Here the ratio; let us start with the τ it is L n+1 by L n. So, Ln+1 will be somewhere here and Ln
will be somewhere here, you can see that L n will be larger than L n+1 and hence τ will be
always smaller because this is small this is large. So, τ is generally small and we will see in a
few minutes that this τ typically can be of the order of between 0.7 to about 0.95, we will see
what are the affects of the value of the τ, but this τ ratio is constant for all the other
dimension. So, for example, τ is equal to R n+1 / Rn or this is also same as this spacing divided
by this spacing. So, now, comes the next part how do we actually design these antennas we
will see that how to do the design, but as you can see here that all the dimensions are varying
by a ratio here.
Then comes the next point; why these are called as log periodic? There is a no log coming
into picture here, well log will come into picture if you actually take log on this side here. So,
what will be the log of this? This will be log τ, log τ will be equal to (log(L n+1) – log(Ln ))so;
that means, now log (Ln+1) will be equal to this -L n will go to this one that side will be then
log τ + log L n so; that means, every next length will increment by a value equal to log τ and
that is how the name log periodic name has come.
Similarly, you can say Rn+1, log(Rn+1)will be equal to (log τ + log R n), now here what is not
mentioned here I will just mention that part which is the diameter. So, the diameter of these
dipole antenna also should vary in the same fashion. So, you can say that the diameter of
dipole antenna for this and this also should follow the same ratio; however, generally that is
not possible let us say especially in the beginning people were using mostly these as a let us
say aluminum tube. So, you cannot really have a let us say if they are the 10 elements then
you need a 10 different diameters of aluminum tube. So, generally what is done, they actually
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divide this as a group. So, let us say if we take this entire array with divide it into 3 different
groups. So, one side of the group will have a one diameter then in between group the group
will have another diameter and this one will have another diameter and the choice of the
diameter is given by if you recall again the dipole antenna.
The dipole antenna, we had mentioned that the diameter of the dipole antenna should be
between λ/100 to λ/10 in the most extreme case. So, diameter does play an important role in
the design of the log periodic antenna. So, now, from here we can define the angle you can
actually see this is an angle α. So, half angle will be tan(α/2) will be given by tan(α/2) will be
this distance which is nothing, but equal to Ln/2 because that is the n th element and this will
be divided by this part here which is R n or if we take for L n+1 then this will be Rn+1. So, now,
this is the ratio which is the known as the scaling factor this is the ratio angle which is with
which is varying there is a one more parameter which is very important for defining the log
periodic and that is the space factor σ.
And I just want to mention this space factor is will take to the spacing between the element.
So, you can see that the length of the dipole defines this particular dimension and this d n will
define the dimension in this particular side. So, suppose if there is a one element here then the
next element will be given by d n then next element well be let us say d n+1 corresponding to
Ln+1. So, after that the derivation is relatively straight forward. So, we have defined d n equal
to Rn - Rn+1 and the τ ratio we know that R n+1/ Rn was equal to τ it has been taken over this
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side and that Rn is also rewritten in the form of the angle and now we simplify these things
just by simplifying this I have given the step you can see that this is finally, reduced to this
term over here and from here we can see if I take write this whole thing as tan (α/2) is given
1−τ
by so; that means, if we know σ and τ, we can calculate α or if α is known and if τ
4σ
is known then we can find value of σ. So, this actually thing will become the basis of the
design of the dipole antenna and then log periodic dipole antenna.
I will just give you the first step here and then we will continue from here in the next lecture.
So, what is generally thing the starting point will be that we need to let us say design a log
periodic dipole antenna from let us say f L to f U that is the lowest frequency and this is the
highest frequency. So, we start with the lowest frequency choose the dipole length and then
we start terminate to the highest frequency and find the length corresponding to that.
So, will continue from here in the next lecture, but I want that all of you please look at this
derivation for the next lecture. So, that it will be easier to understand and we will take several
design examples how to design a log periodic antenna from start to finish and will also take
some practical examples and will also look at some simulated results also.
With that thank you very much and will see you next time.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 11
Lecture - 52
Yagi-Uda and Log-Periodic Antennas III
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on log periodic antennas in the last few lectures we
have been talking about the Yagi-Uda and log periodic antennas. So, we saw that in Yagi-Uda
antenna what we can do it is we can get a better gain by properly designing the directors, but
we also saw quasi Yagi-Uda antenna where the emphasis on getting a larger bandwidth, but
that bandwidth was of the order of 40 to 48 percent whereas in case of log periodic antennas
we can get much larger bandwidth compared to the Yagi-Uda antenna. So, we have started
with the basic configuration of log periodic antenna where we had seen that array of dipole
antennas are there and these arrays of dipole antennas were fed with equal and opposite
phase. So, let us continue from here.
Just a quick revision, so these are the dipole antennas, the length varies from L1, L2 to Ln+1
and then we had also seen that this is fed always from the lower end actually and I will also
explained here why we feed from the lower end. So, if we feed from the lower end then we
can see that at the lower frequency these will not get excited the power will flow through here
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and this dipole antenna will get excited at the lowest frequency as frequency of operation
increases then from here this dipole antenna will get excited then this dipole antenna will get
excited then this dipole antenna will get excited and so on. Where I suppose if we feed this
thing from this side, if we feed from this side there are chances that higher frequency this is
supposed to be resonant, but at higher frequency there are chances that higher order mores get
excited. So, part of the power will be radiated through here and lesser power will there.
In general you should keep a point that always feed from the lower dipole dimension only
and not from the higher dipole dimension then another thing we saw that basically the τ
factor which is known as a spacing factor and we saw that the spacing factor is constant for
R, L, d even for the diameter and so on and then from here we also saw the angle defined by
tan α/2 where α is given over here half the angle is this and we saw this expression over here
and then we looked at quickly the space factor.
This is the space factor σ and this determines basically the spacing in this particular direction
and I had shown the quick steps and finally, what we want to see is this is the relation where
α is related to τ and σ.
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Now start the design procedure. So, let us say we need to design the antenna. So, we start
with the lowest frequency and the highest frequency or the upper frequency. So, here the
length of the first dipole antenna is approximately equal to the smallest λ L here I just want to
mention λL is not small L corresponds to the frequency. So, frequency is smallest, but λ L will
be the largest. So, please do not confuse L is important over here and so we start with this
particular value. So, that will be the largest length and this will be the smallest length
corresponding to the highest frequencies. So, higher the frequency λ will be small. So, L n will
be half of that.
Now, you can see here this is written as an approximate and you might wonder that earlier I
had always mentioned take the dipole dimension as L+D equal to 0.48 λ, but here why we
have written as λ/2 you can see first of all it is approximate second is that this antenna is very
broadband. So, small shift in the frequency here and there will not make a difference;
however, this is the additional thing which I want you people to really keep in mind when
you are designing a log periodic dipole antenna and what we want to tell you is that after this
length here. So, this is even the most of the books tell you that you take this as L 1, but what I
am recommending is you add one more large dipole behind this L 1 which will act as a
reflector to increase the gain at lower frequency.
Let us say in the figure what we are recommending is that you put one more antenna over
here that can act as a reflector antenna now sometimes people do ask whether the reflector
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antenna should be fed or it can be just put as it is. So, if you use a Yagi-Uda concept you can
just put as it is, but if you want to use the log periodic concept then this reflector antenna also
can be cross coupled. So, either of the possibilities are there then comes the next part that is
the lowest one here. So, the lowest dipole what we again recommend that add a few small
dipoles in front which will act as a director to increase gain again.
Let us just look at the figure back here. So, what we are recommending is that after this
dipole antenna put some more elements, the reason for that is think about this if we just
choose this as the highest frequency dipole antenna then there is a no director in front now
applied the logic of the Yagi-Uda. So, here is a 1 fed dipole there is a one reflector having a
multiple reflector does not make much of a sense. So, it only has a one reflector it does not
have any director in front. So, what will happen if you do not have a multiple elements in the
front then the gain will reduce at the higher frequency. So, that is why it is our
recommendation when you are designing a log periodic dipole antenna this can be the starting
dipole and the ending dipole, but our recommendation is after that you add one larger dipole
behind this and a few dipoles in fronts to increase the gain at higher frequency.
Now how do we do the design? So, let us take the help of all the earlier researchers who have
done a wonderful job and they have given this particular directivity curve for different values
of the directivity. So, you can see here this is 6.5 dB 7 dB, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9 and so on. So, let us
say you want to design an antenna for directivity of let us say 7 dB for example, so if this the
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case here, now you can see that 7 dB is constant for all of these cases and what it is written
here that this is that optimum value. So, how this optimum value is coming or if you look at
here 8 dB? So, for 8 dB you can see even though you can choose any point here and what is it
mean really that any point. So, let us say if I choose this point. So, for this point if you draw
the vertical line it will imply τ is equal to 0.92 and if you look at the horizontal that will be
somewhere around 0.09. So, you can choose this point, but that is not optimum, but this point
if you choose here what it shows here is if you draw the vertical line that will give us a τ
value which is close to let us say 0.86 or so and if I draw the horizontal line that will be
around 0.16.
Now why this optimum thing coming, I want to actually emphasize here what is happening
by moving along this here both τ and space factors are changing and if you take along this
thing the most important thing what is happening is I will just go back to the figure again for
that particular space factor this distance is approximately equal to λ/2 at the region where this
particular thing is more resonant and then it will be λ/2 at the lower frequency region here.
So, when you choose this distance to be approximately λ/2 that satisfies a condition of end
fire radiation better and that is how this optimum curve has come. So, it is recommended that
you choose the values corresponding to this optimum, I will also show you one result where
we have actually taken a value not over here, but somewhere over here and then I will tell
you also what are the pros and cons of that particular case also.
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Let us first go with this particular optimum design and then will see what happens if we do
not take optimum design. So, here this design is given in the book. So, this is a design of 54
to 216 MHz, but what I want to emphasize here, if you take the ratio, the ratio is 1 is to 4. So,
for example, if you design antenna from 1 GHz to 4 GHz, the similar concept will be
available just that starting and ending frequencies are different. So, here the requirement
which was given as desired gain is 6.5 dB. So, since the desired gain is written as 6.5 dB, you
take directivity curve of 7.5 dB assuming 1 dB loss. So, corresponding 7.5 dB, let us just see
where 7.5 dB is, so this is 7.5 dB and that is an optimum point here, you can actually see
from here if I draw the line from here, that is close to 0.8 to close to that and if you draw the
horizontal line it is close to about 0.15. So, let us see, what are the actual values? The actual
points are 0.822 and 0.149.
Once we note τ and σ from the directivity curve, we can now find the value of α which comes
out to be 33.3 degree.
So, now that design begins. So, we start with L1. So, L1 is 0.5 of λL, this L is the lowest
frequency which is 54 MHz. So, that comes out to be 2.78 meter and corresponding to 216
MHz L U is 0.694; that means, this is the dimension of the smallest dipole. So, now, what we
do we start with this value and then let us see what we do.
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Starting from this particular value which is 2.78 meter you multiply with this τ and what is τ?
τ is equal to let us see here τ is equal to 0.822. So, you keep multiplying with 0.822. So, this 1
multiplied by 0.822; you will get this here multiply with this multiply continue this process
till you have crossed this value which is 0.694. So, you can see that you have crossed that
value now you can say 0.694, 0.705 are very close, can we stop over here? Theoretically you
can stop over here, but then the gain at the higher frequency will not be good. So, that is why
this element need to be taken this will give us some decent gain.
If you really count all of these elements they come out to be n number. So, here we have
found the length L1 to Ln.
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Now, comes the next part, we need to find the spacing between the element. So, over here the
spacing is given by this particular expression remember this is a space factor and by using
this dn Ln. So, for all values of L1 to this one you can find it his. So, here are the spacing now
remember here even though there are 9 elements, there will be only 8 spacing. So, between
the 9 elements, there will be only 8 different spacing. So, you can actually see again the
figure. So, starting from so, if there are n 9 elements, it will start here from 1, 2 and it will be
the 8 spacing here. So, we got all the spacing, now what is not mentioned over here is the
diameter. So, diameter as I mentioned earlier you can choose the diameter by given by a
formula diameter should be equal to λ/100 to about λ/20, you can choose the value in
between, you can choose the different values of that also.
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Here are the results, but I want to mention this result is from 54 to 806 MHz, you can see that
this is a very large ratio. So, the ratio is more than 15. So, 1 is to 15 and these are the practical
results. So, I will first talk about VSWR. So, you can see here this is VSWR 2 line which is
going over here. So, you can see that VSWR is less than 2, right starting from 50 MHz, even
beyond 1500 MHz also VSWR is also less than 2. So, you can see that it has a very large
VSWR bandwidth, now you can see here, now the gain, so close to 50, you can see that the
gain is about close to 3.5 dB or so and then as we move up, you can see that the gain is close
to 7 dB. So, one can actually see that the gain is good at this particular band here, but the gain
is not so good in this particular region. The reason for that is for this particular frequency
there is a no reflector behind and since there is a no reflector behind most of the radiation is
going in the back direction.
In fact, what we recommend that if you add another reflector then what would have happened
that this particular curve instead of starting from here it would have started from here and
whole curve would have been something like this. So, just by adding another reflector we
would have got relatively a constant gain plot over here.
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Now, let us just look at the radiation pattern and half power beam width. So, here is a half
power beam width of that particular antenna you can see that this is a H plane and E plane
one can actually see that E plane half power beam width is shown along this axis and
frequency is shown over here. So, one can actually see that E plane half power beam width is
much smaller than the H plane beam width which is very similar to the case of a Yagi-Uda
antenna I had mentioned that for H plane the dipoles are radiating in omni fashion. So, which
will have a broader beam width for E plane the dipole radiate in the directional manner and
that is why half power beam width is smaller.
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Now let us just look at another design example. So, I just want to mention here in this
particular design, we have actually designed the antenna from 700 to 2500 MHz or just to tell
you the reason why we chose this particular thing over here, basically we had the requirement
that we wanted to measure the cell phone tower radiation and all these bands start from let us
say 800 MHz. So, for example, CDMA starts at 800 then GSM900 is at 900 then GPS is
1500, the GSM1800 will be 1800 and then we will have 3G which is 2100 then 2300 to
twenty and Wi-Fi around 2500. So, we had the requirement for then antenna which was
covers from 700 to 2500. So, since the frequency is known you can also see the ratio is close
to 1 is to 4 well, it is not exactly 1 is to 4, 700 to 2800 will be there.
Here this design, we have deliberately taken a slightly different case where σ is taken smaller
than the optimum value to reduce the overall length of the antenna. So, just to show you what
we have taken over here. So, τ is taken 0.89 σ is taken as 0.083 and will see that this is not
really the optimum one, this is just to demonstrate you can take non optimum thing also, but
it is not really optimum in the real sense. So, you see that 0.89 will be somewhere here and
that is what is 0.083. So, that curve corresponds to this point here whereas, optimum value
would have been somewhere here, but just to demonstrate the principle.
But by choosing this value over here, what happens? Space factor is reduced if we choose
this value space factor would have been larger. So, by taking a smaller space factor what has
been done? spacing has been reduced. So, spacing is in this direction as it is you can see
along this direction this is the about 200 mm along this, it is about 280 mm and this particular
antenna has been fabricated on a low cost glass epoxy substrate. So, ε r is 4.4 tan δ is 0.02 and
so with this particular thing here, number of elements came out to be 20 because we had to
cover the band right from 700 to 2500 MHz.
You can see one disadvantage if you do not take the optimum, τ becomes larger. So, had we
taken the optimum value then τ would have been relatively smaller and if the τ is smaller,
number of elements would have reduced. So, it is not really always a good thing to focus on
this number here because if you focus on this number then N increases, but nevertheless this
has been designed and fabricated and as I mentioned sometimes we learn a lot more if you do
not do an optimum design, but I do not recommend this design for your future fabrication
please stick to those optimum thing.
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But let us see, what are the results we get for this particular case here? So, here is the gain
plot you can actually see here the frequency 0.5 to 4 GHz and this you can see is the gain
value in terms of dB our requirement started actually our requirement was around 0.8 because
that is where the CDMA band starts. So, starting from here, if you see gain is around 7 dB
and the peak gain is around 7.7 and it is kind of decreasing and you can actually see around
2.5, the gain is about 6.5 dB.
If you really see the gain variation is from 7 dB ± 0.7dB, this was not really of our band of
interest. So, gain is actually reducing. So, why this is happening why gain is decreasing at
higher frequency the reason for that is that if you do not take this optimum value of the space.
So, what happens this value has been taken much smaller and if you take this value relatively
smaller then what happens this is not effectively giving us a length of λ/2 whereas, the feed is
actually done in such a way that we are doing orthogonal feed let us just look at the feed how
the fabrication has been done. So, this is a PCB, on the PCB you can see that this is the one
feed line on the backside also the same feed line is going on in the same fashion. Now, the
dipoles are printed alternately. So, here you can see one half this is another half one half then
another half and so on and then this is printed on the back side.
Now, what is done you can see half dipole on bottom and this half dipole on top of the
substrate and now you can even see here that the feed is connected here well that is not really
correct you actually see the coaxial cable is connected over here, but feed is not connected
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here. So, what we have done here and that is what has been recommended in many books and
paper? So, what we do for the coaxial cable we remove the outside plastic jacket so; that
means, if you remove the outside plastic jacket it will only have the outer ground connector
and there will be a centre pin. So, that entire cable without the jacket goes over here and the
ground of the coaxial cable now that is soldered underneath this particular thing and then the
centre pin of the coaxial cable only comes out here. So, what we do and there is a hole has
been drilled over here and that centre pin is gets soldered at this particular point; that means,
feed is over here even though the connecter is connected over here. So, here is a coaxial
cable.
I will repeat coaxial cable is here that coaxial cable outer jacket is removed only the metallic
portion is there that metallic thing which is a ground thing is connected completely soldered
all along this and the centre pin only comes over here connects to the top line and then you
can see that all these things are connected to the top line and all of these are connected to the
bottom line and these 2 are at outer phase and that is how the dipole antennas it is maintained
it is out of it, but now as I mentioned since it is not the optimum value of the σ. So, what
really happens that the spacing between the 2 is not really λ/2 at the active frequency region
what is active frequency region I will just mention that at the lowest frequency this one will
excite and maybe little bit of this will excite at the in-between frequency these will be excited
so; that means, that will form the active region at the highest frequency these dipole antennas
will be excited.
That means, as you increase the frequency of operation. So, at the lowest frequency these will
be active as frequency increases active region will actually move towards this. So, for any in
between thing for example, these will act as these will act as reflector these will act as
director for this one over here again all of these will act as reflector and all of these will act as
director. So, by choosing this value here what we have done since the spacing has not been
maintained properly that is why you can see that there is a large variation in the gain. So,
since our requirement was of the order of this here we did beat the requirement and we did
fabricate this particular antenna also and we want to now show you the measured results of
this here. So, these are the measured S 11 of the printed LPDA.
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Now, you can see this is the response here actually speaking this is the reference line which is
0 dB this line here which is not very properly visible that is about minus 10 dB, One can
actually notice that in between it has slightly crossed minus 10 dB line. So, we have defined
here S 11 less than minus 9 dB, minus 9 dB corresponds to VSWR of approximately 2.1
which is acceptable for very large band antenna and over here for this value bandwidth is
from 0.64 GHz to 3.74 GHz. So, you can see that in a very simple manner one can realize a
broadband antenna with gain of around 7 dB ± 0.7 dB which can be improved slightly, but
you can see that the fabrication is very very simple you just take a glassy epoxy substrate,
print it on this use a feed line be careful about the feed line. I am repeating it that this is very
very important how you feed it otherwise the radiation will not be proper by doing this
particular thing then the radiation is of course, in end fire direction.
Just to summarize them we have talked about today log periodic antenna. So, we started with
a very simple concept that you start with the lowest frequency to let us say the highest
frequency, you choose the dipole antennas corresponding to the lowest and the highest
frequency, but what we recommend that you add 1 larger dipole antenna which will act as a
reflector and you add a few smaller elements which will act as directors so that you can take
care of the decrease in the gain at the 2 end points.
By using this scheme you can get relatively flatter gain over very large bandwidth then we
looked at the design for a frequency range from 54 to 216 then we saw the results for 54 to
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806 MHz which basically covers the entire TV band from VHF to UHF and we had also seen
there, the problem was the gain at the lower frequency was relatively lower and I told you the
solution the solution would have been very simple just put one reflector behind it that would
have given us relatively flatter gain and then we used the same concept to extend to cover the
cellular bands right from 800 MHz up to 2500 MHz and we looked at the simulated results as
well as measured results.
We conclude with that today’s lecture and in the next lecture, we will talk about reflector
antenna. So, several types of reflector antennas, we will talk about plane reflector then we
will talk about coordinal reflector and then we will talk about parabolic reflector antenna. So,
with that thank you very much, work hard and do lot of design practice and these are very
useful antenna for several application. So, do the practice and then do the simulation and
fabrication.
With that thank you again, bye.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 12
Lecture - 53
IE3D Session TA-I
Hello, I am Rinkee Chopra, I am a PhD student at IIT Bombay, also I am a teaching assistant
for this course. So, today I am going to take a lecture on computational simulation software.
So, let me start the lecture on computational simulation software.
As we all know to solve any problem in electromagnetics, we use Maxwell equations. So,
Maxwell equations are basically defined in two form differential equations or integral
equations, but to solve any complex problem, it is difficult to explain with the help of
Maxwell equations. So, many numerical techniques have been defined like finite difference
time domain method finite element method and method-of-moment. So, finite element
method and finite difference time domain method; both use difference equations to solve any
electromagnetic problem whereas, the method of moment it uses the integral equation to
solve Maxwell equations. So, to solve these equations on the background many software have
been designed like IE3D, CST microwave studio and HFSS. IE3D stands for integral
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equation 3 dimensional software; CST microwave studio stands for computer simulation
technology microwave studio and HFSS stands for high frequency structure stimulation.
Let me now start with the basics of IE3D. IE3D is a field solver which solves the
electromagnetic field equations with the help of integral equations it utilizes the method of
moment which is based on the Green’s function which is basically based on the weighted
complex residual method.
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Now, let me tell about the IE3D application programs and capability, now if you open the
IE3D interface, you will see many options like one is MGRID. So, MGRID is a basic major
layout editor for construction of a structure in this basically we design a polygon we edit a
polygon we see the current distribution and such type of things.
The second is the MODUA it is the schematic editor for parametric display and for the co-
