CC Visual Aesthetics Arts 07 00036

arts
Article
The Visual Construction of the Umayyad Caliphate in
Al-Andalus through the Great Mosque of Cordoba
Susana Calvo Capilla ID
Art History Department, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; susana.calvo@ucm.es

Received: 25 June 2018; Accepted: 27 July 2018; Published: 8 August 2018
Abstract: My first exposure to the epigraphic program of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, published
in 2001, came from reading an article on the ideological meaning of the decoration and the Quranic
citations inscribed in al-H . akam II’s addition to the building. In that article, I concluded that the
Quranic verses found in the mosque were chosen not only for being a universal proclamation of
divine power and praise for the Umayyad dynasty, as proposed by Nuha Khoury in 1996, but also
because they clearly fitted in with the particular Andalusi, or rather Cordoban, religious, cultural,
and political context in the first half of the 10th century. Most of the inscriptions had been read in
the 19th century by Amador de los Ríos, but some of them remained uninterpreted. Given that they
were an essential part of the ideological message, it seemed appropriate to revisit the critical reading
of the epigraphic program and determine its full meaning. Later, I discussed other architectural
aspects of the Great Mosque in which the links to the Andalusi and the eastern Umayyad traditions
are a key aspect in understanding why these forms were chosen. Damascus, the eastern Umayyad
capital, and to a lesser extent Medina and the Abbasid capitals, became the model for the caliphs of
Cordoba. This article proposes to revisit the main architectural and decorative features of the caliphal
enlargements of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in order to reflect on the meaning and forms of its
epigraphic program.
Keywords: al-Andalus; Umayyads; mosque; Cordoba; epigraphy; mosaics; caliphate
1. A New Scenario for the Umayyads of Al-Andalus
Following ‘Abd al-Rah.mān III’s (d. 961) decision to declare himself caliph in 929, al-Andalus
became the most important arts and knowledge-based centre in the western Mediterranean, directly
competing with the Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates, as well as the Byzantine Empire. The Andalusi
caliphs mostly draw inspiration from the works of their Damascus Umayyad ancestors for their
cultural and artistic pursuits, but also from the Abbasid caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. All of this,
added to the Hispanic pre-Islamic patrimony, allowed them to build their own visual and iconographic
identity that would also become apparent in later Andalusi art (as in the case of the Almohads).
Hence, contrary to the idea that al-Andalus acted in response to their political rivals, or by imitating
eastern patterns, my own analysis of the monuments made me increasingly aware of the independence
of the Cordoban caliphate in the search for its own visual and ideological models of legitimisation
and reaffirmation.
There were three main aspects of influence. Firstly, the Andalusi Umayyads invoked the authority
of the “Well Guided” caliphs and of their eastern and Andalusi ancestors to establish their claim
Arts 2018, 7, 36; doi:10.3390/arts7030036 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts

Arts 2018, 7, 36 2 of 21
as supreme guides and guardians of Sunni orthodoxy1 . Secondly, and similarly to their Umayyad
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21
ancestors and the Abbasid Caliphs, they promoted the sciences and the arts, surrounding themselves
with claim
scholars and taking
as supreme care and
guides of the princes’ of
guardians education, following
Sunni orthodoxy the model
1 . Secondly, andof the most to
similarly learned
their and
prestigious
Umayyad rulers since and
ancestors Hellenistic times.
the Abbasid Lastly,
Caliphs, theythepromoted
Andalusi caliphs
the sciencesalso
andclaimed
the arts, to be heirs of the
surrounding
Greco-Latin
themselves culture and theand
with scholars Roman
takingandcareHispano-Visigothic legacies,
of the princes’ education, which
following theallowed
model ofthem to build
the most
learned and prestigious rulers since Hellenistic times. Lastly, the Andalusi
their own political, cultural, and visual corpus of knowledge (Calvo Capilla 2014b; König). Those caliphs also claimed to be three
heirs of the Greco-Latin culture and the Roman and Hispano-Visigothic legacies,
factors were translated into their main artistic projects: the palace-city of Madı̄nat al-Zahrā and the which allowed them
GreattoMosque
build their own political, cultural, and visual corpus of knowledge (Calvo Capilla 2014b; König
of Cordoba.