circuit simulation like if we want to simulate an antenna with the lumped elements like RLC
then with the help of MODUA, we can simulate this. Then Pattern View, it is a post processor
which is used to analyze the post processing parameters like current distribution S parameters
and other things next is IE3D library. So, IE3D library is used to realize the high level
parameterization. Next is AGIF that is used to generate the 3D structures in the form of
cadence file then is line gauge, line gauge is used to calculate the transmission line
parameters.
So, let us start with IE3D. So, first to start IE3D, we need to IE3D program manager.
Now, when you open program manager you will click here you will find MGRID pattern
view MODUA, IE3D library line gauge MD spice and AGIF and I have already told you
what is the significance of each particular sub menu in this menu.
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The second step when we open the MGRID one window pop up, in the file menu we want to
create a new project then we use to open the file menu and to create a new project just click
on the new part.
When you open the new part then one window will pop up and it will look similar to this
window this is called as the basic parameter window, now if you see there are many such
windows here, first one is comment, this is just to give the comments if you want to mention
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like if you are defining any substrate like FR 4 and if you want to give the details of this
particular substrate then you can mention here FR 4 substrate and such type of things.
Then second is length - in this the unit is given, here you can set different units like mm,
micrometer, etc. This is minimum, the minimum length, it can tolerate that is given now
second is a layout and the grid the resolution of the layout and grid is given then the
enclosure part and the next part is a matching parameters. So, here all the matching
parameters are given like matching frequencies, cells per wavelength and the scheme which
is used to simulate and the low frequency that is low frequency it means here it is given NF3
at 0.002 GHz, it means that at 0.002 GHz, it is creating 3 frequency points. Then automatic
edge cell, the automatic edge cell is used to define the meshing towards the edges. So, if we
enable this particular function then it provides finer meshing towards the edge which is
helpful in our simulation and which provides us better accuracy.
Then this is mesh alignment, this is the comment related to the mesh alignments and the next
part is the substrate related specifications the first one is the substrate layer, now if you see
here the by default 2 layers are given. So, the lower one is the ground layer if you see here it
is written ztop = 0, ε r = 1. So, this one is ground layer. Now let me show the interface first, I
am just opening MGRID.
This was the option, I am creating a new project. So, here is the window, now if you see this
lower most layer, in this, if you see one window pops up. So, here you need to define the
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specification if you are defining any substrate. So, in this case if you see for the ground
substrate it is by default its z top will be 0 and you cannot modify the top coordinate of z axis
and the εr is 1 and the conductivity is very high that is why it is ground plane.
Now, if you see the second layer that shows the upper half which is air. So, by default, 2
layers will be selected, now if you want to define a substrate then you need to define a
substrate, this one is to insert a layer these 2 options are to insert a layer and the third one is
to delete the layer. So, just to define a substrate here you need to give the comments if you
want to give the comments for the substrates or if you want to define a substrate then you
need to define a substrate here. So, let me take a substrate let us take the substrate as RT
Duroid 5880 with thickness of 0.8. So, my thickness is 0.8 in that case z top should be 0.8,
because the lower most z top is 0. So, it should be 0.8, the ε r for RT Duroid 5880 is 2.2. So, I
am putting that 2.2 and the loss tangent for RT Duroid 5880 is 0.001.
The rest of the things will be as it is because these are the things which are given to us for RT
Duroid 5880 then press ok, now if you see, one layer is created above z top equals to 0. So,
this is how we introduce a new layer now if you press ok, this is my MGRID window.
Now, here you can see, this particular section is called as layout editor window and this one is
called as status window, now if you can see here if we are moving our cursor, the position of
x, y and z, dx, dy, dz, these are changing. So, this is showing the status of the cursor and the
dx and dy are the respective location with respect to the last point. Now if you see this section
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this is called as the layer window, in this section 3 windows are given this is corresponding to
0.8, this is corresponding to the ground layer, in this section you can check different type of
layers like in elevated mode the whatever layer is you have selected that will be shown on the
top and the other layer will be shown on the bottom, but in actual scenario, they will be on
the top whatever in whatever way you design.
Now, if you want to change it, if you do not want to show the other layers, you were just want
to show only that layer which you have selected then you select this option or if you want to
show other layers in the form of contour then you can select those things. So, in this way you
can proceed, in the last section this is called as the information window and here it shows the
operations that you perform plus the details of geometry and the substrate. Now here you see
these 3 layers which were defined, these are given and the metallic type, these type of details
are given here. Now if you see on this window there are multiple menus. So, this menu if you
see this is file menu, this is basically the conventional menu now if you want to create a
project. So, in the conventional file you can create the file and you can open the file, save and
merge different files. So, same menus are available here you can see here, this one is new,
open, save, save as, etc.
The second is edit. So, in the edit part you can draw the polygon, you can copy, you can paste
and you can do such type of operations, the next is parameter window in this you can define
different parameters, you can modify parameters, you can play around with the parameter like
if you want to change the color of parameter then you can change from here and if you want
to display multiple parameter if you want to do such type of operation then such type of
operations you can do from here.
The next is the input part this input menu mainly deals with the vertex related operations. So,
if you want to define the particular if you know the vertex and if you want to define your
polygon in terms of vertex then you can use this particular menu. The next is the advance edit
option. So, advance edit is used to accommodate the additional edit related operations. So,
different menus are introduced in this particular section like if you want to check the
electrical connections, if you want to dig a hole or such type of things you can do in this
particular section. The next is entity. So, this is used to create the different types of polygons
pre defined polygons like if you see here this is rectangle, symmetrical t junction, y junction,
etc these types of geometries you can create from here.
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The next is related to port, this is used to excite the port, you can find different type of ports
you can create a port, you can change the location of port and you can see at what location it
is from the port properties and also you can delete from this section. The next is the
optimizer, now if you want to optimize a particular geometry if you want to optimize a
particular variable then you need to use this particular option, the next is the viewpoint. So, if
you want to change the view of this particular layout editor then you can change with the help
of this particular menu
Next one is Process, in the process you use this to simulate and to check the post process
parameter like S parameter, current distribution, radiation pattern and such type of things
whichever is required to process any antenna or microstrip circuits. Next is the window. So,
this is used to check the different type of window like if you want to see the geometry in the
different window then you need to select this option if you want to see the meshing mesh
view then you need to see this option, if you want to check the current distribution part then
you need to select this option and like that. So, that is all. So, let me see here.
Now, since let us start with this particular software. So, substrate so far we have designed,
now if we want to design any particular microstrip circuit; let us say we want to design a
rectangular microstrip antenna. So, we need to have one thing is we need to have a frequency,
the second thing is we need to have a substrate. So, substrate we assume that we are using RT
Duroid 5880.
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The specifications for RT Duroid 5880 are that ε r equals to 2.2, tan δ equals to 0.0012 and
thickness is 0.8 and that substrate layer we have already defined.
We know from the conventional theory of microstrip antenna is these are the equations which
we used calculate the dimensions like L and W. Now we want to design right now we want to
design the square MSA. So, these are the equations which we will use the frequency that we
are using is 5.8 GHz. So, if you will calculate with the help of this equation, you put in this
equation, calculate W and then you calculate epsilon effective then you calculate δ L and after
that you calculate this L, this L is a physical L that you will use when you will start designing
a particular antenna.
You can also calculate the length using the line gauge parameter as I told you earlier that with
the help of line gauge you can calculate the different microstrip line parameters. So, all you
need to do is just select the line gauge from the option of MGRID, like if you see here; here
line gauge is given just open this, now if you see here there are different options like coaxial
lines, coplanar wave guide, etcetera now. So, right now we are interested in microstrip.
We just select microstrip here you see different options are given you need to just give this
specification and hence accordingly your effective L and W will be calculated. So, the
frequency in at which that we are interested is 5.8 GHz and this is 2.2 relative permittivity of
RT Duroid 5880 and the thickness that we were using is 0.8 and this is metal strip thickness.
So, generally we take it either 0.002 or 0.004, just keep it as it is now we know for the
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substrate it inverts its phase from one end to another end. So, it should be around 180. So,
electrical length should be 180 degree. So, if you calculate it will come around this. This is
approximately same as the equation we calculated.
Now, if you see the calculated length was around 16.74 while in that with the help of line
gauge it was around 18 and just roughly saying not exactly say, but rough idea you get from
with the help of line gauge. So, let us start making the polygon go the MGRID.
Now, from here now, you see you go to entity part, select rectangle, now if you see here, you
need to give the reference point; the centre point where you want to make your polygon. So,
let us right now let us take it at centre. So, keep x coordinate at 0, y coordinate at 0 and we
need to check at which layer we want to design. So, we need; we want to design our patch
antenna over the substrate here. So, the z coordinate should be 0.8, but by default the layer
selected was z equals to 00. So, let us select first this co-ordinate now you design; now you
can see here z coordinate is 0.8. So, it will depend which layer you select accordingly z
coordinate will be shown here. So, the length should be 16.74 and the width should be 16.74
to design a square MSA, now if you see just click on all you can see the geometry this is my
square polygon.
If you see here in this window, in green there is a dotted line. So, this dotted line; it shows
that it has infinite conductivity and it is a ground plane. Now if you design anything on this
particular layer then it will be like you are cutting a slot on infinite ground plane because by
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default it is a ground plane with infinite length and infinite width. So, if you are designing
anything above that. So, it is equivalent to that you are cutting a particular slot in that
particular thing. So, this is my rectangular MSA now you. So, far you have designed the
rectangular MSA and the next thing is you need to excite to excite it we need to define a port.
So, the length in this case is around 16.74. So, here we are not using any broadband
technique. So, the approximate feed point location should be from L/6 to L/4 just to give a
start point.
Let us take it around 2.5, select entity, go to probe feed to patch then here you need to select
the location where you want to provide your feed. So, this is 2.5, now y coordinate, I want to
keep as it is; this is the number of segments because you are defining probe feed that will be
in the form of cylinder and the cylinder will be decided in the terms of circle. So, the number
of segments the finer the more the number of segments the finer would be the circle.
Let us take it 12 then this is a start z coordinate and these are this will show you the layers in
between you want to connect your conductor. So, this should be 0 and 0.8 because 0 is my
ground plane and at 0.8 we have a patch. So, my conductor should be connected between
these 2 layers and in this case, the negative level should be defined at the ground level. So, it
should be 0 and we need to define in between some positive levels. So, by default it is 0.08.
So, we need to just take it above the ground plane. So, we may keep it as a 0.08 or we may
keep it like 0.01 that should be enough.
Here we are providing a coaxial feed. So, in this case, since we are dealing with C band for
this particular antennas 5.8 GHz, so we will use SMA type of connector and the radius of
SMA type of connector is 0.6 mm. So, let us give it 0.6 mm, put it, sorry I could not enable
this particular thing, select then you select this and delete then again entity, probe feed to
patch, last time I did not enter here. So, that is why my feed location was at centre. So, if I
entered then this is my center position, this is 12 number of segments start z coordinate is 0
end z coordinate is 0.8 and negative level is 0, positive level is 0.01 around and this should be
0.6 then press ok.
Now, if you see, this is my feed point location, now we need to simulate it, before simulation
we need to save it. So, let us first save it let us save it, square MSA, this is we have saved.
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Now, we have to simulate it. So, then go to process you see, here we have simulate option
start simulation, now if you see here we have different options the first is meshing frequency,
this frequency should be higher than our operating frequency. So, in our case we are
designing it for 5.8 GHz. So, let us take it around 6.5 GHz. So, larger will be the frequency,
finer would be the meshing, but the time will increase. So, it is generally desirable that
whatever is meeting your requirement like 6.5 would be would suffice for our case. So, that is
why I have taken 6.5.
Now, the second option is automatic edge cell, now if you see here, automatic edge cell
means that it is providing you a meshed structure and the meshing towards the edges will be
finer which will increase the accuracy of the our results. So, we need to enable it, we check
here now if you see the frequency we defined that is given here, this is second option is cells
per wavelength. So, this is the; how many cells we are dividing per wavelength that
information is given and the low frequency part that I have already told you, now if you see
here a is the layer that is not enabled, here no is written.
To enable it you need to make it 1, there are different options you can see here, depending
upon the accuracy we need to select the options now for like basic antennas or 3 dB coupler,
this 1 is now if you want to design a high accuracy coupler then you need to select the layer 2
or the higher versions so, but for antennas 1 is ok, so just press ok. if you here see, it is
showing us the details corresponding to the machine part. So, the number of cells with
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automatic edge cell and the minimum surface cells, this type of information is given here,
now you need not to do anything else here, just press ok.
You see here right, this is you see here the scheme is given that I have already used some type
of scheme, the next is adaptive SMSA, this is a scheme which runs in the big ground of this
particular software. So, this is a, this uses multiple CPU to simulate the antennas. The next
part is we need to define the frequency. Here let us take it from 5, start give the start
frequency then end frequency and the number of frequency points. So, just you need to give
the sufficient frequency points. So, that it should be able to calculate results properly by
picking the frequency points. Let us take 151, you can see corresponding to this, all the
frequency points are given.
One more thing I want to say Adaptive Intelli-Fit it is given here, now if you see here, if you
enable if you check this particular option it will pick some frequency points from this
particular range and then calculate the corresponding fields and then extrapolate your data
and then show you the results. If you enable this particular option it will give you good
accuracy with relatively less time, but if you disable this particular option then it will
calculate at all the frequency points and your simulation time will increase. So, this is how
you will proceed.
In this lecture firstly, we discussed about different types of software and then we moved
ahead towards IE3D program manager and then we designed basic microstrip antenna array
and then we made the polygon. In the next lecture, we will discuss about the post processing
parameters like current, S parameter, VSWR and gain, directivity, efficiency and such types
of parameters.
Thank you for listening.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 12
Lecture - 54
IE3D Session TA-II
Hello everyone. I am Hemant Kumar, one of the teaching assistant for this course. In today’s
lecture we will learn how to design antennas using IE3D. In previous lecture my colleague
already introduced the basics of IE3D software. So, in today’s lecture, we will design the
basic antennas such as microstrip, patch antenna and monopole antenna and some other
antennas. So, let us start with IE3D.
First start with Mgrid, then we will have this window. In this window we have file option; we
will design a new antenna. Here we are going to design a microstrip patch antenna at X-band
and the substrate we have used is RT duroid 5880. So, first we have to select the dielectric
layer from this option, you can see here z top. Z top is the thickness of our substrate that we can
give as 0.031 inches, which is equivalent to 0.787 mm.
Then dielectric constant of the substrate which is 2.2 then loss tangent of the substrate 0.001
then, press ok. So, we have introduced one dielectric layer, then press ok. So, layout editor
window is introduced, in this window we will design our patch antenna. The dimensions of
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the microstrip patch antenna, you can find out easily using the formulas available. You can
also easily find out these using the line gauge in the IE3D software.
So, the dimension found out to be, for a microstrip patch antenna at a center frequency of 9.3
GHz. So, at 9.3 GHz we have found out the patch antenna dimensions which is 10.2 by 10.2.
So, we can select a rectangle from this IE3D Mgrid window rectangle option and we are
going to design a metallic patch at z is equal to 0.787. So, the length of the patch is 10.2 mm
width 10.2 as we are going to design a square MSA. So, now, press ok. Now you can see a
one patch at a layer of 0.787.
So, next task is to give the feed. To give the feed we will go to the entity, option go to entity
option then probe-feed to patch. Now the next is where we have to feed, the location can be
taken as l by 6. So, for this we have optimized this and we have found out the value of feed
location is 1.4 mm from the center. So, press enter, number of segments for the circle you can
take any value between 8 to 16 or 32, it is ok. So, I am taking as a 16, start z coordinate
which is 0 end z coordinate that is our substrate height, negative level 0 positive level, it is
generally taken as between 1/10 to the 1/100 th of the substrate thickness. So, it is taken as a
1/100th of our substrate thickness that is 0.787 and the radius of a connector which is 0.6 for
SMA connector, so 0.6 then press ok.
So, you can see we have introduced the coaxial feed. Next task is to save this geometry. So,
save this save as, you can save as test_MSA_X-band. So, now, we want to simulate it, to
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simulate we have to give the some parameters first is matching frequency which is the
highest frequency. So, the maximum frequency you can take is 12 GHz and the number of
cells per wavelength because it is a simple structure 30 mesh cells are enough and automatic
edge cell as in the previous class it was explained what is AEC. So, select AEC layer one then
press ok, then we have to give the number of frequency samples. So, enter start frequency 8.5
GHz end frequency you want to simulate up to 9.8 GHz. The difference between the start
frequency and the end frequency is roughly 1.3 GHz. So, you can take the number of points
such that the step frequency will be 0.01 GHz.
So, the software simulates ours design at every 0.01 GHz difference. So, you can take as a
131 samples then press ok. If you select this option click on this, then it will select all the
points. Then it will simulate at all the points which will take a very high time. So, no need to
click on this option. Now it will select some random points and it will simulate on those
points and to find out the radiation pattern we have to select this option also click on this a
new window will appear here you will see the angle total θs and total Φ’s in the 3-D there is a
θ elevation angle and Φ azimuth angle. So, 37 means because Φ varies from 0 to 360. So, it
divides the total angle 0 to 360 in 37 samples. So, every sample will be at angle of 10 degree.
Similarly for this θ because θ varies from 0 to 180, it divides the whole range in 37 samples
each samples having a difference of 5 degree. So, you can see 0, 5, 10, 15 and in Φ you can
see 0, 10, 20 degree, and next thing is press ok now you can simulate it for simulation press
ok it will take 5 to 10 seconds to simulate it. After simulation we will see the characteristics
of the antenna s parameters, VSWR, smith chart and then we will see the radiation pattern
also. So, now, we see a new window has been appeared. In this window you can see add
graph, graph definition in this add graph, delete graph, edit. So, first add graph, in this we
will add the s parameters, we can add s parameters, smith chart, VSWR. So, first we want to
see the s parameter, click on this. Then we want to see the s parameter in dB. So, click on the
dB option then press ok, we want to see the smith chart also. Then press add graph add smith
chart press ok.
Then again add graph if you want to see VSWR also, VSWR is generally seen in linear scale.
So, click VSWR. VSWR then press ok, now close this window. After closing this window
you will see the results. So, this is our s parameter. So, you can see approximately at 9.3 GHz
it is resonating. So, it have a S 11 less than -10 dB from this point which is approximately 9.1
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and this point is approximately 9.35. So, you can see a 250 MHz bandwidth for S 11 less than
-10 dB has been obtained. So, this is the information you can get from the s parameter.
Next is smith chart, this is our smith chart. So, from this graph you can see this is our 50 Ω
matched, at this end at this point the frequency is 8.5 and as the frequency is increasing
impedance is changing and at approximately 9.3 GHz it is matched with 50 Ω. So, it is
perfectly matched with 50 Ω.
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Next is VSWR, VSWR 2 is equivalent to S 11 or -9.6 dB. So, for this you can see the VSWR
2 bandwidth is from this point which is approximately 9.1 and this is approximately 9.35. So,
you can see 250 MHz bandwidth this is the VSWR plot.
Next you want to see the radiation pattern gain directivity you can go to the window option,
window here you can see the 3-D radiation pattern also. There are various tools are there,
gain versus frequency, effective gain versus frequency, axial ratio efficiency. So, first you
want to see the 3-D radiation pattern you can go to the 3-D radiation pattern just press ok. So,
you can see from this, this is our 3-D radiation pattern.
You want to see the 2-D radiation pattern close this, 2-D radiation pattern define 2-D
radiation pattern a new window will appear.
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Here you will see add plot option click on this, because the antenna is resonating at
approximately 9.3 GHz. So, you can select the frequency 9.22 approximately which is nearly
equal to 9.3. So, you want to see the radiation pattern in E plane, H plane all you have to
select Eθ and this angle Φ = 0 click on this this will give you E plane which will give you the
Eθ Φ=0 then EΦ Φ=0 you have to select 4 plots Eθ Φ=0, EΦ Φ=0, Eθ Φ=90, EΦ Φ=90. Eθ Φ=0
will give you E-co, E-co means, electric co polarization electric co polar component
Similarly, EΦ Φ=90 which give you H co-pol, in the H plane the co polar component and
these 2 components EΦ Φ=0, Eθ Φ=90 will give you the cross polar component. So, next task
is to select the plot style, plot style can be in the form of polar plots it can be in the form of
Cartesian plots. So, we have option of Cartesian and polar we generally go for polar plot,
select polar. Next is scale style you can see the radiation pattern in normalized form or in
terms of its gain value or directivity value, it depends upon the option you select scale style
dB gain if you select this option then it will show you the radiation pattern maximum value
will be equal to the gain of the antenna at that frequency. So, generally we see the normalized
radiation pattern to see the normalized radiation pattern select dB custom then press ok, then
continue.
Now, you can see there are 4 plots first plot is you can see this one this is E-co, E θ Φ=0,
second - this curve which shows you the cross polar component, third one is also cross polar
component in H plane, but very small. So, it is less than -40 dB. So, it is not possible to show
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in this plot next plot is EΦ Φ=90 which gives you the H co pol, co polar component in the H
plane. So, this is the radiation pattern.
You want to see the beam width of this antenna for 3 dB you can click on this for -3dB
because maximum value is 0 dB and for -3 dB you can approximately you can see this is
-2.95, approximately 3 dB. So, in the right side also you can see 2.9 which is approximately 3
dB. So, beam width is approximately -41 degree to -41. So, 82 degree is approximately the
beam width in the H plane and similarly you can find the beam width in the E plane also
because this is a square MSA. So, beam width in E plane and H plane are both same.
Next is you want to see the gain plot go to the window select maximum it will give you the
maximum value of the gain at every frequency sample. So, you can see at approximately at
9.25 GHz gain is maximum which is around 6.8 dBi.
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Similarly, you want to see the directivity there is an option to see the directivity versus
frequency, maximum press this is the directivity, next you want to see the efficiency there are
various efficiencies defined antenna efficiency radiance efficiency and some other
efficiencies. So, let us see the antenna efficiency and radiance efficiency. So, this curve shows
the radiation efficiency this curve shows the antenna efficiency
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In this way you can design a simple microstrip patch antenna. In this design we have taken
the ground plane as infinite size, but in reality we have a ground plane of finite size. So, now,
we will design the microstrip patch antenna on a finite ground plane.
Select new then to design a microstrip patch antenna on a finite ground plane first task is
select the z is equal 0 layer and in this window you can see the real part of the conductivity is
4.9 10 to the power 7. So, it gives you the conductivity value of the ground. So, ground has
the conductivity of very large 4.9 10 to the power 7 which is approximately you can say very
high value to define the ground plane as a finite size you have to first replace this value with
0. So, after replacing this by a 0 everything at z is equal to 0 is not a metal it is an air. So,
press ok.
Now, at z is equal to 0 there is no ground plane next task is to define a dielectric layer same
dielectric layer you can take 0.787 then dielectric constant at the 2.2 tan delta is 0.001 then
press ok and then press ok. Now you can define the size of the ground generally the size of a
ground plane is taken as 12 h or more or you can say 6 h or more on every side of the patch.
So, first design a patch at z is equal to 0.787 same procedure to design the patch now we have
a patch at z is equal to 0.787.
Next task is to design a finite ground plane of size which is greater than the patch size by a
value of 6 h on every side. So, you can say 6 h on this sides, 6 h on this side, 6 h on this side,
6 h on this side where h is the thickness of the substrate. So, thickness of the substrate is
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0.787. So, you multiply it by 6. So, you can take 5 mm on every side. So, the size of the
ground plane is because the size of the patch is 10.2 by 10.2. So, size of a ground plane you
can take as a 10.2+(12h). So, (10.2+12h) is approximately 20 mm this finite ground will be
introduced at z is equal to 0. So, change the z coordinate in this case 0, length is
approximately 20 mm, width approximately 20 mm. So, now, you can see this green patch
represents the ground plane and this orange colour represents the patch.
So, next is to give the feed, entity same procedure probe feed to patch, so give the feed
location press enter then number of segments for circle and the radius of the connector. Now
we have designed a microstrip patch antenna on a finite ground plane, now you can save this
geometry MSA_X-band with finite ground and save. Next task is to simulate it frequency is
12 GHz. So, in this case we have taken as a finite ground plane it will also account the
ground plane effect, it will take more time compared to the infinite ground plane size. So, in
this case you can take less number of celss approximately 20 then AEC enable take AEC
layer as 1 then enter 8.7 to 9.7, take number of points as 101. So, that it samples our range of
frequency at 0.01 GHz press ok you want to see the radiation pattern click on this press ok,
next is to simulate press ok.
Now, this antenna is on a finite ground plane. So, in previous design we have taken as infinite
ground plane which is not the real scenario, in the real application you have to use a finite
ground plane. So, in this simulation we have taken as a finite ground plane.
Next we will go for a stacked MSA. Now simulation is over you can add graph s parameter
dB, you want to see the smith chart - smith chart, VSWR you can add VSWR then press ok.
So, you can see the results and in the theory Sir already told that if you take the ground plane
size 6 h on every side more than the patch size then the effect of the ground plane can be
neglected. So, you can see the, it is also resonating at 9.3 GHz you can see the bandwidth for
10 dB you can see the bandwidth is approximately 250 MHz.
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Similarly, you can see the smith chart, this is the VSWR plot, you want to see the gain plot
maximum gain. So, this is the gain plot. Similarly you can see the radiation pattern 3-D
radiation pattern you can see 2-D radiation pattern this is your radiation pattern, this is at 8.7
GHz, in this left side you can see frequency is 8.7 GHz you want to change this frequency
press n it will go to the next frequency. So, now you can see 8.95 GHz 9.2 GHz 9.31 GHz.
So, similarly you can see the radiation pattern at all the frequency.
Next we can make it a circularly polarized antenna, circularly polarized antenna you can
design by giving it a second feed on y axis at equal distance as given on the x axis.
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So, here we have given second feed at the same location as given on the x axis on the first
feed. So, you can simulate this for simulation. In the second feed you have to introduce a 90
degree phase shift. So, to introduce a 90 degree phase shift you have to modify the inputs
from this modify option you can click on this here you can see we have given 0 degree to the
first input and 90 degree to the second input. So, then press ok, press ok, every other things
are same then press ok. Now you will see this antenna will become a circularly polarized
antenna you will see the radiation pattern will give you the circular polarization, instead of
linear polarization in single feed antenna
So, it is our. So, you can see it is resonating at approximately 9.3 GHz this is smith chart
VSWR, now we want to see the radiation pattern add plot, we want to see the radiation
pattern 9.3 GHz because this is a circularly polarized antenna. So, in this case instead of E θ EΦ
we will select E left Φ=0, E right Φ=0, E left Φ=90, E right Φ=90 and the same polar plot and scale
style you can take as a custom for normalization then press ok, then continue. You can also
modify the graph parameters right click on this window graph parameters then start from -40
dB end with 0 because it is normalized with respect to the gain. So, end value 0 and step you
can take a step of 5 or 10 I have taken as 10 as a step. So, now, you can see the first plot is E
left Φ 0 and this is your plot.
For second this is your E left Φ=90 other are two plots are E right Φ=0 and Eright Φ=90 these both
values are less than the E left value. So, from this you can say that this antenna is left hand
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circularly polarized antenna because the E left component value is greater than the Eright
component value.
You can also see the current distribution, you can see the current distribution by going to the
window option then in the window option you can see there is another option 3-D current
distribution display - click on this and you can see a new window will appear in this there is
option menu, in the option menu you can click the show 3-D scalar current. After that you
can see the 3-D vector current option will appear. So, click on this and on this you can see
this is your current distribution you can change the size of this vector go to the option then set
graph parameter from this you can change the vector size, vector size is here 0.44 you can
modify it to 2 3 any value then press ok, you can see now the vector size is changed and the
frequency is 8.5 GHz press n so that you can go to the next frequency, so 9.15, so it is 9.3
GHz, 9.4. So, this way you can see the current distribution at any frequency value.
So, you want to see the axial ratio because main property of a circular polarization is its axial
ratio is less than 3 dB because axial ratio it is the ratio of major axis to the minor axis. So, the
major axis is equal to the minor axis it will give you the value equal to 1. So, axial ratio 1 is
equivalent to 0 dB. In practical scenario we generally take any value less than 3 dB will be
treated as a circular polarized antenna. So, in axial ratio plot at Φ is equal to 0 the axial ratio
value then click Φ is equal to 0, then press ok.
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You can see the axial ratio curve in the entire range you can see the axial ratio is less than 1.4
dB. So, you can say that this antenna is left hand circularly polarized antenna with axial ratio
less than 1.4 every value which is less than 3 dB will be treated as a circular polarized
antenna in general if a value is greater than 3 dB an less than 6 dB it is treated as a elliptical
polarized antenna and greater than 6 dB generally treated as a linearly polarized antenna. So,
for single feed if you see the axial ratio plot you will see the axial ratio will be greater than 6
dB.
So, in this case we now designed a circularly polarized antenna. So, in today’s lecture we
have designed two antennas - one is a single feed linearly polarized square MSA with infinite
ground plane with finite ground plane. Next we have designed dual feed circularly polarized
micro strip antenna with infinite ground plane; you can also design the same antenna using
finite ground plane and see the results.
In the next lecture we are going to design a stacked MSA to increase the bandwidth because
in today’s lecture we have seen simple microstrip antenna has a very less bandwidth which is
we have seen 250 MHz approximately 3 percent. So, to increase the bandwidth we will
design a stacked microstrip antenna and we will also design some other antennas like 3-D
wire antenna very simple example of a 3-D wire antenna is monopole antenna. So, we will
design these two antennas in the next lecture.
Thank you.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 12
Lecture - 55
IE3D Session TA-III
Hello everyone in today’s lecture we will see how to design a stacked microstrip antenna
using IE3D.
So, let us start how to design an IE3D first we will have to select a new file, here we are
going to use infinite ground plane. So, there is no need to change the sigma value at z is
equal to 0. So, next we have to introduce one dielectric layer. We are going to use the
same substrate as we have used in the previous designs. So, the layer thickness is 0.787
the dielectric constant of the substrate is 2.2 loss tangent is 0.001 now press ok, now
press ok.
The dimensions of the patch on h is equal to 0.787 and because we are going to design a
stacked geometry. So, we are going to introduce one more substrate layer on which we
will design another patch and the dimensions you can find using the formulas available
in the book or you can also use line gauge option of the IE3D. So, first design a simple
microstrip patch antenna the dimension found out to be 10.5, 10.5 by 10.5 at thickness of
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the substrate is 0.787 now press ok. Now we have designed a one patch at z is equal to
0.787 because in a stacked geometry we have one substrate below this there is a infinite
ground plane on above of this substrate there is a metallic patch that we have designed
now. Now to design an electromagnetically coupled stacked microstrip antenna we have
to introduce some air gap, we will introduce the air gap between another layer of
substrate we will take another layer of substrate. Another layer of the substrate we can
introduce one more patch on the above of the upper substrate on the bottom of the upper
substrate. In the first case if we design the patch on the top of the upper substrate it is
simply known as electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna.
If you design this patch on the bottom of the upper substrate it is known as
electromagnetically coupled microstrip patch antenna in inverted mode. So, we are going
to design EMCP in inverted mode. So, first we have to go to the basic parameter window.
So, select this option basic parameter.
Now, we have to introduce one air gap layer. So, to introduce the air gap there are two
options to create a layer either you use this option or you use the next one. If you use this
option you will only have to give the thickness of the substrate no need to give the z top
value. So, to introduce one air gap layer click on this substrate layer because we are
going to introduce air on the above of this substrate, so click on this substrate layer then
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go to this option click on this. Now, substrate thickness, here the substrate thickness is
the air gap thickness.
The air gap thickness that we have optimized is 2.6 mm. So, substrate thickness which is
the air gap which is 2.6 the dielectric constant, the dielectric constant of the air is 1, so 1
is here loss tangent is 0 and other values will remain same, now press ok. So, we have
introduced one more layer at z is equal to 3.387 which is about 2.6 mm from the below
substrate layer. So, we have introduced one air gap layer. Next task is to generate one
more substrate on this layer z is equal to 3.387. So, we are going to introduce one more
substrate by clicking on this click on this and introduce a new layer with thickness is
equal to same as we have because we are going to use the same substrate with same
characteristics. So, the substrate thickness is 0.787 dielectric constant of the substrate is
2.2 loss tangent is 0.001 now press ok.
Now, we have introduced one air gap above air gap we have used one another substrate
on the bottom of the upper substrate we are going to design a patch which have a
dimensions that we have calculated using the formulas and the value is 10.7 by 10.7. So,
click on the rectangle and in this case the z coordinate will be equal to 3.387 this is our
substrate. So, thickness of this substrate is 0.787 after that we have air gap of 2.6, so the
z valve will be equal to 3.387. So, at 3.387 we have to design one patch with value 10.7
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by 10.7 now press ok. So, you can see at 3.387 we have introduced another patch and at
0.787 we have another patch with dimensions less than the patch dimensions at 3.387.
So, next task is to feed this antenna. We are going to feed the lower patch and the upper
patch will be electromagnetically coupled to the lower patch that is why this antenna is
known as electromagnetically straight microstrip antenna. So, to feed the antenna go to
the entity pro feed to patch and the optimized feed location for this antenna is x is equal
to 4.8 press enter 16, in this case to optimize we have taken as a radius of the probe is 0.3
mm press ok. In this case you can see the feed location is no more l by 6 it is much
higher than l by 6 why? Because in this case the bandwidth is very much higher than the
simple micro strip antenna, bandwidth in terms of VSWR or you can say impedance
variations. So, if the impedance variations are less bandwidth will be more. So, in this
case the impedance variations along the patch are very less. So, at the edge the
impedance is approximately equal to 50 Ω.
So, that is why we have shifted our feed location towards the edge. So, on next we have
to save this geometry. So, save this geometry as EMCP MSE; now simulate this
geometry take 30 mesh cells per wavelength enter the frequency. So, as this antenna is
very high bandwidth, you can simulate this antenna from 8 GHz to 11 GHz. So, number
of points you can take as a 301. So, next is AEC enable, press ok, then radiation pattern
press ok because this antenna have a multiple layer. So, this antenna for simulations it
will take more time compared to simple microstrip antenna.
The advantages of using this stack geometry is the bandwidth of this antenna is large
compared to the simple microstrip antenna and also you will see a little improvement in
the gain if we decrease the number of mesh cells then definitely it will take less time, but
may decrease your accuracy of the results.
So, now you can add plot S-parameter in dB you want to see the Smith Chart, Smith
Chart and VSWR plot we have added 3 graphs you can close this window.
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And now you can see the results, S-parameter is less than minus 10 dB from
approximately it is 8.25 you can see 8.25 and up to 10.2, so very large bandwidth. It is
approximately 2 GHz if you calculate in percentage it will give you roughly 21 percent.
So, a very large bandwidth we have obtained using stacked geometry.
This is the smith chart, you can see a loop - this loop is because there are two patches
resonating at different frequency this you can also see in the S-parameter, one patch is
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resonating nearly at this frequency another is resonating at this frequency. So, you can
see the bandwidth is improved by approximately 18 percent.
This is a VSWR plot VSWR is less than 2 from 8.2 to 10.2. Next we want to see the gain
you can see the gain press maximum ok.
And you can see gain is also increased in the previous simple MSA design the gain was
approximately 6.9 or you can say 7 dBi, in this case the maximum gain is 8.7 dBi. So,
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approximately 1.7 dB improvement in the gain and you want to see the 3-D geometry of
this design go to the window 3-D geometry display.
So, this is 3-D geometry of our antenna. So, you can see this, this is our lower substrate,
this is upper substrate, on the bottom of the upper substrate we have introduced one
patch on the top of the lower substrate we have introduced one another patch and this is
our coaxial feed we have given feed to the lower patch. So, this is the 3-D geometry you
can see in realty it is not possible to suspend the upper patch or substrate on the air. So,
you can use some kind of support on the four corners of the substrate.
So, this is electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna next we are going to design a
simple 3-D wire monopole antenna. We will design a monopole antenna on a infinite
ground plane first and then we will go to the finite ground plane, so file > new. For
infinite ground plane there is no need to change the sigma value, now press ok.
Now, we are going to design a monopole at 750 MHz approximately. So, if you find the
height of a monopole antenna which is approximately λ/4. So, at λ/4 if you calculate it
will give you 90 mm approximately and in this we are assuming that monopole is of
cylindrical wire. So, cylindrical wire means we have to take a circle and the radius of
that wire is 10 mm. So, the radius of that wire we have taken as a 10 mm at a height of
you can say at a height of 90 mm. So, the value of centre z coordinate will be equal to 90
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mm because we are going to design a circle at a height of 90 mm with radius of the circle
10 mm, then press ok. Now, you can zoom out.
So, you can see there is a circle at a height z is equal to 90 mm. Next we are going to
feed it; till now we have only designed one circle to design a cylindrical wire we have to
feed it go to the entity, probe feed to patch because this circle is designed with centre 00.
So, feed location will also be 00 and the number of segments of the circle is 16, start z
coordinate 0, end z coordinate 90, negative level 0, positive level is generally taken as a
1 by 100. So, if you take 1 by 100, 0.9 and radius we have to take the same radius of this
feed as we have taken for the circle at z is equal to 90 mm. So, the radius of the circle is
10 mm then press ok.
Now, this is your simple monopole antenna with infinite ground plane. You can see the
3-D geometry by going to window option then 3-D geometry display. You can zoom out
this and this is a simple monopole antenna with height 90 mm and radius of a wire 10
mm.
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So, next you want to simulate it, before simulation we will save this geometry monopole
with infinite ground plane, Save. So, this is a monopole antenna with infinite ground
plane. So, meshing frequency you can take as a 2 GHz because this antenna is designed
at 750 MHz approximately automatic edge cells you can take as a 1 and number of mesh
cells you can take 30.
Now next task is to enter the frequency components, you can simulate it from 0.5 GHz to
1.5 GHz. You can take number of points as, because the difference is 1.5 -0.5 which is 1
GHz. So, if you want to take the step of 0.01 GHz we have to take 101 number of
frequency components now press ok, you want to see the radiation pattern, press ok,
radiation patterns press ok, now simulate it. So, in this window you can add results s
parameter dB you want to see the Smith Chart you can add the Smith Chart, VSWR.
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So, you can see this antenna is approximately resonating at 0.8 GHz which is 800 MHz
and the bandwidth of the antenna is from 0.7 to 0.93 GHz for -10 dB.
So, this is our s parameters, this is the smith chart, this is VSWR.
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Next is to you want to see the radiation pattern 3-D radiation pattern; this is the 3-D
radiation pattern.
You can see there is no back lobes are there because we have taken the ground plane as
infinite size. So, there is no radiations on the back side. Next we will design with finite
ground plane then you will see there will be back radiations also. So, if you want to see
the 2-D radiation pattern add plot because it is resonating approximately at 0.7 to 0.95.
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So, you can take as 0.75 as one point Eθ, EΦ, Φ=0 and Φ=90 you want to see in the polar
form.
So, this is the, you can see the radiation pattern is half of figure of 8, you can modify the
graph parameters. So, this you can see there is no back radiation because we have taken
the size of a ground plane as infinite. You want to see the gain plot, go to the window >
gain versus frequency next press ok.
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So, approximately you can see the gain over the bandwidth is more than 4 dB the
maximum gain is approximately 4.8, you can see the maximum gain is 4.8 at 0.75 GHz.
So, this is the simple monopole antenna with infinite ground plane.
Next we will design a simple monopole antenna with finite ground plane. We will
generate a new file. So, in this case at z is equal to 0 we will replace this 4.9x10 7 value
with 0. So, we have replaced the conductivity with 0. So, now, there is no ground plane
at z is equal to 0. Now press ok, whatever we are going to design at z is equal to 0 will be
of metal. So, at z is equal to 0 there is no ground plane. So, first of all we have to find out
the radius of the ground plane because in this case we are assuming that the ground plane
is of circular because we have taken the cylindrical wire. So, the symmetricity will not be
lost if we take the circular ground plane. So, we have taken a circular ground plane after
optimization or you can say because in the theory we have seen the ground plane radius
should be greater than the λ/4 of the antenna.
So, you can take the radius of the ground plane is approximately greater than the height
of the antenna which is λ/4. So, you can take as 160 mm or you can take more, you can
optimize this value, now press ok.
Now, you can see there is a one circle at z is equal to 0. So, this is our ground plane next
we are going to design our monopole. So, the height of the monopole is 90 mm. So, take
another circle, but at this time the height will be equal to 90 mm, put z is equal to 90;
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radius of the monopole cylindrical wire is 10 mm now press ok. Now you can see there
is another circle at z is equal to 90 mm.
Next task is to feed this antenna which will generate our monopole wire probe feed to
patch. So, for probe feed to patch go to the entity, probe feed to the patch centre will
remain 00, number of segments for circles 16 start z coordinate 0, end z coordinate 90,
negative level which is 0, positive level 100 of a thickness of our antenna that is in this
case the height is 90 mm, so 1 by 100th of 90 you can take as a 9 or a 1 by 1000 also in
some cases if the height is very large you can take as a 1 by 1000. So, in this case you
can take as a 0.9 and the radius of the wire is 10 mm, now press ok. .
So, this geometry is a monopole antenna with finite ground plane, you can see this using
window option go to 3-D geometry.
You can see this green color shows ground plane and this wire is our monopole. So, this
is a monopole antenna with finite ground plane. So, we can change the radius of this
finite ground plane easily. Next save this geometry, so monopole with finite ground plane
now simulate this maximum frequency 2 GHz, we will take less number of mess cells
because this we have designed with the finite ground plane if we take a more number of
cells it will take very large time now press enter to give the number of samples, start
frequency 0.5 GHz, end frequency 1.5, number of samples you can take as a 101 which
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will give you 0.01 GHz as a step, so press ok. You want to see the radiation pattern press
ok, radiation pattern AEC enable, you want to see AEC enable, ok.
Now, in this case if we see the radiation pattern you will see the radiation pattern will no
longer be a half figure of eight, it will be a complete figure of eight because we have not
taken infinite ground plane we have taken a finite ground plane and a finite ground plane
monopole antenna is equivalent to a dipole antenna. So, in this case the gain will also be
less because there are some back radiations also. So, the area covered by the antenna is
less, so gain will be less. So, now, you can add S-parameter plot dB you want to see the
smith chart now close this window, now you can see this antenna is resonating
approximately at 780 MHz and less than -10 dB bandwidth is from 0.7 to 0.89. So, this is
resonating at 787 MHz, now you want to see the Smith Chart this is Smith Chart, now
you want to see the 3-D radiation pattern then press ok.
In this case you can see there are back radiations also. So, you want to change the
frequency here it is 0.5 GHz, this 0.6 GHz, 0.75, 0.87 where it is resonating, this is not
completely figure of eight, but yes it is radiating more in the upward direction if you
further reduce the size of the ground plane it will become figure of eight. You can see the
2-D radiation pattern by going to the window option, then see 2-D radiation pattern add
plot because it is resonating at 0.75 approximately. So, you can take 0.75.
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So, Eθ, EΦ, Φ=0 and Φ=90 you want to see the polar plot dB custom form then click
continue modify the graph parameters -40, 0, 10. So, you can see proximately of figure
of 8. So, this is our radiation pattern of a monopole antenna which is equivalent to a
radiation pattern of dipole antenna.
So, we can say a monopole antenna with finite ground plane is equivalent to a dipole
antenna. Next you want to see the gain, gain plot go to the max, you can see the gain is 2
dB which is the gain of a dipole antenna, in previous case where we have taken as a
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infinite ground plane the gain was 4.5 dB. So, you can see the gain is also reduced
because the area covered is decreased. So, in this case gain is less because of finite
ground plane.
So, with this I conclude today’s lecture. In today’s lecture we have designed one
electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna to increase the bandwidth and in that we
have seen that gain is also improved by 1.7 dB, next we have designed one monopole
antenna with finite ground plane and infinite ground plane.
Thank you.
789
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 12
Lecture – 56
Reflector Antennas-I
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Reflector Antennas. Till now we have talked about
several different types of antennas, but reflector antennas by far can provide the largest
possible gain compared to all other antennas. In fact, there are reflector antennas which can
give gain of 40 dB, 50 dB, 60 dB and even 70 dB. And when we talk about all these numbers
40 dB is equivalent to gain of 10000, 50 dB is gain of 100000 and 60 dB is gain of 1 million
times and 70 dB would mean 10 million times gain.
So, let us talk about reflector antennas which can give such kind of a large gain. And we will
first start with the very basic thing; are reflector antenna with plane reflector, then we will
talk about curved reflectors and after that we will talk about the largest antennas which are
available in the world also. So, let us starts on reflector antennas.
So, this is the today’s topic Reflector Antennas.
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Now, we have divided it into two categories: one is a flat reflector antennas and another one
is a curved reflector antenna which we will see in the next slide. Now the flat reflector
antenna let us say here is a feed and we put a reflector behind this here. So what happens, this
particular feed will radiate: suppose if it is a dipole antenna, so dipole antenna will radiate in
this particular fashion and in that particular case the radiation going towards the reflector will
reflect back. So, there will be no radiation in the backside and there will be more radiation in
the front side.
In fact, we talk about this particular concept for Yagi-Uda antenna also. However, in case of a
Yagi-Uda antenna if you recall we had actually taken a one dipole antenna and then behind
that dipole antenna we had put another reflector antenna, and we are mentioned that the
reflector antenna should be greater than the dipole antenna dimension. So, the dipole antenna
would actually radiate something like this; that is what is the Omni pattern of course,
directional is in this fine and then we put a reflector. So, in case of a Yagi-Uda we are put a
linear antenna or the linear dimension which act as a reflector.
But now, what we are going to talk about is a planar reflector. And instead of behind the
dipole if we take a wire, so then we know that the dipole is going to radiate there. So,
whatever is going in this direction it is not effectively getting blocked by this particular thing,
but when we take a planar reflector something like this along with that we put a reflector
which is let us say little larger. So, if you have a reflector of this particular nature which is
known as a planar reflector then in that particular case we can see that there will be more
radiation in the front side and much lesser radiation in the back side. So, this is the one of the
thing which is a planar reflector.
Now instead of using a planar reflector we can also use a corner reflector. So, we have a one
plate here another plate over here and again this one is shown here as a dipole antenna.
Basically, this is the top view. So, if you look from the top side you will only see a point of
the dipole antenna and this is the reflector antenna. Now generally speaking when we do the
derivation what we are going to do; we will assume that these dimensions are infinite, but we
also know that nothing is possible which will have a infinite dimension.
So, we will talk about what is the effect of the finite dimension and what is the minimum
finite dimension we should take here.
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Now, let just look at the curved reflector antenna. Now there are two most important types of