2015). Those three factors were translated into their main artistic projects: the palace-city of Madīnat
Concerning the last aspect, the reutilisation of ancient building materials has been visible
al-Zahrā and the Great Mosque of Cordoba.
in the Great Mosque from the founding phase in the 8th century. During the enlargement by
Concerning the last aspect, the reutilisation of ancient building materials has been visible in the
‘Abd Great
al-Rah . mān II,from
Mosque in thethefirst half ofphase
founding the 9thin century, reutilised
the 8th century. materials
During were combined
the enlargement by ‘Abd with
al- new
piecesRaḥmān
from the Umayyad workshops. (Figure 1) However, the use of Roman and
II, in the first half of the 9th century, reutilised materials were combined with new piecesVisigothic Hispania
as a legitimation
from the Umayyad strategy is not only
workshops. reflected
(Figure in the ancient
1) However, the useconstruction
of Roman and materials
VisigothicbutHispania
also through
as a the
legitimation
revival of classical strategy
formsisinnot only reflected
caliphal art. Aninexample
the ancient construction
of this can be seenmaterials
in thebut also through
mihrab the
of the mosque,
and inrevival of classical
the display forms inreliefs
of Roman caliphalandart.sculptures
An examplein ofthe
thispalaces
can be seen in the mihrab
of Madı̄nat of the mosque,
al-Zahrā’. The palatial
andofinCordoba,
the display of Roman reliefs and sculptures in the palaces of Madīnat al-Zahrā’. The palatial
library called by Ibn . ayyān (d. 1076) and the Qadı̄ ‘Iyad (d. 1149) bayt al-hikma, would
H
library of Cordoba, called by Ibn Ḥayyān (d. 1076) and the Qadī ‘Iyad (d. 1149) bayt al-hikma, would
contain works by Aristotle, De materia Medica of Dioscoride, the Etymologies and De natura rerum of
contain works by Aristotle, De materia Medica of Dioscoride, the Etymologies and De natura rerum of
San Isidore of Seville, and the History of Orose, among others, some of them translated into Arabic
San Isidore of Seville, and the History of Orose, among others, some of them translated into Arabic
(Capilla 2018a, 2014b).
(Calvo Capilla 2018a, 2014b).
Figure 1. Roman and Visigothic capitals in the 8th and 9th century phases of the Great Mosque of
Figure 1. Roman
Cordoba. and took
© Photos Visigothic capitals in the 8th and 9th century phases of the Great Mosque of
by author.
Cordoba. © Photos took by author.
1 For further details on the Quranic inscriptions see the following articles: (Calvo Capilla 2001; Calvo Capilla
1 2010a), as well as a forthcoming article about the inscriptions in the axial nave. Architectural aspects are in
For further details on the Quranic inscriptions see the following articles: (Calvo Capilla 2001; Calvo Capilla 2010a), as well as
(Calvo Capilla
a forthcoming article 2008).
about My
the research on the
inscriptions formal
in the axialcharacteristics and the
nave. Architectural social,are
aspects religious, and
in (Calvo political
Capilla meaning
2008). My research
on theofformal
the congregational and the
characteristics and small mosques
social, of and
religious, al-Andalus
politicalwere developed
meaning in my doctoral
of the congregational and thesis
small(2001)
mosques of
published
al-Andalus werein (Calvo Capilla
developed in my 2014a).
doctoral thesis (2001) published in (Calvo Capilla 2014a).
Arts 2018, 7, 36 3 of 21
Ibn Bashkūwāl (12th century), Ibn ‘Idhārı̄ (14th), and al-Maqqarı̄ (17th) told a very eloquent and
interesting anecdote that linked these two great architectural enterprises of the Andalusi caliphate.