a curved reflector antenna, we will also talk about little variations also in time to come. One
of the important one is a prime focus reflector. So, let us start with what it is. So, this is a
parabolic shape reflector: you might have studied in your physics course or early
mathematics course that parabola shape has a property that the rays which are coming from
the infinity after the reflection they will focus at the focal point.
Or in this particular case here if you put a feed at the focal point and let us say that feed is
radiating in this direction, so after the reflection they will all come back over here. And we
can see that these rays will be parallel to each other. And if we look at any plane over here we
would like that these thing should be in the same phase. In fact, that is the property of a
parabola that after the reflection all these things are in the same phase.
So, now this is the one configuration we are put the feed at the focal point. Now this is
another configuration which is known as a Cassegrain reflector. What you can see over here
that this is the parabolic reflector and the feed has been put over here and then there is a sub
reflector which has a hyperbola shape. So, from here if we feed this particular point; so from
here the feed will radiate in this direction, so it will reflect from this hyperbola reflect back
over here and goes here. So, we can see that the reflector wave is again parallel to the each
other. And this is reflector is what is the basic concept, in fact it is very similar to this over
here except for the difference here there is a one feed, whereas over here there is still a one
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feed but we have now two reflector. So, this is known as a sub reflector this is known as main
reflector.
And I will just highlight you when a Cassegrain is generally used. So, generally Cassegrain is
used if you want to transmit very high power. Now very high power can be generated using
let us say different devices are there for some example: magnetron, traveling wave tubes,
Klystron and other thing. Now those devices you can see specially designed for very high
power would also require very large power supply. So, generally those things are put behind
the reflector here, so somewhere here those things will be put and then directly the output of
that will be connected to the feed here. Now if instead of this suppose if this high power is
supposed to be put over here, if we put that here there will be a lot of blockage which will
take place.
Now we can think about ok, why not we put something over here, but then we will have to
provide either a coaxial connection or a waveguide connection. Now of course, for very high
power coaxial cable may not be a good solution because coaxial cables have a limit on the
higher power limit, whereas waveguide in general can handle higher power but then this
waveguide will also act as a blockage, waveguide will also have some losses we may have to
provide waveguide also.
And when we talk about high power we are talking about there are reflector antennas which
transmits about 1 megawatt pulse power also. So, that is really a very huge power and the
generators would be vary big and bulky. So, in general Cassegrain reflectors are preferred
when specially we want to use as a very high power transmitter. Even though Cassegrain
reflector has a one major disadvantage and that is at this area sees a blockage, because of the
large hyperbola shape here.
So, that is the reason generally people try to avoid this configuration until unless high power
application is there. In general we will focus on prime focus reflector only in time to come,
but today we will start with the very simple thing and that is the vertical dipole antenna over
infinite perfect ground plane which is nothing but it will act as reflector here.
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So let us see here: here is a small dipole antenna which is put over here. And in this plane we
have put a infinite ground plane and when we say perfect ground plane that would mean σ is
equal to infinity. Just to tell you for copper and aluminium σ value of the order of let us say 5
x 107, but for infinite it will be perfect ground plane. But you can see that 5 x 10 7 is also very
large number. So, whether you put aluminium or copper or any metallic sheet that will work
as a good reflector.
So now that has been put over here, and if there is infinite shape there will be a mirror image
of this here. So, if you want to find out what is the radiation pattern at faraway point we can
apply the array theory: the array theory will be nothing but we have a one element and the
other element if this element is at distance h the image will be also at a distance h.
So, now just think about suppose if this dipole antenna is right over here. So now dipole
antenna how they radiate? Well, it radiates nothing in this direction the radiation will be zero
in this and maximum in this. So, which is something like this is over here, which is a kind of
sine variation. Now there will not be a back radiation because of the infinite ground plane.
So, one can see that the small dipole antenna has a gain of about 1.5. And if there is a no
radiation in the back side because of the infinite ground plane then the gain of the dipole
antenna now will become instead of 1.3 it will be 3. And now if the dipole antenna is moved
up; that means, there will be now spacing between the dipole antenna and larger than spacing
we know that array factor will yield us larger gain.
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So, let us see what happens when dipole antenna is right at the value h equal to 0, and what
happens if h increases.
So, here is the plot of the directivity versus height as well as the radiation resistance. Let us
first look at the directivity curve. So, one can see that when height is equal to 0 here then the
directivity is equal to 3. The reason for that I just explained; that dipole is only going to
radiate in the upper hemisphere. So, hence its directivity will increase by 2 times. So, for a
normal small dipole antenna it is 1.5, for this case the directivity will become 3.
Now, as the height increases what will happen? Array factor will start giving a some array
factor value multiplied by the pattern directivity. And that this is what you see over here that
the gain has gone to about close to 6. I just want to mention here this directivity is
dimensionless, so it is not in dB. So, you have to take 10 log3 or 10 log6 to get the proper
directivity value.
So, one can see that as height increases here, one can see that the directivity is increasing and
then kind of remains flat. But I just want to tell you that this particular portion practically
may not even happen; the reason for that is if we increase the height significantly then the
ground plane size should be very very large. And we cannot practically have a infinite ground
plane. So, in general this region will not be achieved and most of the time people try to
concentrate in this particular region. So, that one can get the better directivity.
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So, let us see what happens to the radiation pattern.
So, you can see multiple plots over here; basically what you need to see is that just
concentrate on let us say this one quadrant here. In fact, this pattern will get repeated in this
quadrant, but just to save the space lot of different cases have been shown. So, let us look at
one by one. h equal to 0; that means, the dipole antenna is put right on top of the ground
plane. So, if that is the case you can this is the plot here it is not radiating in the back side.
Now as the height increases one can see here this /8, then it is increase is to /4; we can see
the pattern is becoming narrower. So, over here this is the case for /8 and when it is
increased to /4 you can see this is the case over here. And one can see that half power beam
width smaller hence gain will be larger. Now let us see the cases shown over here, these are
the cases which are shown for larger h. One can see the case of /2, , 3 /2.
Now for these cases you can actually see that the radiation pattern has split here. So, basically
why that happens? See think about if this h is equal /2 let just go back to the previous slide.
So, if this height is /2 and this is also will be /2 total height will be , and that will give rise
to the grading loop and hence beam will split; and that is why directivity decreases.
Now let us also look at what happens to the radiation resistance. One can actually see that this
is the normal radiation resistance of a very small dipole antenna. However, this radiation
resistance increases significantly, if it is shorted which is expected because the end of the
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dipole which is supposed to be an open circuit has been now shorted so that will significantly
change the impedance. So, in general we do not try to use the dipole antenna in this particular
region here.
So, we generally try to focus the dipole antenna over a finite ground plane or infinite plane at
these particular heights here which can be /4 to /2 and do not beyond that. One can see
here for larger height beam is split and in general we do not try to use this particular
configuration for practical purposes. Now here is a situation where there is a horizontal
dipole antenna over infinite ground plane. So, again infinite ground plane is put in the x y
plane: this is x plane x and y so plane will be here z is perpendicular, so here is a dipole
antenna.
So, in this particular case you can see that the images in the opposite side. You can actually
see this similarity in a simple way. Suppose if you stand in front of a mirror. So, what
happens if you stand in front of the mirror? You can actually see that your head is in the same
thing; that means if vertically if you are standing the mirror image also shows you that it is in
the same way.
So for example: if this is the head in the mirror also you will see that this will be shown as a
head. But whereas if you look at your hand, so your right hand looks like a left hand in the
mirror and left hand looks like a right hand mirror. So, the same thing over here for vertical
ground plane you see the images in the same thing, but the horizontal one has a opposite
image it is like right hand becomes left hand or left hand becomes right hand. So, let us see
now what happens here.
If this particular dipole is right next to the ground plane, then what will happen this actually
get short circuited, so impedance becomes 0. Now as this is move above, so what will happen
let us see. First we will see the directivity curve.
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Now you can actually see here that if the height is very small directivity is fairly large it is
more than 7, and as height increases you can see that the directivity decreases and then it
starts increasing and then kind of its stables around. But that again this particular portion in
general we will not be practical, because for these cases height is very very large; that means
the ground plane has to be also very very large. So, in general this is the region which is most
of often studied and looked upon.
Now here I want to just mention that when these results were published there was a lot of
excitement because by putting at a very small spacing one could actually see that the gain has
increase significantly. So, there was a lot of concept in the beginning gain something like a
super directive antenna, in the sense that we can increase the directivity significantly even
though the total height is much smaller.
But then at that time only there was another problem they notice; that if you keep it very
close to this the input impedance is close to 0. And if the radiation resistance is close to 0;
that means impedance matching will not happen. But however, this concept I can explain
very nicely with the help of the microstrip antenna. So, just think about this particular case
over here.
So, let us say we have a ground plane over here and we put the dipole antenna like this. Now
the dipole antenna is put at fed at the centre, so if we feed at the centre and if it is put very
close to this here then it will get shorted input impedance will go to 0. But now think about
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the microstrip antenna concept. So, what we do in case of microstrip antenna? In case of a
microstrip antenna just see the parallel; a dipole antenna is put in the air.
Now suppose if you put a microstrip antenna in the air, and do we feed microstrip antenna at
the centre; never because at the centre if you feed it will be short circuit close to 0. So, what
we do in case of a microstrip antenna we always feed off centre. So, if you feed at off centre
and depending upon the width of the microstrip patch here or the dipole over here and the
height of the ground plane we now that the matching can be obtained.
So now, think about for this particular case of microstrip antenna. If you recall microstrip
antenna suspended in air, we had notice that we could almost get a gain of 9 dB or even 9.5
dB depending upon the width of the rectangular microstrip antenna: But however, if we keep
on reducing the width of the microstrip antenna and becomes as thin as this pen here. So if
the width is reduce what will happen? The gain will decrease by even the directivity will
increase, but this is still closer to the number what we have shown you here that it we can get
a number of close to 6 or 7.
So, you can actually think about now the dipole antenna instead of feeding at the centre if we
feed off centre and suspend in the air it is concept is similar to that of a microstrip antenna.
So, let just look back here again. So, that is how you can think about if a microstrip antenna is
put over here and there is a ground plane that can give rise to directivity of the order of 7 or
in this particular region here. But if you have a dipole antenna fed on the centre then
impedance will be equal to 0.
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Now let just see the radiation pattern. You can again see the radiation pattern for different
values of h. Let us first focus on this particular quadrant here. So, in this quadrant one can see
h = 0, h /8, /4. So, for h = 0 you can see that this is the radiation pattern, and then /8 you
can see that the beam broadening has taken place, at /4 beam broadening has further taken
place. So however, beam width increases; that means directivity will decrease. This is similar
to what I had shown you in the previous slide.
But then if the height increases, so what happens here if h is equal to /2? So if the height is
/2 basically this will give rise to phase of 180 degree and that is what then happens here is
that in this direction the image of that cancels out and we get a null in the broad side
direction, and one can see that one can get a conical pattern. So, majority of the time this
particular thing is not used, people generally focus on this particular concept over here.
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So, now we will get into the next part topic which is a corner reflector antenna. In case of a
corner reflector antenna as you can see here there are two plates are here which are kept at an
angle  and this is the top view. So, you can see here there is a dipole antenna. I just want to
mention here even though I am talking about a dipole antenna, but in a reality you can have a
different antenna also over here. Now, this is the general concept. So, please remember these
things, so this is the length of the reflector here and in this particular side this will be the
height of the reflector.
Now in the beginning we will talk about when l is close to infinity and the height of the
reflector is also close to infinity. Then we will talk about practical thing. Here is a one
interesting example; where actually it is not an antenna this is a just we can actually say that
is why I have not written the term this is I have written 90 degree corner reflector I am not
written the term antenna, it has a very nice property.
Suppose if a waves coming from this direction. So, if the wave is coming from here what will
happen it will reflect, and then we can say if this angle is theta then this angle will be also
equal to theta. So, it will reflect according to the Snell's Law. And then this particular thing
falls over here. Since this angle is 90 degree this is θ this angle will be 90 -θ. And if this angle
is 90-θ reflected wave will also have a angle which is 90-θ. So, this one will be exactly in the
same direction.
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So now, you might wonder; what is the application of this particular thing. See this kind of a
concept is actually used, for example something is coming here it reflects back in the same
direction. So, this has a very good application where we would like to use it as a reflector. So,
just to tell you something like this kind of a concept is used very nicely when let us say we
have a ship which is sailing in the sea and there is radar which is being transmitted from the
shore. So, from the shore its transmitting the signal would like to see; just to tell you here
most of the time this is actually done for friendly ship, for the enemy it will be different
concept to be used.
So, for a friendly ship what we would we like to do: let us say that we sending the signal
from this direction and let us say ship is somewhere here. So, this signal goes over here and if
it has a 90 degree, in fact most of the time what they do they actually use four of these things,
you can call it a plus sign each of them is at 90 degree. So, let us assume that ship is like this
here which is 90 degree, so signal is coming this is a 90 degree it will reflect back in the same
direction.
Suppose now if the ship is moving and the direction is changing. So, suppose now the
direction is change like this. So, at any given time it will always see a 90 degree from here
and every time the wave will reflect back. This particular concept is actually used in a very
good way in a sense that you can actually then detect how far the ship is, and you can then
see what are the distances travelled by the ship and so on and so forth. However, for enemy
we would like absolutely the different thing, the enemy would not like it ship to be detected.
So, they would not like to put something like this here especially when you are going in the
opposite countries or territory.
And in fact, this concept is also related to somewhat you can say RCS radar cross section. In
fact, you might have read about stealth technique; in fact the planes are there which have a
stealth technology and they cannot be detected by radar. So, in the stealth technology
normally two technologies are used: one is that you have a this plane that entire plane is
covered with the micro wave absorbing material, then whatever the signal comes here
everything will get absorbed nothing reflects back. So, you cannot detect the ship.
Now that is the one thing all the time you cannot cover the; let us say a flying plane by micro
wave absorbing material they need to have an antenna also to communicate with their own
system. So, in that particular case what is done that they generally speaking use not this
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concept of 90 degree, but they use different angles so that the beam deflects in the other
direction and not in the same direction. So, the radar transmitting from this side does not get
any echo back.
So, we will actually look into even the similar thing is applied to antennas. For example,
when we talked about microstrip antenna; so let us say a rectangular microstrip antenna will
have a larger metal so it will have a larger RCS; radar cross section. But instead of a
rectangular antenna suppose we take a rectangular ring antenna, so rectangular ring will have
a metal removed from the centre portion and that means it will have a lower RCS.
So, we will talk about many different configurations of corner reflector; how images are
formed and what would be the gain because of the corner reflector antenna. So, we will
conclude at this particular point, and we will continue from here in the next lecture about
corner reflector antenna and parabolic dish antennas.
Thank you very much. Have a good day, bye.
803
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 12
Lecture – 57
Reflector Antennas-II
Hello and welcome back to today’s lecture on Reflector Antenna. In the previous lecture we
had started talking about reflector antenna. So, in the last lecture we had started talking about
reflector antenna and we looked into simple concept of the planar reflector, then we talked
about corner reflector, very briefly we talked about curved reflector.
And then for the planar reflector we actually started with the horizontal dipole antenna over
infinite ground plane, then we talked about vertical dipole antenna over a infinite ground
plane, and then we talked about the horizontal dipole over a infinite ground plane. And then
we just looked at the concept of the corner reflector and we also saw that a 90 degree corner
is a very nice reflector, specially because it reflects the signal exactly in the same direction.
So, let us continue from here.
So, we had actually started the discussion on corner reflector antenna, so this is a corner
reflector antenna of length l and height h, and in the beginning we will assume l is infinity
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and even the height of the reflector is infinite. This was the concept which we had looked at
when we have a angle =90, any incoming wave reflects back in the same direction.
So now let just look at the corner reflector; so this is the perspective view or you can say that
the 3D view. So, here is a reflecting plate: so one plate is here another plate is here, then
length of the reflecting plate is l and the height of the reflector is h. And here you can see that
this is a dipole antenna, and one can see that this dipole antenna has to be supported
somewhere it cannot stand on its own and in the free. So, some supporting is structure is
provided over here and through this supporting structure which can be for example of plastic
pipe or an dielectric pipe and through the dielectric pipe a feed can go here plus and minus
feed over here.
And over here a few important things: so this is the angle . And the most important thing in
this particular case is also that this spacing; spacing from the corner of the reflector to this
particular dipole. As we will see later on this spacing is extremely important and it governs
the gain of the pattern as well as the radiation pattern of the reflector antenna.
So, with this simple concept sometimes we actually use this here which is known as a wire
grid arrangement. The reason for that is if we use these large metallic plates, think about the
wind loading. Let us say if it is installed on a roof top then there will be a lot of wind loading
will happen and if the dipole is of a vertical thing which has a vertical polarization then this
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entire plates can be replaced by vertical wires. Now there are certain conditions are there: the
spacing between these wire can be between 0.1 to 0.25.
In no case in this spacing should be /2 or greater than /2, because if suppose this spacing is
equal to /2 then /2 this is a short there will be a maxima and it will be minima here; so 0
maxima is 0. So, boundary condition will get satisfield and all the radiation will go through
this particular gap to the back side. And in fact what we want is; no radiation in the back side
of the reflector.
So, generally speaking the condition is this spacing should be between 0.1  to about 0.25 .
And there is really not much of it needs to take distance less than 0.1 . Of course, these
vertical things will not stand on its own, so you need to provide some connecting
configuration over here or a structure. So, that it can stand on its own. So, rest of that you can
see here there is a supporting structure and there is a supporting structure for the dipole
antenna also.
Now let just see what really happens. Again we will start with the 90 degree, but this time it
is a reflector antenna. Why antenna? Now we have put a feed over here. So, here again this is
the top view. So, if you see from the top view you will only see the tip of the dipole antenna.
So, that is what is shown over here. In fact this is actually shown as a arrow. So, if you have
an arrow what to do we normally represent arrow as? The tip of the arrow is represented by a
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point, and the back of the arrow is generally represented by a cross like this here. So, let us
see what we are representing over here?
So, assume that this is not the reflector and we also assume that this is a infinite dimension
over here. So, if you have a plain reflector like this, then if this is in this particular going up
here then this image will going in the back side. It like just like for this particular case where
it is like acting like a horizontal dipole to this particular plate. So, for horizontal dipole we
had seen image will be in the opposite direction, just like I had explained that if you stand in
front of the mirror a right hand looks like left hand and left hand looks like right hand.
This is the way it has been represented. So, if you look at the dot here that dot will become
cross. So, from here image is formed and this distance will be exactly same as so this distance
is equal to this distance here. Then the same thing will happen for this side also. So, from
here image will be formed and if this is dot this will be cross. So, these two images easy to
understand; why these two images are coming.
What about this particular image here? To understand this one I actually think that you
imagine now these reflector are extended to infinity. So, this one goes over here and this one
goes over here. In fact, the parallel of this to explain and understand recall if you go to let us
say a barber shop and many of times you will see in the barber shop there is a one mirror in
the front side and there is a one mirror in the back side, and if you see through the mirror you
will actually see almost multiple images theoretically number of images will be infinite.
Why that happens, because let us say a mirror is in front of you so there will be a image, but
then there is a mirror at the backside of you so that will be a image. Now for that image this
mirror sees there is another image over there, it creates a image behind that. And for this
image behind at the back mirror sees another image, so it shows over there. So, theoretically
you can see a infinite images. But of course, here for 90 degree angle you do not see infinite
images, but you can imagine that these reflectors are extended towards infinity as far as the
image is concerned. And if you use this concept you will be able to fill up images for any
other angle also. So, let us see one more time.
So, you can see that for this dot there is a cross and for this dot there is a cross, now you
imagine this is extended like this and this one is extended like this. If it is extended like this
here then what will happen this cross will see an image and the cross image will be now dot.
And in fact, if you extend this whole thing like this here then this dot will see an image of
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cross over here. And that is how you can see that there will be total three images will be there
for 90 degree corner reflector.
Let us see what happens for 60 degree corner reflector. Now, for 60 degree again let us start
with the concept here this is the dot at the equal and opposite distance from this side there
will be a cross, and then for this image 0 there will be cross. Now you extend this whole thing
like this and you extend this whole thing like this over here. And if you extend over like this
here this cross will have an image which will be dot. And if you extend like this here this
cross will have an image of dot here.
So, one can complete that; now comes the last part. If we extend this over here then dot will
have a image of cross here and if we extend like this, this dot will have a image over here
which is cross. So, for 60 degree will have total 5 number of images.
Let us see now what happens if we reduce the angle further. Here is the case of 45 degree, so
one can again do the same thing this dot will be a cross here, dot will be cross here, now you
need to extend this and you need to extend this over here. And if you do that for this cross
you can see there will be image like this which will be dot, you extend this here for this dot,
you can see that you know keep on repeating it you will see that the images have been filled
accordingly.
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So, there will be total 7 images for 45 degree. The same concept you can extend, so if this is
30 degree now number of images will be large. In general number of images you can
calculate by using a very simple formula of 360/(-1). So, we can just put it over here, so  is
30. So, 360 by 30 will be 12; 12 minus 1. If  is 45 degree 360 by 45 will be 8 minus 1. So,
there will be seven images here.
Now, what really happens, so why do we keep on reducing the angle? So, you actually you
conceptually you can think about that if the angle is let us say large angle, so what will
happen when the radiation takes place let us say we have a dipole in between which is going
to radiate. And now if the angle is this much here radiation will take place in that particular
beam, but if I now keep on reducing this angle. So, if the angle is reduced so radiation can
only be confined in this particular narrow region. And if the beamwidth is reduced; that
means gain can be increase.
So, theoretically you can reduce the angle to even 1 degree also, the practically nobody does