One of the first decisions made by al-H . akam II (961–76) as a caliph was to enlarge the dynastic
congregational mosque of the capital. One day in the year 351/962, the caliph went to the Great
Mosque accompanied by the Cordoban wise men, including the Māliki fuqahā’, the astronomers
(ahl al-ta’dı̄l) of the court, the high judge (qād.ı̄ Mundhir b. Sa‘ı̄d), and the s.āh.ib al-ah.bās of Cordoba.
Al-H. akam II wanted their opinion regarding his plans to enlarge the building and the orientation
of the qibla. On one hand, the astronomers of the court proposed to modify the qibla, to face east,
following the correct orientation to Mecca, as had done his father, the Caliph al-Nās.ir, in the Great
Mosque of Madı̄nat al-Zahrā’. On the other hand, a prestigious jurist and theologian very close to the
caliph, the faqı̄h Ish.āq b. Ibrāhı̄m (d. after 963), known as Abū Ibrāhı̄m, opposed making any changes
to the ancient qibla. The reason for this was that it represented the tradition and the precedent (ittibā’)
of the ancestors, and that modifying it would mean falling into a blameworthy innovation (ibtidā’)
(Al-Maqqarı̄ 1840, 1967).
This anecdote sparked a debate between science and the religious tradition with regard to the
direction of the qibla wall that certainly revealed an interesting double ideological discourse, a dual way
to legitimate the Caliphal dignity. When ensconced in the palace of Madı̄nat al-Zahrā’, the caliph
showed himself as an erudite ruler who promoted the rational sciences and the “knowledge of the
Ancients”, as recently pointed out in my study on the reuse of Roman sculptures in the Cordoban
palace. At the same time, in the enlargement of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, the caliph appealed to
the orthodox religious tradition to present himself before the umma as a ruler chosen by God and as
the supreme Imam.
2. The Legacy of the Umayyad Ancestors and the “Imperial” Aesthetics

The second caliph, al-H . akam II, was, to a large extent, responsible for the conception of the
cultural and artistic program of the new caliphate, i.e., for deciding the ideological message that works
of art should convey about the new political context of al-Andalus, including urbanism, buildings,
books, luxury objects, such as the fabrics of tiraz, ceramics, or ivories. The project to expand the capital’s
congregational mosque began with ‘Abd al-Rah.mān III, with the construction of a new minaret and
the enlargement of the courtyard, and was completed by his son, al-H . akam II. The ornamental and
architectural forms chosen in the new maqs.ūra of the Great Mosque, together with the epigraphic
program, were clearly a visual expression of Umayyad legitimacy and its political aspirations, and the
mosque became part of its da’wa or politico-religious propaganda. Indeed, the enlargement became
a political scenario, a sort of reception chamber, as we will see later.
The caliphal da’wa included the claim of their rights over the eastern caliphate, and even as
protectors of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina; it was part of the Umayyad ideology from the times
of the Emirate of al-Andalus. Despite the utopian character of these pretensions, they appeared with
some frequency in the official discourse of ‘Abd al-Rah.man III and al-H . akam II (Calvo Capilla 2008).
As for their confrontation with the Fatimids, which was religious, because they were considered
a heretical sect, and strategic, because of the hegemonic control of the Maghreb and the Mediterranean,
the conflict was at its height in the middle of the 10th century, when the mosque was being enlarged.
A large part of the formal vocabulary of the caliphal mosque was thus inspired by religious
models from the Umayyad past, both in the east and in Al-Andalus (Khoury 1996, pp. 86–88;
Dodds 1992, pp. 18–23). The connection to their Umayyad ancestors could be seen in the use of literary
topoi, in which al-H. akam II and the mosque of Cordoba were linked to al-Walı̄d (705–15) and the great
mosque he built in the capital, Damascus (Calvo Capilla 2010b). (Figure 2) Since the enlargement
was conceived as the architectural framework for the new power and its increasingly complicated
ceremonial, it is logical that what Flood called the “imperial mosques” of the Umayyads—Jerusalem,
Damascus, and Medina, built by ‘Abd al-Mālik and al-Walı̄d between 685 and 715—were taken as the
iconographic model (Flood 2001). Furthermore, there are certain features that could be considered
Arts 2018, 7, 36 4 of 21
aa transfer
transfer of palatial architectural
of palatial architectural models
models to
to the
the prayer
prayer hall
hall of the mosque,
of the mosque, like
like the
the three
three central
central naves
naves
crowned by domes at their ends, clearly inspired by the basilical reception-halls of Madı̄nat al-Zahrā’.
crowned by domes at their ends, clearly inspired by the basilical reception-halls of Madīnat al-Zahrā’.
Figure 2. Umayyad mosque of Damascus (8th century). © Photo took by author.

Figure 2. Umayyad mosque of Damascus (8th century). © Photo took by author.
Some other elements, such as the orientation of the qibla, the four columns at the entrance to the
mihrab,Some andother elements, such
the scallop-shell as the
vault orientation
over the niche,ofwere the qibla, the four
connected columns
to the Islamic atpast
the entrance to the
of al-Andalus.
mihrab, and the scallop-shell vault over the niche, were connected to the
Thusly, the caliphs showed their attachment to the tradition of their ancestors, who in this case were Islamic past of al-Andalus.
Thusly, the caliphs
the conquerors Musàshowed their (712–14)
b. Nusayr attachment andtothe thetābī‘ūn
tradition who of accompanied
their ancestors, who
him, asinwell
thisascase
thewere
first
the conquerors
Umayyad, ‘AbdMusà b. Nusayr
al-Raḥmān I “the(712–14)
Immigrant”and the tābı̄‘ūnand
(756–88), who ‘Abdaccompanied
al-Raḥmānhim, as well
II. This was aasmeans
the first
of
Umayyad, ‘Abd al-Rah
sanctioning the rightfulness . mān I “the Immigrant” (756–88), and ‘Abd al-Rah mān
of the process of Islamisation of the Iberian.Peninsula (Figure 3). II. This was a means of
sanctioning the rightfulness
Paradoxically, of the of
in this process process of Islamisation
self-assertion of the Iberian
of the caliphate in thePeninsula
10th century, (Figure 3).
the Umayyads
Paradoxically,
of al-Andalus also in thisinspiration
took process of self-assertion
from the Abbasid of the caliphate,
caliphate in asthe
the10th century, the
increasingly Umayyads
sophisticated
of al-Andalus also took inspiration from the Abbasid caliphate,
ceremony and administration seem to indicate, as well as many aspects of protocol, from the as the increasingly sophisticated
ceremony
honorary titlesand administration
to the “imperial” seemaesthetics
to indicate, as well asinmany
introduced aspects of protocol,
the caliphate’s architecture.fromThethe honorary
tripartite
titles to the “imperial” aesthetics introduced in the caliphate’s architecture.
structure of the qibla of Cordoba partly harks back to the arrangement of the wall in the two The tripartite structure
of the qibla of Cordoba
congregational mosquespartly harks back
of Samarra, built to
by the
the arrangement
caliph al-Mutawakkilof the wall in the two congregational
(232–47/847–61). The mihrab
mosques
is flankedof bySamarra,
two bays,built by the caliph
corresponding al-Mutawakkil
to the treasury chamber (232–47/847–61).
in the east and Thethe mihrab is flanked
sābāṭ door in the
by two bays, corresponding to the treasury chamber in the east and the sābāt door 2
west . This monumental triple façade in Cordoba (mihrab, treasury, and sābāṭ doors),
2 . decorated with.