that. But generally speaking 30 degree, 45 degree, 60 degree and so on are commonly used to
realize a larger gain antenna. Of course, we took only example of dipole antenna, but one can
use different antennas. So what will happen? Pattern multiplication will take place. So, if we
have a gain of the antenna itself larger than the overall gain will be larger which will include
the effect of element pattern as well as the reflection because of the different angle of the
reflector.
Now, let see the derivation of this how these can calculate the radiation pattern.
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So, we will start with an example of 90 degree corner reflector. So, we have a plate 1, we
have a plate 2, and here is a feed, you can see here there is a 90 degree angle here. Now, for
this case we have seen that there are three images, so even though there are three images we
are numbered them as number 2 3 4. The only reason is that feed has been given as a number
1, so there will 1 2 3 4 element. Now, we want to find out the overall radiation pattern. So,
the total field will be nothing but the some of the contribution from the main feed as well as
the images.
So, we can say that the overall field will be nothing but summation of these fields and these
will be the vector some of these particular field over here. Now we need to apply the array
theory. So, if you recall when we discuss about the array. So, here what we will do? We will
just assume that this is isotropic element just for our derivation. So, for a isotropic element
we can find out the array factor and then subsequently one can multiply that with the element
pattern. Now, when we want to find out the array factor you can actually think about that
there is one element here there is another element. So, and the distance between the two
element will be now S plus S which is 2 S.
So, for this particular case here we have seen that the array factor theory what is that; for n
sin n φ/2
number of elements we know that the array factor will be . Here n is equal to 2,
nsinφ /2
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sin2 φ /2
so that will be now and that gets cancelled and it becomes cos φ /2 . So, for
2 sin φ /2
these two things the pattern will be cos φ /2 . Now for these two again the distance is same
S and S, but only thing is this is let say if it is in the x axis this is along y axis. So, the
radiation pattern should account for x axis as well as y axis.
But again here you can see that these two are in the same phase. These two phases are
different if this is a plus 1, this will be now minus 1 minus 1, but otherwise these two are in
the same phase hence they will also give rise to the cosine pattern. So, let just look at the
pattern.
So, the array factor of the 90 degree corner reflector antenna will be 2 times, this is now cos.
This term corresponds to sin θ cos ∅ , I will just explain we will go back to the previous
line. But just you can see here, so this is equivalent to cos φ and this is again equivalent to
cos φ , this is cos φ x and this is cos φ y . You have to think about planar microstrip
antenna array; when we talked about the planar microstrip antenna we are introduce the
concept of the sin θ cos ∅ .
So, what you have to think about here is? Let us say we have an element here we have
looking at this particular point. So, if the array point is along the x axis. So, what happen? So,
we take the projection, projection will be along the theta. So, always every time theta is
measured from the elevation. So, whatever is this point here that will be θ projection of
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that in the horizontal will be equal to sin θ . So, you can see that sin θ term is represent
for both the elements which are in the x or y. However, along the x axis what we need to do
for any faraway point it will be multiplied by cos ∅ and for anything along the y axis it will
be multiplied by sin ∅ .
So, you can actually see that these are the terms shown over here. So, for the elements along
the x axis sin θ is common to both because it in the x y plane, and since this is the term
along the x axis the term cos ∅ comes and this is the term along y axis with sin ∅ .
terms. So, the array factor of the 90 degree corner reflector antenna then can be written as 2
times cos φ x −cos φ y . So, φ x term will have cos ∅ and along the y axis the term will
be sin ∅ ..
So, in the Azimuthal plane where theta is π/2 or you can say 90 degree, so if you substitute
the value of theta equal to π/2, sin π/2 will be equal to 1 hence theta goes out. So, this is the
radiation pattern or you can say array factor for isotropic element of two elements; that this is
the array factor for a 90 degree corner reflector antenna for isotropic element, and this has to
be multiplied by the radiation pattern of the antenna.
Now let just see the plot of this particular thing for different values of S. As I mentioned S
place a very very important role, what is S? S is the distance of the dipole antenna from the
corner of the reflector antenna. And again repeatedly I am saying dipole antenna, but in a
reality it can be any other antenna.
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So here, in fact let us just look into here. And in fact, in general the plot which I am showing
you that is actually for isotropic element in general. So, let us say now if S is equal to 0.1 ;
that means it is very close to the corner. So, for that particular case let us see this is the solid
line. So, this is the plot over here.
You can see that there is a no back radiation over here, the reason for that is in this entire
derivation it has been assumed that this particular length is extended towards infinity; we
know that practically that will not happen. So, now, let us see what happens. So, 0.1  is
increased to let us say 0.7  you can see dash dash dash. So, this is the plot for that.
You can actually see that this is still in the broad side direction, and you can also notice that
the half power beam width of this is relatively less than the than the half power beam width
of this. That means, for this case we get a higher gain. Now we increase it further then what
we can see that now for this particular case you can see that there is a beam split has taken
place. And if you go down to this case here S equal to one  in that particular case you can
see that actually there is a null in the broad side direction. in general one should consecrate
only in this particular region. So, I have actually summarise this for S greater than 0.7 ,
main beam splits and generally that is not very desirable, for S equal to  there is a null in the
broad side direction which is this particular point and that is also not generally desirable. So,
in general one can think about you can choose the value between 0.1 to 0 0.7.
However, my recommendation is that please do not take S equal to 0.7  also, in general try
to restrict the value of S to about half of this here. So, why do I say that? The reason why I
am saying is that all of these things assume that there is a infinite ground plane. But in reality
there will never ever be infinite ground plane, we are always going to take a finite ground
plane. So, let us just look at the back slide of the 3D view over here.
So, in the derivation it has been assumed that l should be infinity and this h should be infinity,
practically we cannot do that. So, let me give you some practical cases here. So, we know
that a dipole antenna will have the length of /2. Now this dipole will radiate nothing in this
particular direction and it will radiate maximum in this direction.
So, you can see that the radiation pattern of this will be 0 here; it will make a figure of eight
like this. So, you can see that this part is maximally radiated in this direction it will reflect
back, but this one angle here you can see it is radiating little. In general I can tell you that if
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you take h equal to approximately equal to  it is fairly good enough, you need not take 2 
or 3  or 4 , because the gain is not going to be significant; so h equal to 1  decent enough.
Now, comes that next part what should be this l. So, I can give you one simple thumb rule
that this l should always be greater than or equal to 2 times S value. Suppose if you take S
equal to 0.7  then this should be 1.4  that this is the minimum value. But if you take let us
say S equal to 0.5 then this can be approximately. So, that is why I said in general don t try
to take 0.7, because that unnecessarily increases the size of the antenna, and there is a not
significant gain. I will just look back to this particular plot here again.
In general just to tell you here, so the plot which you see here this is for 0.1 and this is for 0.7,
in fact for 0.5 if you look at even though it is not there you can imagine that it is actually very
very close to 0.7. So, the increase in the gain is hardly has significant value if you take it 0
0.5 or 0.7, but this 0.5 or 0.7 will make the reflector size instead of let us say for 0.7 it will be
1.4, if I take this 0.5 then the reflector length will be equal to . So, one can save the size
without really speaking any significant decrease in the gain, so we do not recommend
anything more than 0.5  for this particular case.
Similarly we can find out the radiation pattern of the various other corner reflector antenna
for different values of . I will actually start with  equal to 30 degree it is like a bottoms up
approach. Here if you see  equal to 30 degree just recall the total number of elements
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including images were equal to 12. So, there should be total 12 terms because the field is
going to sum of all the term. So, let us say we have a 2; that means within the bracket total
number of terms should be equivalent to 6. So, cos x will give rise to 1, then this term here 2
multiplied by with will give rise to maximum value of 2.
And over here again there is a one term, so that is another one and this one here is another 2.
So, one can say 1 2 3 plus 1 4; 4 plus 2 6; 6 multiplied by 2; so that will be the total number
of elements which is coming into picture. And x here is as before it is equivalent to
sin θ cos ∅ , and y will be sin θ sin ∅ ,, because it is in the y plane. So, theta remains same
because it is x y theta will be constant and for elements along x axis we take cos ∅ and
elements along y axis we take sin ∅ . Now for this is for  30 degree.
Now, let us go to  45 degree: total numbers of images including the feed are eight. That
means, the total number of terms also should be eight. So, there is a two here, so inside the
bracket should be 4. So, you can see 1 plus 1 2 and this is equivalent to 2; so 2 plus 2 4; so 4
into 2 8.
Now if you look at over here it looks little confusing, because 4 is outside and then there is a
one term here and another term here, so its look like 1 and 2 terms multiplied by 4 it looks
like 8, but that is not really the case; and I will tell you what it is. So, in this case if you open
up this whole thing this term will be then 4 sin x/ 2 cos x /2 - 4 sin this term multiplied by
this.
Now 4sinx/2 cosx/2 is actually equal to 2 sinx cosy, so that particular term really leads to a
number two and this term here leads to four that is our total number is actually to 6 which is
corresponding to 60 degree here.
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So now let us see; what are the S limits for different angle. So we saw that the limit for the S
is up to the value where single lobe is there in the radiation pattern. That means, if we
increase the value of S beyond this then there will be split in the main beam which is
generally not desirable. So, what we really want is let us say for example, 0.7 is the limit for
 90 degree. So, if  is reduced to 60, 45, 30 you can see that this limit is 0.7 can become
0.95, 1.2 or 2.5.
However, again I do not recommend at all, please do not have any design which has a larger
S value. In general just to tell you why we take a larger S value; generally speaking one takes
larger value of S, so that gain will be large. But however, if you take a larger value of S then
the reflector size has to be much larger. As I said general rule of thumb is l > 2S, if l has to be
greater than two S you take a larger S; that means the total aperture size increases
significantly.
So, what we recommend is that you take the values of maximum S whatever is given by here
I do not recommend you take more than half of this here. But let us see here why larger S
gives rise to the larger gain. Think about this; if this value is large that means all these
elements will be now will occupy a larger aperture, but if S is small then suppose if this is
over here my total aperture will be reduce over here. So, you can see that my aperture size
has increase hence gain will increase. But for larger value of S you really then need a very
large reflector.
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And what we have seen that if you reduce from S here to here; that means reflector length can
decrease significantly, but decrease in the gain is relatively marginal.
So, hence you please look into these things, and also I want to tell you one another interesting
thing over here; for all these cases very little a literature is available for the finite ground
plane. So, it is a very good research topic, most of these derivations are done when the corner
reflectors are takes as infinite plane, whereas what I would strongly encourage any one of you
since we have lot of good softwares which are available these days which would not available
several decades back. So, what you can do systematically, you can study what is the effect of
the finite length and then you come out with the simple solution what should be the limit on
the value of S, and how much gain sacrifice will happen if you reduce the value of the S. As I
mentioned gain scarifies is will not be significant, but the reflector length can be reduced at
least by 50 percent.
So, with that I will stop at this particular point. Just to summarise that we have talked about
the corner reflector antenna, we talked about 90 degree, 60 degree, 45 degree, 30 degree; we
looked into the number of images and saw that how images can be formed. And then we
found out what is the array factor. And once we know the array factor you can always
multiply with the element pattern to get the overall radiation pattern. Then we also saw what
are the limits on the practical sizes of the reflector, and what is the practical limit on the value
of the S which is spacing from the apex or the corner of the reflector to the let us say dipole
antenna.
And this spacing even though I gave you the values which are given in the book you can take
say 0.7  even greater than 2, but I do not recommend that large spacing because that requires
larger reflector length, but yet I strongly recommend anyone of you take this particular case
do the simulation, do some experimental work and you can also write some papers in the
journal also.
In the next lecture we will talk about parabolic reflector antenna which can give us very high
gain. So thank you very much, with that enjoy yourself study hard, work hard. But when you
come for the next lecture please study these things, because we will use the concept of these
reflectors to the parabolic reflector antenna. And if you the time permits please look at the
basic theory of the parabolic; what is the definition of the parabola, and you look into it that
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when the rays come from the infinity they focus at the focal point. So, look into those things
if possible, otherwise we will look into those things in more detail.
So, with that thank you very much.
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Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 12
Lecture – 58
Reflector Antennas – III
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Reflector antennas. In fact, today’s lecture is in
continuation with the reflector antennas which we were discussing in the last couple of
lectures. So, we have started with the plane planar reflector antenna. Basically which was a
flat reflector, and in the flat reflectors we talked about two different categories: one was
planar reflector and then other one was corner reflector.
So, for planar reflector we actually looked into if the dipole antenna is kept in parallel with
the ground plane or in perpendicular to the ground plane. And we saw what is the effect on
the gain and the radiation pattern. After that we looked at different corner reflector antennas
and we saw that 30 degree, 45 degree, 60 degree, 90 degree reflector antennas will form
different number of images. And number of images is nothing but equal to 360/( -1); where
 is the corner reflector angle.
So, we have seen that for 90 degree corner reflector there were 3 images and for 30 degree
corner reflector there were 11 images. And basically if numbers of images are more than that
would really imply that the gain of the antenna is large. A typically a corner reflector antenna
may give a gain of the order of 10 to 12 dB. But today we will talk about parabolic reflector
antenna which can give gain of 20 dB, 30 dB, 40 dB, 50 dB, 60 dB and even 70 dB. And just
to look into the number so 50 dB corresponds to 100000, and 60 dB corresponds to 1 million.
So, these are the very large values of the gain and of course, it requires very large reflector
antenna.
So, let us start with the reflector antenna. And before we start with the reflector antenna
please remember one thing reflector antenna majority of the time uses a parabolic dish
antenna, and parabola has a property that if we have a parabola and something which is
coming from the infinity then the waves after reflecting from the surface will focus at a focal
point. Or if we put a feed at the focal point and if it is transmitting then after reflection from
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the surface it will go and in parallel and it can cover a very large distance depending upon the
fresh transmission equation which we discussed in the earlier few lecture.
So, today now let us see the parabolic reflector antenna. So this is; what is a parabolic
reflector antenna which is shown over here, and we can actually see that there is a feed which
is put at the focal point. And the property of the parabola reflector is that if the feed point if
you looked at the focal point then the distance from here let us say; to this one up to the
surface and reflect back here. So, this distance remains constant for any angle of θ. For
example, if we say this is O, this is P and this is Q. So, OP+PQ is constant, and that would be
OP. If you take this point here let us say this is P’ and if this will be Q’ then OP’ + P’Q’ will
be same as OP+PQ. And then we can generalise that from here to here that distance is f which
is the focal point. So, this plus this will equal to OP+PQ.
So, for a parabola we can actually write a condition that OP+PQ is constant and that is equal
to 2f. So now, we can actually write this in a slightly different form. So, OP is nothing but let
us say we define this distance as r’ and that will be OP is r’. And what is PQ? PQ is over here.
So, if this angle is θ then if you draw the line here this angle will be also θ. So, if this is r’
then r’ multiplied by cos θ will be equal to PQ. So, that is PQ is equal to r’cos θ’.
So, we can combine this particular equation as OP is r’ and PQ is r’cosθ, so we can take r’
outside and the right hand side will be 2f. And this can be simplified as r’ = 2f this whole
thing comes over here. And from here the simplification comes in the form of; so we know
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that let us say cos 2θ = 2cos2θ - 1. So, this is what it is; so this is cos θ. So, that will be 2 cos2
θ’/2 – 1, minus 1 and 1 will cancel. And now 2 cos 2θ’ will be in the denominator so that will
become sec2 θ/2 in the numerator and the two term which came here will get cancelled.
Now, this is the equation of a parabola in the polar coordinates. In fact, many a times people
are familiar with more like y2 = 4ax form that is a Cartesian coordinate, but this is a polar
coordinate. So, here a just few other things I want to highlight. So, the focal length here is f
here, and this angle which is maximum angle will be θ0 that is the angle made by the outer
edge of the parabola.
Now that if you look at the parabola even though it looks like a line, but if you look from the
complete 3D point of view this whole thing will look like a circle. So, we can see that this is
nothing but a circle and whose diameter is given by d. So, we can actually say that from here
to here distance will be d/2.
So if you look at the aperture; the aperture of the parabolic reflector will look like a circular
aperture. And for that circular aperture we can also find out what will be the gain. So, what is
4 πA
the gain for a circular aperture, we know that the gain is defined as η . So, where A is
❑2
area; so in this case area will be A is nothing but πr2 that will be equal to πd2/4. So, from that
we can find out what is the gain value.
But right now let us just look in to this equation one more time. So, we can expand this
equation in the Cartesian coordinate. So, how do we define r’+ r’cosθ’ that is the left side; so
that is defined that r’ is nothing but √ x2 + y 2 + z 2 . And r’cos θ’ is nothing but in this
particular thing which is z’ that comes over here and 2f is as before in the right hand side.
Few more things I just want to highlight here. So, here z is measured in this direction, y is
measured in this direction which is a y axis, and perpendicular to this will be x axis. So x is
here, y is here and this is z axis. So, now if you take this z’ term on this side and square both
the side. So, if you square then square root will go away we will be left with x 2+ y 2 , but
now z 2 gets cancelled because this term which is going in this side so this will be now like
(a-b)2 which is given by a2 - 2ab + b2. So, b here is z’, so that will be z 2 on this side; that z2
gets cancelled over here. And this term over here will be one term will be 4f2 and then minus
of 4fz’ which is simplified over here.
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So now, one can see that this equation is given by x 2 + y2 = 4f (f - z’). And what is the
limiting condition of this? Limiting condition will be when x’ comes at the end, so x’ 2 + y’2
≤ (d/2)2. So, this point here you can say if it is somewhere here then; that means we have a
at this particular points x’ will be close to you can say 0 and y dash will be also close to 0 at
this particular point. But when we look at the extreme end over here we can say that this will
be the equation of the circle which is given by x2 + y2 = (d/2)2.
Now, this equation can be further simplified and will see what happens in the next slide.
So, here now we are few quantities to be defined, this is a tan -1 if we take this side tan θ0 is
given by (d/2)/z0. So, let us go back what it is? So tan θ0, θ0 is this one here. So, tan θ0 will be
this distance divided by this distance here. Now this distance we know is nothing but half of
the diameter. So, that will be d/2, and distance from here to here we have defined that as z 0
over here. So, that will be this distance z0.
And now we can further simplify this whole thing. So, tan θ, you can see that d/2 and then z0
these terms you will need to solve this particular thing, use the equations given in this
particular slide we know that what is z’; z’ can be simplified in terms of r and cos θ and then
simplify you can use this particular equation to find out the limiting case. You can see that
over here we can put the limiting case. So, if we put the limiting case here this will be let us
say at the edge x2 + y2 = (d/2)2. So, that will be this term over here. And this will be then 4f 2 -
4fz’ and z’ will be equal to z0 when we are looking at this particular point.
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So, by using this equation finding the value of z0 from here substituting the values over here
and doing little bit simplification we get this particular equation over here. And that is the
next step we are basically what has done is simply this has been divided by (f/d) 2. If you
divide by everything (f/d)2 will be left with -1/16 here and if you divide here (f/d) 2 then x will
become square, and if you divide this (f/d)2 you can see that one term will go away this is
what we will get.
So, what we can see here there is a relation between θ0 and f/d. So, if f/d is given for a
parabolic reflector we can find the value of θ0. And this equation can be further simplified
and we can right this whole thing as tan θ0 over here and that gets simplify to this term. And
this term what we can see here that if θ0 is known then we can find out what is the value of f
for a given d, or we can bring this d this side. So, that will be f/d will be equal to 1/4cotθ0/2.
In fact this is the very very important thing, and one should really look at these values
because this will help us in designing a reflector antenna. It is very very important to choose a
proper value of f/d, as we will see later on. So, let us just see I have just done some
calculation here.
So, f/d; so d comes on this side, so if f/d is 0.4 you can either use this equation and we have
given the different values of f/d 0.4, 0.5. And then correspondingly the value of θ0 has been
calculated so that comes out to be 64, 53 and so on. Now, the question is what value of f/d we
should choose? Or alternatively what value of θ0 we should choose? So I will just give a
general recommendation. Generally f/d equal to 0.5 is chosen for majority of the practical
parabolic reflector which are prime focus reflector. Later on we will also talk about
Cassegrain reflector.
And we will see that for majority of the time for Cassegrain reflector f/d is tending closer to
value of 1. So let us just see here, let us go back to the last slide and we will see that; what is
f/d 0.5 and 53.1 really imply. So, what we are looking at is this angle of roughly 53 degree
and that will give the value of f/d. That means, now we should know what should be the
diameter and then correspondingly we should choose f/d.
So, this actually the whole thing starts as a design concept. And if you recall in the very
beginning when we are talking about the efficiency and we were talking about the Friis
transition equation we had also talked about directivity related with the aperture. So, let us
just look very quickly in to a design of the reflector antenna.
823
Now, majority of the time actually speaking the problem starts with the design specification.
So, the design specification could be; let us say design of parabolic reflector antenna for a
gain of say 40 dB at frequency of say 4 gigahertz. So, that would be the only thing which
would be given to a designer, nobody will give you what is the f/d ratio or what you should
do where you should feed point; all it is specified majority if the time is well gain is given
and you design the whole reflector antenna.
So, this is where the starting point is. So, let us say now we know G = 4πA/2, and A which is
area and the area what we have to take we have to only take the area of the surface here, not
this depth does not come into picture at all as far as the gain equation is concerned. But it
does come indirectly in the form of the efficiency. So, let us just relook into it. So, the gain is
4 πA πd 2 .
nothing but
❑2
η , area is πd2/4, so gain is now equal to ( )
❑
η
Now we know the gain we know the frequency, and now we can calculate the value of d.
Now of course, we need to know the efficiency, and as we will see a in the next few slides
typical efficiency of a reflector antenna can be about 0.7 to 0.8. However, they are some
papers which theoretically do claim that you can get an efficiency of close to 100 percent, but
those are really very very tedious thing. Right now we will focus on the prime focus reflector
where we can get typically efficiency of 70 to 80 percent and not more than that.
2
Now this equation which we just said G= πd η . So, that gives us for a given value of
( )
❑
gain and frequency we can find out what is the value of the d. It does not talk about f/d. So,
how do we calculate and how do we know what should be the value of f/d? So, this is where I
gave the general guideline that f/d typically can be taken as 0.54 prime focus. In fact, the
configuration which I am showing you is a prime focus.
So, now what really happens? So, suppose if f/d is small, so what will happen? f/d small that
means focal point will be closer. So, the focal point is closer than the reflector will be more of
this shape which will have a larger bend, but if f/d is increasing; that means this focal point is
changing in that particular case this reflector will keep opening up. So for a larger f/d the
reflector will look more like a flatter thing, more like a flat plate; and if you bend like this it
looks more like a flat bowl. So, you can think about soup bowl, so soup bowl will have a f/d
824
is close to even 0.5. And if you look I can soccer plate or plate in which you eat the food and
if that is made as a parabolic shape then that flatter plate will have a larger f/d ratio.
As I said majority of the time you are starting can be 0.5 as f/d. However, it actually depends
upon what kind of a feed we have used. So, we will now see one by one what is the effect of
the feed and what is the effect of the radiation pattern of the feed; which is very very
important. So, choosing all these parameters are not independent, they really depend on each
other, the only thing you can say that diameter finding is relatively easy, if you know the gain
if you know the frequency and if you take efficiency roughly say 0.7 or practically as we will
see 0.6 or 0.5 people also got it.
In fact, recently we bought one commercial antenna a reflector antenna at 2.45gigahertz we