in the west
This
glazed monumental
mosaics and triple façade in
preceded byCordoba
domed (mihrab,
bays, was treasury, and sābāt.that
an innovation doors),soondecorated
became with glazed
the model,
mosaics
althoughand preceded
simplified, forbygreat
domed bays, was
mosques an innovation
in western that soonthe
Islam. Similarly, became
nichethe model, although
in Cordoba became
simplified, for great mosques in western Islam. Similarly, the
exceptionally large—3.77 m wide × 3.57 m deep, which is only comparable to those of theniche in Cordoba became exceptionally
mihrabs in
large—3.77
the two Abbasid m wide × 3.57 mShortly
mosques. deep, which
after is only
the comparable
mosaics of theto thosedoor
sābāṭ’s of thewere
mihrabs in the(between
finished two Abbasid 970
mosques. Shortly after the mosaics of the sābāt ’s door were finished (between
and 973), a new opening had to be made in the. qibla wall to house the mobile minbar ordered by al- 970 and 973), a new
opening
Ḥakam II had to be
(placed made
in the in theinqibla
maqṣūra wallasto
366/976, wehouse
will see thebelow)
mobile minbar4).ordered by al-H
(Figure . akam II
(placed in the maqs.ūra in 366/976, as we will see below) (Figure 4).
2 (Northedge 2005; Leisten 2003; Creswell 1989, pp. 358–73). Golden mosaics were used in the decoration of the facade of the
mihrab in the al-Mutawakkil mosque in Samarra (Herzfeld 1912, p. 10; Lamm 1927, pp. 106–10, 115–17). Sābāt. is the passage
that linked the mosque with the caliphal palace.
2 (Northedge 2005; Leisten 2003; Creswell 1989, pp. 358–73). Golden mosaics were used in the decoration of
the facade of the mihrab in the al-Mutawakkil mosque in Samarra (Herzfeld 1912, p. 10; Lamm 1927, pp. 106–
10, 115–17). Sābāṭ is the passage that linked the mosque with the caliphal palace.
Arts 2018, 7, 36 5 of 21
Figure 3. Mihrab of the caliphal phase of the Great Mosque of Cordoba with the columns of ‘Abd al-
Figure 3. Mihrab of the caliphal phase of the Great Mosque of Cordoba with the columns of
Raḥmān
Figure 3.II. © Photo
Mihrab tookcaliphal
of the by author.
phase of the Great Mosque of Cordoba with the columns of ‘Abd al-
‘Abd al-Rah.mān II. © Photo took by author.
Raḥmān II. © Photo took by author.
Figure 4. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Three domed triple bays of the maqṣūra in the caliphal
enlargement.
Figure © Photo
4. Great tookofbyCordoba.
Mosque author. Three domed triple bays of the maqṣūra in the caliphal
Figure 4. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Three domed triple bays of the maqs.ūra in the caliphal enlargement.
enlargement. © Photo took by author.
© Photo took by author.
Arts 2018, 7, 36 6 of 21
3. Domes and Chrysography for a Royal Scene

Al-H akam II’s enlargement consisted of extending the eleven aisles to the south, underlining the
3.. Domes and Chrysography for a Royal Scene
importance of the three central ones with three ribbed domes at their northern end and three other
Al-Ḥakam II’s enlargement consisted of extending the eleven aisles to the south, underlining the
ribbed domes at their southern end, crowning the bays of the maqs.ūra (Ruiz Souza 2001). The northern
importance of the three central ones with three ribbed domes at their northern end and three other
domes (with
ribbedwindows
domes at at their
their base) acted
southern as a bright
end, crowning the entrance
bays of theto maqṣūra
the caliphate’s
(Ruiz Souzaaddition
2001).and
Thethe new
maqs.ūranorthern
(Figure domes
5). All(with
of these outstanding bays are bounded by screens of intersecting polylobed
windows at their base) acted as a bright entrance to the caliphate’s addition and
horseshoeandstone
the newarches.
maq ūraOnce the5).
(Figure expansion
All of theseworks began,
outstanding theare
bays initial project
bounded was re-designed
by screens of intersectingwith the
polylobed
introduction of anand horseshoe
arcade thatstone
runsarches.
parallelOnce the expansion
to the qibla wall,works began, on
extended the both
initialsides
projectofwas
there-
aforesaid
screens.designed
There iswith the introduction
no “qibla of an arcade
nave” strictly that but
speaking, runsthis
parallel
arcadeto the qibla out
marks wall,a extended
privileged on area
both next to
sides of the aforesaid screens. There is no “qibla nave” strictly speaking, but this arcade marks out a
the qibla (Momplet Míguez 2012, pp. 240–41).
privileged area next to the qibla (Momplet Míguez 2012, pp. 240–41).
Figure 5. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Ribbed dome at the northern end of the axial nave in the caliphal
Figure 5. Great Mosque
enlargement of Cordoba.
(10th century). Ribbed
© Photo dome
took by at the northern end of the axial nave in the caliphal
author.
enlargement (10th century). © Photo took by author.
As the faithful move southward along the new axial nave, wider than its two adjacent naves, the
spatial perception changes. From the northern end of the axial nave (now called Villaviciosa chapel),
As the faithful move southward along the new axial nave, wider than its two adjacent naves,
the maqṣūra and the mihrab façade, also illuminated by the openings at the base of the dome, seem to
the spatial perception
be closer, as if thechanges. From
central nave doesthe
notnorthern
exist (Figureend6).ofThe
thethree-dimensional
axial nave (nowspace called Villaviciosa
re-emerges after chapel),
the maqscrossing
. ūra andthe the mihrab
screen façade, also
of intersecting illuminated
arches. In this axialby theimaginary
nave, openings at the lines
diagonal baseconverge,
of the dome,
tracedseem to
be closer,
byas theif colour
the central
of the nave
marbledoes notofexist
shafts (Figure (rose-coloured
the columns 6). The three-dimensional
and dark-blue)space re-emerges
that lead to the after
crossingmihrab, as described
the screen by Ewert’sarches.
of intersecting studies In(Ewert
this 1995).
axial Likewise, at the front
nave, imaginary of the arcades
diagonal linesofconverge,
the axial traced
nave, there are pilasters carved with ornamental elements and a double epigraphic frieze surrounds
by the colour of the marble shafts of the columns (rose-coloured and dark-blue) that lead to the mihrab,
the nave under the roof. All these elements mark the path to the qibla, the symbolic way to salvation.
as described by Ewert’s studies (Ewert 1995). Likewise, at the front of the arcades of the axial nave,
On the facade of the mihrab, the arrangement of the marble slabs in the arch jambs emphasizes the
there are pilasters
perspective and carved withofornamental
the depth elements
the niche, which anda door
looks like a double epigraphic
to paradise, as Grabarfrieze surrounds
pointed out the
nave under
(Grabar the roof.
1988) Allplace
, or the these elements
of the mark
divine light, as the path
argued to the qibla, the symbolic way to salvation.
below.
On the facade Theof concept of a monumental
the mihrab, maqṣūra inof
the arrangement three
the bays
marble is somewhat
slabs in unusual,
the archbut not the
jambs vaults
emphasizes the
chosen for each of them: the domes (Figure 7). The dome (qubba) has
perspective and the depth of the niche, which looks like a door to paradise, as Grabar pointed out been the space representing
supreme power since ancient times and could already be found in the congregational mosques from
(Grabar 1988), or the place of the divine light, as argued below.
the Umayyad era. The political and religious symbolism of qubba-s in Islam, as well as their colour
Theand concept
decoration,of aismonumental
well-documented maqs ūraMiddle
in.the in threeEastbays
3. Some is traditions
somewhat unusual,
(ḥadīth-s) placebut not the vaults
the meeting
chosen between
for eachGod of them: the domes
and Muhammad (Figure 7).