did not see the specs in detail. And finally, once they think arrived at our place we were doing
the testing and we realize the efficiency of that was only 0.3; that means we are talking about
30 percent efficient antenna, so which was really a very poor choice to by that antenna. But
nevertheless we could do some initial testing because of course it did give us gain and it did
give us a directive beam. So, except for that gain reduction we could do other testing with
that particular antenna
But that really means that you have to design properly the antenna. So, what are the different
factors which govern the efficiency? Let us see one by one these things.
825
So, now gain and aperture efficiency of parabolic reflector antenna: as I mentioned earlier.
So, gain is nothing but efficiency multiplied by directivity, and directivity is given by
4 πA
2 . And for a parabolic reflector A will be nothing but πd2/4. So, you can see that this
❑
2
πd
d2/4 will get cancelled and this will whole thing will become ( )
❑
multiply by this.
Now there are so many things which are associated with the efficiency, this is known as
aperture efficiency. And aperture efficiency depends upon so many of this efficiency there are
total 6 different efficiency are there. So, let us start one by one; this is a efficiency with suffix
s that is known as spillover efficiency. Then εt or efficiency t that is t stands for taper
efficiency P is phase efficiency and then x is polarisation efficiency; b is blockage efficiency
and then r is random error efficiency.
So, in the beginning we will look at these two in more detail and then we will talk about these
efficiencies later on. So, let us first look at spillover efficiency and taper efficiency.
Now, spill over and taper efficiency depends very strongly on the radiation pattern of the feed
element. Here are two examples. So, this you can see parabola reflector here; this is also
same parabolic reflector. So, these two reflectors are exactly same. We are going to operate at
the same frequency. Now the only difference between these two cases is you can see here,
826
this is the pattern of the feed you can see that this beam is relatively wider compare to this
beam here. You can see that this beam is relatively narrower.
So, one can just see that reflectors are exactly same, frequency is exactly same, but now the
feed has different pattern. So, let us see what really happen. So, let us start with this particular
thing here. Suppose if you look at this particular feed pattern. So, one can see that the
maximum radiation in this direction which will go the reflector and reflect back. Then from
here this radiation will go here and reflect back, then it can go over here reflect back, and this
part here which is going that will be lost which is also known as spillover.
So, anything which you can see at this particular angle that is nothing but it is spillover. But if
you look at this particular side here now, in this particular case you can actually see that yes
maximum radiation is in this direction which will reflect back this part is same as this side
and, but if you look at this one here at this angle the radiation at this angle is much more
compared to the radiation at this angle. That means there will be a larger spillover here that
means, there will be high spill over here and high spillover means that spillover efficiency is
low. That means, more power is going in this particular direction compare to this particular
case here. So, it has poor spillover efficiency. The other one is a taper efficiency. So, let us
see what is happening over here.
Now, in this particular case we have written here it is high and low, but let us see what is that
really mean. So, in this particular case one can see that radiation is maximum here, but even
if you see at this particular point, if you just imagine a line going from here to this particular
point you can see that the amplitude reduction is relatively small compare to this over here.
At this particular angle you can see that amplitude has reduced drastically.
So now, what is really happening? So this way which is transmitted it goes here reflects back,
it goes over here reflects back. Now you imagine a plane at this particular line here, so you
look at this particular plain here same thing we look at the plain over here. Now, we know
that the property of the parabola is that the point which goes from here comes back or the
thing from here to this particular point, all of them are same distance; so that means the
reflected wave at this particular plane will be in the same phase.
However, this particular thing you can see the reflected wave here, it will have a maximum
amplitude and this amplitude will keep on reducing. But in this case reduction in the
827
amplitude will be relatively less, whereas in this case we can see reduction in the amplitude
will be much larger because amplitude going over here and reflected back is relatively less.
Now recall the array theory; and in the array theory I had also mention that array theory
becomes the space theory in a sense that we had seen that array factor actually becomes a
space factor for continuous sources. So, I had mentioned that if the number of elements are
increased drastically and the spacing between the elements is reduced drastically then that
would almost become like a continuous source.
Now, if you recall that what we had discussed about the non uniform taper distribution. We
had seen that if there is a uniform distribution that leads to maximum gain, and if there is a
non uniform radiation; that means suppose the radiation is a relatively less; that means from
maxima to this value here it is relatively less or if it is total cosine function which is 0 to
maxima is back to 0. So, we had seen that for a cosine distribution gain was less, for uniform
distribution gain was more.
Or we also discussed about cosine distribution over a pedestal where it at in the end it does
not go to 0, but it goes to relatively lower value. So, you can see between the two cases: one
case is almost becoming closer to cosine distribution and the other case is becoming more
closer to the cosine on a pedestal. So, cosine on a pedestal will have a relatively higher gain
compared to the cosine distribution.
So, that is what the taper efficiency really implies that in this particular case since the field is
relatively uniform or you can say reduction is relatively less, so the reflected wave will have
maxima here and amplitude will decrease slightly. But in this case amplitude will maximum
here, decrees will be much more over here. That means, if this case taper efficiency will be
low, but the spillover efficiency is high.
So, you can see that for the same reflector antenna depending upon the beam pattern in one
case this is high this is low, in other case this is low this is high; That means, if you look at
the product of these two now which sometimes some of the books defined as aperture
efficiency and I just show the plot here quickly.
828
So, here is the point this is the spillover and taper efficiency. So, we have shown efficiency
on this side and we have shown reflector aperture angle on this particular side. You can see
that this is the angle psi here which is actually denoting the half power beam width of the
feed horn, and here we have different plots here. These are the plots for half power beam
width of the antenna. So, in one case it will 35 degree then 42.5 and 50 degree. Along this
angle this shows angle θ0. Now θ0 is varying from 0 10 to 90 degree and these are the plots
over here. One can see this is the spill over efficiency plot and this is the taper efficiency plot
over here. And the product of these two in some places they actually say that aperture
efficiency εAP is nothing but equal to εs multiplied by εt, and sometimes that tend to ignore
the other four efficiencies but that cannot be ignored, but right now let us just look at the
product of the two.
So, if you look at the product of two: this is one this is close to 0 you can see that the
efficiency will be very very small. And over here you can see that the efficiency will be
relatively small somewhere in this area efficiency will be maximum.
829
So, I just show you the efficiency curve here. So, even though it says aperture efficiency
please remember, this is only two efficiencies we are talking about εs multiplied by εt. So,
one can see that this aperture efficiency is close to 0 here, if the reflector angle is just close to
0 and efficiency relatively you can see is somewhere here this kind of flattened which is
actually nice for the antenna designer engineer. And you can see that this number is
somewhere if I draw the line around 70 percent, you can see that the efficiency is of the order
of 70 percent to about 75 percent.
So, we will continue from here in the next lecture. Just to summarise: today we started
discussing about the parabolic reflector and so far we have talked about prime focus reflector,
they have many other types of reflector antenna which we will discuss in the next lecture.
And then we actually looked into a very simple concept that this is nothing but OP + PQ
should be equal to constant, and from there we drive the relation between f/d and θ0. And θ0
is very very important and related to f/d that depends upon the radiation pattern of the feed.
And we saw that the gain is primarily determined by the diameter of the parabolic reflector
which is but multiplied by efficiency. And efficiency intern depends upon θ0 and θ0 intern
depends upon f/d.
So, we will see all of these things in the next lecture. And in the next lecture we will try to
conclude the reflector antenna and also that will be the conclusion of this particular course
also. With that thank you very much and we will see you next time, bye.
830
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 12
Lecture – 59
Reflector Antennas-IV
Hello, and welcome to the today’s lecture which also happens to be the last lecture on
Reflector Antenna. So we will quickly start with where we had left in the last lecture. In the
last lecture we will looked at the parabolic reflector antenna, and we saw that OP+PQ is equal
to constant. And from there we had derived the relationship for f /d which is related to θ0.
Then we started talking about spillover efficiency as well as taper efficiency.
So, let us start from that particular slide, one more time just to refresh the memory. Here we
have the two same reflectors, but in this particular case feed has a larger you can say
uniformity here; you can see that the half power beam width here is relatively larger, over
here half power beam width is relatively small. And in this case we had seen the spillover
efficiency is relatively good; that means there is a low spillover efficiency. But in this
particular case we had seen that there is low spillover; that means, high spillover efficiency,
but the taper efficiency was relatively low.
831
And in this particular case we had seen that the taper efficiency is high, but spillover
efficiency is low because there is a higher spillover. And we also looked at the plot of these
two thing here.
So, we can see that as the reflector angle increases, so if the reflector angle increases for the
same beam pattern you can see that spillover efficiency will be very high, because if angle is
increased significantly there will be very little spillover and hence spillover efficiency will be
high.
832
And if the θ0 is very small; that means if the reflector itself is very small; that means it is not
going to receive much and in that case spillover efficiency will be very poor or spillover will
be very high. And taper efficiency is reverse of that, and the product of these two which is
sometimes also defined as aperture efficiency; we saw that also. And we saw that the aperture
efficiency is product of the two which starts from a 0. And somewhere in this particular
region we can see that efficiency is kind of maximum, and you can see some correlation also.
So, this is the half power beam width of feed horn and if you look at the line down below
here, so the reflector aperture angle is also of the same order.
If you look at here this is if it is around 35 degree, you can see that this one here also
corresponds for that for particular angle. Or if the half power beam width is large then θ0 also
should be large and that is where you get relatively maximum aperture efficiency.
But now the question comes that these are the aperture efficiency, but we had discussed about
many other things. So, I just want to tell one more time even though it is mentioned as
aperture efficiency, but this is really product of only two efficiencies; which are spillover
efficiency and taper efficiency.
S, now let us just see; what are the other four efficiency, and where they come from, and what
are their roles. Now, this is the next one here is a phase efficiency. Now where is the phase
efficiency coming into picture? So for that to understand we have to actually go back and
look into this figure again here.
833
Now, what we assume that this particular thing we have designed it, so when you designed it
we think about a perfect parabola right. But when you we do the fabrication, now there is a
possibility that this particular thing may never be exactly the same. Now just imagine if
suppose if this is a let us say 2 meter dish antenna; now if it is a 2 meter that means diameter
is 2 meter. Now what is the guarantee that this particular thing we will follow exactly the
same pattern. There is a possibility that this point may be at this place here or it may be this
place. And the error may be relatively small in the alignment.
So, over let us say the diameter of 2 meter the possibility of having an error of let us say 1 or
2 centimetre is always there. And now what really happen? Suppose instead of this let us say
this particular thing is deformed or manufacturing error is there, so it is somewhere. So, if it
is somewhere here; that means now this length will now be up to this point it will reflect here
and then come back. That means, now this distance travelled is more compare to the distance
travelled where there is a no error. And this larger distance travel gives rise to the phase error.
Now I want you to recall horn antenna discussion when we are talking about the horn
antenna. What we had see that the horn antenna the phase error increases if this whole thing
increases right; why? Because at this point which is the reference point and at this angle we
will see that there is additional phase error. And there also we had mentioned about that if the
phase error is about 90 degree; which is what many of the intentional books say 90 degree
phase error is allowed, but I had mention that a 90 degree phase error gives rise to the poor
834
efficiency, in fact that itself gives efficiency of the order of 50 to 60 percent. And if you want
an efficiency 70 percent or more then the phase error has to be may be 45 degree or so.
Here let us see; what is that 90 degree that is if you go for the maximum one and 90 degree
gives rise to almost efficiency of 0.5 or 0.6. So, 90 degree would actually mean additional
length of /4. And now what we talked about this was the ideal one and because of the
manufacturing defect it became like this; so that means the distance travelled will be more.
And now suppose if it the error as I said even if the error is say about 1 centimeter. So, it goes
there and reflects back let us say reflected back distance travelled extra is 1 centimetre, we
talking about 2 meter diameter 1 centimetre actually is possible it does happen many a times
if you do not do proper fabrication.
So in that case what happen, now let us see if you are working what frequency? Suppose we
have working at let us say 3 gigahertz. At 3 gigahertz wave length will be 10 centimetre /4
will be 2.5 centimetre. So, this 1 centimetre error will not give rise to too much phase error so
it is ok. But now think about if you working at 30 gigahertz. So, at 30 gigahertz wave length
is 1 centimetre. And if you talking about 1 centimetre additional thing; that means the phase
error of 360 degree and that is definitely not allowed.
That means, at 3 gigahertz that phase deviation whatever there that may be allowed, but at
higher frequency that dimension tolerance is required are very very strict and we cannot
allow a distance extra of 1 centimetre. In fact, for a 30 gigahertz system even a 0.25
centimetre will give rise to a 90 degree phase difference, and that will make efficiency
straight way from 1 to 0.5. And this 0.5 will get multiplied to the rest of the term. So, the
phase error comes mainly because of this particular term here.
Now let us just see; what is the next efficiency. The next efficiency is polarisation efficiency.
This polarisation efficiency really depends upon the feed. Suppose if we have a let us say
linearly polarised thing, so we need to see; what is the linearly polarised component in one
plane and in the other plane. So, if you can design a good linearly polarised antenna or if it is
a circularly polarised we need to actually see that it should have a good LHCP and not a good
RHCP. So, the separation between LHCP and RHCP should be minimum 20 dB in the
operating beamwidth.
835
Then let us see what are the next efficiency. The next efficiency is blockage efficiency, so let
us see what that comes from. So, blockage efficiency come from let us say now this feed
which is radiating the beam goes over here and reflects back. So, this particular portion of the
feed will block the radiation going in the far away distance. So, basically and this area is the
where, where we have the maximum radiation which is coming back over here. And which is
getting block, and since it is getting block that means efficiency will get poor. So, it is always
advisable things that try to design an antenna feed antenna which has a relatively smaller
aperture here then it will have relatively less blockage. And in that case we can have very
good efficiency.
So, in fact to reduce the blockage, many a time people do not use prime focus feed, but they
actually use offset feed. Instead of putting the feed over, here feed is actually put over here
and this has to be designed in a different way so that when the feed is put over here it goes
like this and all the rays come out in parallel and the blockage in that case will close to 0. So,
over here blockage will really depend upon the block by the horn antenna or microstrip
antenna or helical antenna or whatever antenna we have used over here.
Now we have to also look at the blockage can be approximately calculated, very
approximately is. What is the area of this particular portion? And then you see what is area of
this particular feed here? And take the ratio of this with that and that will actually tell us what
is typical blockage coming out of that. So, generally speaking the blockage efficiency can be
0.9 to 0.98 depending upon the size of the feed.
Then comes the last one which is known as a Random Error Efficiency which is εr where is
that coming from? Random error efficiency comes from the fact that let us see again it is
comes from the manufacturing fact. So, we want a perfect parabola, and that what it really
means that it should have a mirror finish. And when we use the term mirror finish, mirror
finish means that it absolutely a smooth surface. But in reality when we are doing some
engineering over here this surface may not be smooth it may be something like zigzag, zigzag
something like that over here.
And now that zigzag may be the order of fraction of millimeter, but that faction of millimeter
itself what it creates. So, if you think about this zigzag will have a little angles like this, so the
wave which is coming here will actually see a different angle, and then it may try to disperse
from here to there. And also that different direction may give rise to a small phase error also;
836
you may say that phase error was accounted in εp. Now that phase error was because of the
deviation over here. This we are talking about random which is the randomness of this.
Basically, that can be taken in care also after the machining; what people do they use actually
kind of smoothing surface of this technique. So, sometimes they do some electro plating on
this particular surface so that it become smooth or sometimes they do some sand blasting or
so, so that it can be made surface as a smooth surface. So, the ideal surface which is known as
a glass finish, but reality can be different.
So, this again surface randomness error is more prominent at the higher frequency then at the
lower frequency. So let us see; what are the other things. So, these are the efficiencies and
when we designing a reflector antenna design basically consider these two things: most of the
time these are more related to the fabrication error. And this of course is related to again the
issues here, but the fabrication tolerances are directly governing the value of specially εp and
εr. So, if we take care of these things one can design a good reflector antenna.
Now let us just move on to the next reflector antenna, which is actually speaking know as a
Cassegrain reflector antenna. This is slightly different, you can actually see that there are two
reflectors are there: there is a one this is known as a main reflector and this one is known as a
secondary reflector. And here what we have the feed is put over here and then this feed
radiates, so you can see that this radiates here it reflects back from this surface goes over here
837
and then goes like this. And then this one here goes here reflects back and then goes in this
particular direction.
Now you can actually see that blockage in this particular case is much larger compare to the
previous case if you had put the prime focus feed here. You can see that if this was over here
blockage will have been less. Then why do we use this? Most of the time cassegrain reflector
antennas are used or especially for high power transmission case where we may have large
generators over here which could be high power source can be Magnetron, Klystron,
Gigatron and so on, and they also require large power supply.
So, generally that is put behind this particular reflector and the output of that is directly
connected to this particular antenna. Basically if we had put this particular thing over here
then the blockage could have been even more. Now alternatively one can think that why not
we put this entire thing use a wave guide feed and then connect over here. The problem with
that is since we are transmitting a very high power and even a wave guide will have some
losses from this point to this point over here and those losses also will be relatively more, and
also for high power heating of wave guide can also take place which may require some
cooling. All of that thing can be taken here in this particular fashion here.
Now, beside this cassegrain reflector antenna there are many other configurations are also
possible, I did mentioned about offset reflector antenna. In fact, many a times you might have
seen; for example all these dish TV antenna which receive the signal. And these days are they
typically work on the frequency band of 11 gigahertz round about. So, when they are
receiving that signal, and if you see that particular thing a dish actually has a offset feed. And
this is let us say pointed towards the satellite and this is the offset feed the things which are
reflected back; signal coming from the satellite reflects back focus at this offset feed; that is
the one of the thing.
Then another one which is actually very popular that is known as a cylindrical parabola
reflector. In fact, the cylindrical parabola reflector shape is something like this here. So it has
a part of the cylindrical shape, but this is a parabola. This kind of a thing is actually use at the
airports, if we have gone there you might see that there is this big structure is there which is
continuously rotating all around. Basically what it is doing it is looking at the incoming
planes.
838
So, what it is really doing here? Let us say this one here this aperture is relatively small, so
beam width will be large in this plane. And since this one here is a large beam will be narrow
in this one. So, think about this particular thing case here. So, narrow beam in this one and a
broad beam; that means now any plane which is coming or taking off will be covered here.
And now it is looking at only a smaller angle, and now this is rotating and the signal is
coming here. So, whenever it is sending the signal reflect back signal will come, so it will
know that this particular position we get the signal; that means there is a plane in this then it
is rotating. So, if you get a signal from this side. So we know that; what is the approximate
distance of the plane.
Of course, in more complicated configurations where they want to know even this particular
height here, so there they use multiple arrays of antennas. So, what they do it is that each of
these one will receive signal from the transmit and receive and then you process it in that case
you will know at what angle the plane could be. And most of the time those are use more by
the defence people this one is of course commercial application.
There are also known as a spherical reflector antenna. So, spherical reflector antenna nothing
but just part of a sphere, but only the portion of that is used. The property of this sphere is
that anything which is put at the centre it goes here reflects back in this direction. Then if you
put some feed here, it transmits in this side and reflects back. So, generally speaking at a
given time it only eliminates its smaller portion of the spherical reflector antenna.
So, you can actually say that it uses multiple feed, so one feed is put in this reflects so beam
maxima is going in this direction; another feed which is in this particular direction it goes
here radiates reflects back. Generally a spherical reflector is not used for its property of a
very high gain, but it is actually used one reflector with multiple feed so that you can look at
different beam angle.
839
Now let us just look at what are different types of large reflector antennas available in the
world. Let us see what we have here: this is the gain in dB you can see here this is 60 dB, 70
dB, and 80 dB. 60 dB as I mentioned earlier is 1 million, so gain is very high. What we see
here is a wave length which is varying from 0.1 to 30. So, 30 centimetre wave length
corresponds to 1 gigahertz and this one here 1 centimetre corresponds to 30 gigahertz.
So, let us just see here these are the two antennas which are actually in Arecibo which is in
Puerto Rico area and see the size this is a 215 meter diameter and that say 305 diameter. That
is really huge humongous antenna, and generally these antennas are working at the lower
frequency range. You can see this is 1 gigahertz, this is 3 gigahertz. Then you can see that this
is relatively smaller, but not really very small still like 100; and you can see what is the gain.
At here there this is a 60 dB gain it is going all the most close to 80 dB gain here. And you
can see this are the different things here.
Now you can see one interesting thing that all these things are increasing linearly which
should actually happen, if we are reducing the wave length; that means increasing the
frequency. But you can actually see that at this particular point you can see that the gain has
started reducing. So, even though wave length is reduced and if the wave length is reduced
directivity should have increase or gain should have increase, but it not increasing it started
decreasing. And these are the typical problems which are arising due to the phase error
problem as well as random error problem. So, those are the main thing which reduces. So,
840
these are the typically very large reflector antenna. And I can tell you that this kind of gain is
only possible with the reflector antenna and not possible with the any other type of antennas.
Now I would like to conclude the entire course. This particular course we started with the
simple fundamentals of antenna. So, we talked about VSWR, we talked about input
impedance, we talked about reflection, and then we talked about the radiation pattern, we
talked about the cross polar, we talked about first null beam width, and then we talked about
the gain, gain relation with the aperture. So, these were the basic thing we talked about Friis
transmission equation which is very very powerful equation to do a link design or link
budget.
And after that we talked about the very basic antenna which is known as a dipole antenna.
And we saw that the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna varies if you keep on increasing
its length. And of course, most popular one is a /2 dipole antenna, because it is a resonant
structure. We saw what is the input impedance; we also looked at the design how to design a
dipole antenna for a real input impedance. And if you recall the formula we had seen was l +
d = 0.48  and if you use that you can design a dipole antenna. We also saw the bandwidth
professional to the diameter of the dipole antenna or alternatively we can use conical dipole
antenna.
And then we talked about the monopole antenna. First we discussed about monopole antenna
on infinite ground plane, and we know that there is nothing like an infinite ground plane. And
then we talked about monopole antenna on finite ground plane, and there we saw that the
finite ground plane plays very very important role, and the size of the ground plane really
speaking controls the input impedance of the monopole antenna and also the gain of the
monopole antenna and radiation pattern.
Then we talked about slot antenna and loop antenna. Slot antenna is nothing but the
compliment of the dipole antenna, and loop antenna can be thought of as a magnetic dipole
antenna. And we had also mentioned that majority of the time we use loop antenna which are
smaller in size and we generally do not use large loop antenna. After that we talked about
linear planar arrays. In the linear arrays we initially talked about uniform amplitude
distribution and then we saw different different characteristics. We saw how to calculate the
radiation pattern, how to calculate side loop levels, how to calculate first level beam width
and so on and so forth.
841
And then from there to we went to talked about uniform, from uniform distribution to non
uniform distribution. So, we saw that there is a triangular distribution cosine distribution,
cosine squared distribution. And basically by using these distributions we can we could
actually improve the side lobe level, and of course side lobe levels reduced but gain reduced
slightly. After that we talked about planar array. And we saw that how we can control the
beam width in both the plane E plane as well as H plane. After that we talked in length about
microstrip antenna. The reason for that is microstrip antennas are becoming very very
popular. They are replacing many conventional antennas and that is why antennas has been
lot of focus and microstrip antenna.
So, we talked about several different things in the microstrip antenna. We started with the
simple basic configuration like, rectangular, circular, triangular shape. Then we talked about
broadband microstrip antenna and where by adding parasitic elements in the planar
dimension or in the vertical dimension or both planar and vertical we could increase the band
width typically 2 to 5 percent to all the way to 20 percent 30 percent or even more. Then we
also talked about circularly polarised antenna, we talked about compact microstrip antenna,
we talked about multi band microstrip antenna. And after that we concluded microstrip
antenna with various microstrip antenna array configuration.
After that we talked about helical antenna, and we looked at two different modes of helical
antenna: normal mode and axial mode. And generally speaking normal mode is a nice
replacement of a monopole antenna and the axial mode helical antennas are generally used
for circularly polarised antenna configurations. And then we talked about horn antenna and
we emphasize that the phase error of 90 degree and 135 degree is not acceptable. And in
general you should design for a phase error of may be 45 degree and not more than that.
And after the horn antenna we talked about Yagi-Uda, and log periodic antenna, and we saw
that Yagi-Uda antennas are generally used for high gain applications, and log periodic
antennas are generally used for broadband application. And nowadays lot of research is going
on we are combining the benefits of Yagi-Uda and log periodic antenna. So, that is a very
good research topic you can look into that also.
And then we concluded the whole thing by covering reflector antenna. So, where we talked
about the plane reflector antenna, we talked about corner reflector antenna, and we talked
about the parabolic reflector antenna. Now I also want to tell you there are many other types
842
of antennas are there. For example, as a lens antennas are there, there are spiral antennas are
there and many other things. But in this particular course it was not possible to cover each
and everything, I actually felt that it is better that we understand few antennas in depth and
then once you have understood some of the antennas properly you can apply the same
concept to understand other types of antennas.
So, from my side I try to give also the practical part of it or generally speaking the emphasis
was on the design of the antenna. In fact, our prime minister has been emphasizing make in
India, in fact I have actually added a line before that: before make in India to happen it has to
be design in India, ‘so until unless we do design in India what are we going to make in India’.
So that was the whole crux of my course that focus on the design of the antenna, will also
show you some practical antennas in our lab and will show you how we do the measurement
of some of the antenna parameter.
So with that best of luck, I hope you enjoyed the course on antennas. And hopefully you
design your own antennas, fabricate your own antenna; and these antennas are required by all
you can say telecom industry, they are required by the space industry, these are required by
the hobbyists also and this is big where required by the defence industry. So all the best, and
have a nice time in designing these Antennas, bye.
843
Antennas
Prof. Girish Kumar
Lecture – 60
Lab Session
Hello, and welcome to the concluding session of the course antennas. Today I am not going
to take lectures, but today we are going to show you various experiments which we have
performed on different types of antennas, we have designed so many antennas, we have
fabricated so many antennas. So, today I am standing inside the antenna lab of Electrical
Engineering Department IIT, Bombay
So, my students along with the TAs they will show you different types of antennas which we
have developed at IIT, Bombay. They will also show you how to do the input impedance
measurement, VSWR measurement using vector network analyzer. After that they will also
show you how to do the radiation pattern measurement.
Now, most of the time people do radiation pattern measurement inside an anechoic chamber
using automated measurement tool. However, those are very expensive and not possible for
all the people, and then what do you do? So all you need is really is some got an empty room
put a transmitting antenna, received antenna and you can do the measurement even in the
open room also. So, we will show that in an open corridor so that you can actually see the
pattern measurement as well as the gain measurement.
And for gain measurement and especially the half power beam width even an open room is
good enough. The problem where we have in the open room is most of the time the null depth
may not very sharp or the cross polar level which are below minus 20 dB they may not be
good. But otherwise gain measurement as well as the half power beam width and other things
are perfectly fine.
So, I hope you will enjoy the show, we see the antennas and see all our young and
enthusiastic students as well as TAs to show you various antennas and how to do the radiation
pattern measurement and impedance measurement of the antenna. So thank you and I hope
you enjoyed the show as I enjoyed recording the show. Thank you very much and I hope you
have enjoyed this entire journey. And rest of the journey enjoy with my students. Thank you.
844
Student: Now we are going to show various antennas available in our lab. This is a dipole
antenna, this is a loop antenna, these are some microstrip antennas, circular microstrip
antenna arrays, this is a two by two microstrip antenna array, this is of 3D printed horn, this is
a helical antenna, this is a horn antenna designed at 1800 MHz, there is a electromagnetically
stacked microstrip antenna, planar log periodic antenna, it is a E shape microstrip suspended
antenna. These are some of the antennas available in our lab
Hello everyone. I am Rinki Chopra, I am a PhD student in antenna lab, I am also a teaching
assistant for this course. So, here we are going to show you the basic antennas: monopole
antenna, dipole antenna, and loop antenna.
845
This is dipole antenna designed at 800 mega hertz. Here Balun is used to feed the power; that
is used to provide the different field.
This is a planar monopole antenna. Here this is taper to widen the bandwidth.
846
This is a loop antenna designed at 800 MHz. Here Balun is used to feed the power.
Hi. I am Anamika Varma, I am a PhD student. These antennas are designed at 2 GHz. This
one is square microstrip antenna and this circular microstrip antenna.
847
These are the compact versions of the circular microstrip antenna which shorting ports, and in
all these antennas power are fed by a SMA connectors.
Hi. I am Pratigya Mathur, and I am PhD student at antenna lab in IIT Bombay. Microstrip
antennas have a limitation of low gain. This limitation can be overcome by designing antenna
arrays. Antenna arrays can be of two types: corporate fed antennas and linear fed antennas.
This is five element linear microstrip antenna arrays.
848
The other type of array is corporate fed antenna array, this is a two cross two corporate fed
antenna array designed at 5.8 GHz.
To increase the gain further 8 x 8 corporate fed microstrip array has been designed at Ka-
band. This antenna array finds application for satellites and defense purposes.
Hello everybody. I am Lieutenant colonel Sandip Das, presently doing my M. Tech at IIT
Bombay. I will be introducing the two conventional techniques which are used to broaden the
bandwidth of microstrip antenna.
849
Firstly this is a gap coupled microstrip antenna designed for 3G band and secondly this is a
electromagnetically coupled stacked antenna which is also used for broadening the bandwidth
of microstrip antennas.
Hello everyone. My name is Debprathim Gosh and I am currently a PhD student at the
antenna lab at IIT Bombay.
850
So, today I have got for you stacked patch electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna,
wherein we have this bigger square as the ground patch and on top of that we have the main
radiating patch which is in the middle which if you can see this. And finally, on top we have
the parasitic patch. So, this is designed to work primarily for the GSM 900 band. So, its
bandwidth is roughly from 890 to about 1000 MHz. So, if you recall the GSM band itself is
from 890 to 960 MHz.
So, this is the simple example of how you can use a microstrip antenna with two patches to
obtain comparatively higher bandwidth, thank you.
Hello everyone. My name is Anil Kama; I am a PhD student at IIT Bombay. Till now my
friends have shown you planar antennas and now I will show you 3D printed antennas.
So, these are the some of the examples of 3D printed antennas. So, we are this is a simple
horn antenna made with using 3D printing technique. Similarly there is another antenna
which is 3D printing technique.
851
Hello I am Rohini Bhide, working in antenna lab this is reflector antenna which is available
in market. It operates at 2.45 GHz; it provides us 24 dB a gain which can be used at the high
gain application. To make it lighter this strips are used instead of having a metallic plate.
Hello everyone. I am Hemant Kumar, teaching assistant for this course. I am here to present
some of the antennas designed by us.
This is a basic planar Yagi-Uda antenna designed at 1.12 GHz. It is designed on a FR4 very
low cost substrate. It have approximately gain of 6 to 7 dBi. Next is a broadband linear log
852
periodic dipole antenna. This is a dipole arrays, and you can see here is the radiation pattern
and here we have to feed the antenna, this is a coaxial feed linear log periodic dipole antenna.
This is a helical antenna. Here is the feed and this is designed for FM.
Next is horn antenna: this is our horn antenna designed for 1700 MHz to 1900 MHz it have
approximately gain of 11 dBi. It has a feed from here this is feed probe feed, you can see
inside and here we can see there is a coaxial feed.
Now, we are going to show you how to measure the input impedance VSWR, and reflection
coefficient for a given antenna. For measurement we have to use a network analyzer.
Here we have a network analyzer which can operate from 100 kilo hertz to 8.5 GHz. So, we
can measure the antennas which have any frequency range from 100 kilohertz to 8.5 GHz.
So, first step to measure the input impedance or VSWR or reflection coefficient we have to
calibrate. So to calibrate we have given some standard loads: one is open, short and 50 ohm
match load, because the maximum value of VSWR can be infinity or minimum is 1. 1 is for
complete match load and infinity is for open and short load. So we will require three loads:
one is open another short and last one is 50 ohm match load. Now we will do the calibration.
We designed this antenna for GSM band, so let us select the frequency range. So, let us first
select the frequency range press start, then select the start frequency as 800 MHz, then select
the stop frequency that is roughly select 1.1 GHz, because this antenna is designed to operate
853
from 893 MHz to around 980 MHz. So, we need to select the frequency range that should be
little higher than this or lower then this start frequency. So, that is why we are selecting the
start and stop frequency as 800 MHz and 1.1 GHz.
Then we need to calibrate. So, in order to calibrate select the cal-kit number; go to calibrate
for this we need to select the cal-kit. So, the cal-kit number is 85515A. So, select cal-kit
number, then press calibrate then do one port calibration, because here only when port we are
using. To do the calibration firstly connect it with open, after connecting press ok, then
connect it to short, again press ok and after that connect it to load then press ok.
Now we know when you connect it to open it provides 0 dB return loss. So, here it is
providing 0 dB when we are connecting to open, and same is in case of short. When we
connect it to load then it provides us very less reflection efficiency. So, practically when it
comes below 20 dB then we say that it is calibrated with the load. So, thing is why we do
calibration? So calibration is usually done to account the cable losses. If we have calibrated
the cable and we have done the full calibration for this operating rage, now we need to
connect it with the antenna.
Here I have connected it with the antenna. Now you can see here in this my response is
coming below 10 dB in some frequency range that is my operating band. So, we need to see;
what is the bandwidth that it is providing. So we need to put some marker so that we can see
what is the operating bandwidth that it is providing. So, just select marker and put it in minus
10 dB end points.
So, here we are providing two markers to select the 10 dB points so that we can get the idea
of the operating bandwidth. So, that the bandwidth that we are getting here is from 900 to
1.01 GHz; that is my operating bandwidth for this antenna. Now we want to see the depth
then we need to put one more marker and then need to see the lower most point. So, the lower
most point that we are getting here is at 1 GHz. So, this is my frequency range. Now if we
want to see the Smith Chart or impedance plot then we need to select this Smith Chart from
the format.
Go to format, then select a Smith, then select the format R + jX; now you see here one loop is
coming this loop is coming because of the parasitic patch that is placed over here. So, there is
a coupling between these two patches that is why the loop is created in this Smith Chart.
854
Now I would like to show the VSWR plot, we need to select the SWR. So, here you can see
the VSWR plot. So, whatever range is coming below 2 that is my frequency range for this
antenna, from here you can see from 900 to approx 1 GHz my range is coming so that is my
frequency operation for this antenna.
Now, we have showed and explained how to measure the impedance VSWR and reflection
coefficient, next we will explain how to measure the gain and radiation pattern for a given
antenna. We will use one reference antenna over the same frequency range. Now let us see
how to measure the radiation pattern and gain.
Here we are going to measure the radiation pattern and gain of the given antenna. The given
antenna is working at 900 MHz; this is a suspended microstrip antenna working at 900 MHz.
So, before doing the measurements we should have some reference antenna with respect to
which we will measure the gain and radiation pattern.
So, we have chosen this reference antenna which is working at the same frequency range.
This is a horn antenna its gain approximately 10 dB at 900 MHz. To calculate the gain of our
given antenna we will first place these two antennas at far field distance. The far field
distance you can calculate using the formula 2D 2/. So, at 900 MHz if you calculate the far
field distance it will be approximately 1.8 meter. So, we have taken approximately distance of
2 meter. So, the distance between these two antennas is 2 meter, this is our given antenna and
this is our reference antenna.
855
In the reference antenna we will provide the input. Input can be generated from the network
analyzer; it can be generated using a signal generator. So, to give the input to the reference
antenna we will use signal generator. This signal generator works from 100 kilo hertz to 6
GHz. So, it lies in our frequency range.
So, first we have to select the frequency at which we have to give the input. So, select
frequency, click on this, now select the frequency value if we want to measure gain or
radiation pattern at 900 MHz then we have to give the input as a 900 MHz. Next is we have
to give the some amplitude value; amplitude you can select 0 dBm, 10 dBm, maximum value
that we can give from this signal generator is 17 dBm, but we are going to use as a 10 dBm.
So, select amplitude level which is 10 dBm. To give the input to the reference antenna we
have to on this button RF on. So, press this button, so we have clicked on this RF on. Now
the input is given to our reference antenna.
Till now we have provided the input to our reference antenna. Now this reference antenna
will radiate and this given antenna for which we want to measure the radiation pattern and
gain will receive the signal. And the received signal will be measured using the spectrum
analyzer.
This is spectrum analyzer; it works from 9 kilo hertz to 3.6 GHz. So, our selected frequency
is 900 MHz, so we will set the frequency first. So, from this you can select frequency; now
you have various options the center frequency, start frequency, stop frequency, so we can
856
select start frequency first. Now set this start frequency you can set it at 850 MHz. The next is
stop frequency 1 GHz, so we have selected our frequency range. Next you can change the
amplitude reference level.
So, to change the amplitude reference level select amplitude reference level, take reference
level as a minus 10 dBm or 0 dBm; so let us take minus 10 dBm; so this is our reference
level. Now you can see approximately 900 MHz we are getting some peak. You can measure
this received value by selecting the marker. This is our selected marker at 900 MHz you can
see the value is minus 11.4 dBm. So, you can see the received power at 900 MHz is minus
11.4 dBm.
Now, to calculate the gain of our given antenna we have to use Friis transmission equation.
So, Friis transmission equation will give you the gain of our antenna. So, there are various
parameters Pt is transmitted power which we have used as a 10 dBm. Next is G t the
transmitter gain, which is the reference antenna gain, which is approximately 10.7 dBi at 900
MHz. Next is Gr; this Gr value we will calculate from this equation. λ is a wavelength which
can be calculated from c/f; c is our speed of light, frequency f is 900 MHz so you can
calculate the wavelength. Then next R, R is the distance between the reference antenna and
the receiver antenna; receiver antenna is the antenna for which we are going to calculate the
gain. We have taken the distance between these two antenna as 2 meter.
857
So, next we have connected the transmitter antenna to the signal generator and the receiver
antenna to the spectrum analyzer using the coaxial cables. So, theses coaxial cables have
some losses we have included this losses which is approximately 3 dB. Now you can put
these values in this equation you can find out the gain of received antenna. So, the gain of the
received antenna calculated from this equation is 7.8 dBi.
Till now we have measured the gain of our given antenna, now we will measure the radiation
pattern. To measure the radiation pattern we will first align these two antennas; one is our
given antenna for which we are going to measure the radiation pattern, next is our reference
antenna. There are four types of radiation pattern you can measure: first is E co pol in which
both the antenna E plane should be perfectly aligned with respect to each other. So, antenna E
plane in vertical direction, this is our reference antenna also have E field in vertical direction.
So, in this we have both the antennas E field in vertical direction.
Now to measure the E plane co-polarization we will rotate our antenna from 0 to 360 degree
with respect to the reference antenna. At 0 degree the received value will be maximum. So,
for other values of the angle we will normalize with respect to 0 degree value. Now this we
want to measure the cross pol we have to rotate this antenna by 90 degree in vertical plane
direction. Then you rotate this antenna 0 degree to 360 degree in the horizontal plane with
respect to the reference antenna, and take the readings the readings will give you the cross
polar in the E plane.
Similarly if you want to measure the H plane co-polarization we have to align both the H
plane in the same vertical direction. So, we have to rotate this reference antenna in this
direction, so this is our H plane. Similarly we can rotate this antenna by 90 degree which will
give us the H plane in the vertical direction. Then we can do the same procedure for the
radiation pattern. If you want to measure the cross pol in the H plane then we will rotate this
antenna in the 90 degree, after that rotate 0 to 360 degree in the horizontal plane with respect
to our reference antenna this will give you the cross polarization components in the H plane.
We will show you the demo for the e plane co polarization components. So, to rotate this
antenna we have one rotating table, here there is button to rotate this antenna. So, if you press
button it will rotate our antenna by the value mentioned in this screen. So, you can see the
antenna is rotating by 1 degree angle after every step. Now, we can see the value in the
spectrum analyzer. After rotation of a 20 degree approximately you can see the received value
858
is decreased by 1.3 dB approximately, you can see minus 12.8 dBm we are receiving. At 0
degree we have received the value approximately minus 11.4 dBm and now the value is
minus 12.7; again if you further rotate this value will further decrease.
Now we will take the reading at 90 degree, now we have rotated our given antenna by 90
degree with respect to the reference antenna. Now we can see the reading what we are
receiving. So, the received value you can see is approximately minus 23 dBm which is
approximately 11 to 12 dB less than the maximum value. Now we will rotate this antenna
further by 90 degree.
Now you can see we have rotated our antenna by 180 degree with respect to the reference
antenna. Now the received power will be less because this antenna is pointing opposite to the
reference antenna. Now, the reading is approximately minus 30 dBm for 180 degree angle.
Now if you want to calculate the front to back ratio: front value was approximately minus 11
dBm and the back value which is at 180 degree is approximately minus 30 dBm. So, if you
find out the front to back ratio it will comes out to be equal to 20 dB approximately.
We have measured the radiation pattern from 0 degree to 180 degree, because the antennas
are symmetric so there is no need to calculate the radiation pattern from 0 degree to minus
180 degree. So, you can use the same value that we have obtained from 0 to 180 degree and
plot the radiation pattern using available software. In the similar way you can find out the
cross polar for E plane co-pole component in the H plane cross polar component in the H
plane. So, you can obtain all these four plots.
Thank you.
859
THIS BOOK IS NOT FOR SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
PH : (044) 2257 5905/08 nptel.ac.in swayam.gov.in