in Jerusalem Thehis
during dome (qubba)
isrā’ or has been
night journey thea space
under red tentrepresenting
(Van
supreme power since ancient times and could already be found in the congregational mosques
from the
3 Umayyad era.ofThe
About the “qubba political
Islam” and
in Andalusi religious
literature symbolismand
see: Lévi-Provençal qubba-s
of García in Islam,
Gómez as39,well
(1950, pp. 103). as their
3
colour and decoration, is well-documented in the Middle East . Some traditions (h.adı̄th-s) place
3 About the “qubba of Islam” in Andalusi literature see: Lévi-Provençal and Gómez (1950, pp. 39, 103).
Arts 2018, 7, 36 7 of 21
the meeting
Arts 2018, 7,between
x FOR PEERGod and Muhammad in Jerusalem during his isrā’ or night journey
REVIEW under
7 of 21
a redArts
tent2018,
(Van Ess 1992, pp.
7, x FOR PEER REVIEW96, 102; Bloom 1993, pp. 135–41). During his military campaigns, Caliph
7 of 21
Ess 1992, pp. 96, 102; Bloom 1993, pp. 135–41). During his military campaigns, Caliph Mu‘āwiya took
Mu‘āwiya took with him a qubba adorned with “precious stones” to house the Quran. In that same
with1992,
Ess him pp.a qubba adorned with
96, 102; “precious stones” to house the Quran. In that Caliph
same tent, he received
tent, he received the oathBloom 1993, pp. (bay‘a)
of allegiance 135–41). During
from thehis military
troops campaigns,
(Lammens 1920, pp.Mu‘āwiya
46–68). took
the oath
with himofa allegiance (bay‘a)
qubba adorned from
with the troops
“precious (Lammens
stones” 1920,
to house thepp. 46–68).
Quran. In that same tent, he received
the oath of allegiance (bay‘a) from the troops (Lammens 1920, pp. 46–68).
Figure 6. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Northern end of the axial nave of the caliphal enlargement (now
Figure 6. Great
called Mosque
Villaviciosa of Cordoba.
chapel). © PhotoNorthern end of the axial nave of the caliphal enlargement (now
took by author.
Figure 6. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Northern end of the axial nave of the caliphal enlargement (now
called Villaviciosa chapel). © Photo took by author.
called Villaviciosa chapel). © Photo took by author.
Figure 7. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Ribbed domed bay in front of the mihrab. © Photo took by author.
Figure 7. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Ribbed domed bay in front of the mihrab. © Photo took by author.
FigureMosaics,
7. Greatcolour,
Mosque and light contribute
of Cordoba. Ribbeddecisively
domed baytoinemphasising the area©ofPhoto
front of the mihrab. the maqṣūra, which
took by author.
was the scenario
Mosaics, where
colour, andthe sovereign
light displayed
contribute himself.
decisively Light is a divine
to emphasising attribute;
the area of the it is the symbol
maqṣūra, which
of intellect and
was the scenario justice against chaos and darkness (Calvo Capilla 2008, pp. 94–95; Puerta Vílchez 2007,
Mosaics, colour,where the sovereign
and light contributedisplayed himself.
decisively Light is a divine
to emphasising theattribute; it is
area of the the symbol
maqs ūra, which
.are the
pp. 62–64, 144–50). Colour and word, according to the thinker Ibn Ḥazm (384–465/994–1064),
of intellect and justice against chaos and darkness (Calvo Capilla 2008, pp. 94–95; Puerta Vílchez 2007,
was the scenario where the sovereign displayed himself. Light is a divine attribute; it is the symbol of
pp. 62–64, 144–50). Colour and word, according to the thinker Ibn Ḥazm (384–465/994–1064), are the
intellect and justice against chaos and darkness (Calvo Capilla 2008, pp. 94–95; Puerta Vílchez 2007,
Arts 2018, 7, 36 8 of 21

pp. 62–64, 144–50). Colour and word, according to the thinker Ibn H . azm (384–465/994–1064), are the
light light
providing access to the world, to ideas, to revelation and,
providing access to the world, to ideas, to revelation and, of course, of course, to beauty
to beauty in allinitsallfacets:
its facets:
physical, ethical, andandspiritual 4 . 4Luminosity
physical, ethical, spiritual . Luminosity andand aa harmonious
harmoniouscombination
combination of colours
of colours createcreate
beauty beauty
according to Islamic
according aesthetics.