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INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:23)

(Refer Slide Time: 07:25)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:57)

So, what will be power reflected that will be

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:13)

So, when we go from here maximum visibility or maximum radiation, as we move up we

(Refer Slide Time: 11:48)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:14)

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:36)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:24)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:05)

(Refer Slide Time: 03:28)

(Refer Slide Time: 08:47)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:04)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:59)

(Refer Slide Time: 05:56)

radian. But now they are converted in degree.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:12)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:17)

(Refer Slide Time: 16:05)

If = 0, power reflected will be 0 and we define VSWR in terms of the reflection

(Refer Slide Time: 20:56)

have just taken an example , now there are two ways to

(Refer Slide Time: 27:16)

Thank you, bye.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:39)

What is electromagnetically coupled? Electromagnetically coupled is that there is a one patch

(Refer Slide Time: 11:43)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:21)

that dB into numeric value which is 50.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:01)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:39)

(Refer Slide Time: 08:50)

(Refer Slide Time: 15:35)

(Refer Slide Time: 25:06)

Thank you very much, see you soon.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:03)

(Refer Slide Time: 03:06)

(Refer Slide Time: 04:14)

(Refer Slide Time: 06:15)

(Refer Slide Time: 07:51)

(Refer Slide Time: 09:11)

(Refer Slide Time: 11:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:19)

(Refer Slide Time: 18:43)

(Refer Slide Time: 19:33)

(Refer Slide Time: 20:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 27:34)

Thank you very much. Bye.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:13)

Then regarding the Eθ component; so Eθ component or in this case Aθ component can be

(Refer Slide Time: 05:13)

(Refer Slide Time: 05:34)

(Refer Slide Time: 07:19)

much much greater than λ/2 π

(Refer Slide Time: 10:04)

(Refer Slide Time: 15:14)