to Islamic aesthetics.Precious
Precious stones or gold
stones or goldcombine
combinethesethesetwotwo facets
facets andand are essential
are essential
components
components of this symbolism.
of this symbolism.Along Along thethe same lines,the
same lines, therecent
recentstudies
studiesby by Alain
Alain GeorgeGeorge (2009)(2009)
highlight the use of colours and gold in the monumental epigraphy of the
highlight the use of colours and gold in the monumental epigraphy of the Umayyads and AbbasidsUmayyads and Abbasids
and inandtheinchrysography
the chrysography of of
thethe earlyQurans.
early Qurans. The
The brightness
brightnessofofthe gilded
the gildedletters andand
letters precious
precious stones stones
against a dark blue or red background has both a royal or imperial connotation and a sacred meaning:
against a dark blue or red background has both a royal or imperial connotation and a sacred meaning:
the divine light in the darkness, light as a guide (hudā), a rather frequent tenet in the Quran (Figure
the divine light in the darkness, light as a guide (hudā), a rather frequent tenet in the Quran (Figure 8).
8).
Figure 8. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Detail of the mosaic decoration on the mihrab façade. © Photo
Figure Great
8. by
took Mosque of Cordoba. Detail of the mosaic decoration on the mihrab façade. © Photo
author.
took by author.
Common in mediaeval Islamic and also Byzantine aesthetics was the mineralization of living
nature
Common andinarchitecture, in order
mediaeval Islamic andto also
provide them aesthetics
Byzantine with transcendental qualities. In of
was the mineralization this sense,
living nature
buildings and gardens are transformed through visual metaphors into precious jewels, thus acquiring
and architecture, in order to provide them with transcendental qualities. In this sense, buildings and
the character of perfect, infinite, and eternal beings, in manifestations of divine light and the power
gardens are transformed through visual metaphors into precious jewels, thus acquiring the character
emanated from God on Earth (Cutler et al. 1996, pp. 185–90).
of perfect,Similar
infinite,
to and eternalofbeings,
the Dome in manifestations
the Rock, the central domeofofdivine light and
the maqṣūra the power
in Cordoba wasemanated
a kind of from
God on Earth (Cutler et al. 1996, pp. 185–90).
architectural baldaquin housing the intangible throne of God, a jewelled tent with astral symbols
Similar
situated to the Dome
between heaven ofand
theearth.
Rock,Thisthespace
central dome
became the maqs
theofemblem . ūra
not infor
only Cordoba
a divinewas a kind of
presence,
architectural baldaquin
but also for housing
the absolute, theand
earthly, intangible
spiritual throne of the
power of God, a jewelled
caliph tent derived
of Cordoba, with astral
from symbols
the
heavenly
situated throne
between (Figureand
heaven 7). earth. This space became the emblem not only for a divine presence,
Thethe
but also for scallop-shell
absolute,forms, used
earthly, in the
and maqṣurapower
spiritual not only
ofastheornamental
caliph ofdecorative
Cordoba,motifs
derivedbut from
also the
in the vault of the
heavenly throne (Figure 7).caliphal mihrab, should also be interpreted as a metaphor of the divine light, as
Arab authors stated (Calvo Capilla 2010b, pp. 298–99). This motif, present in the Umayyad mosques
The scallop-shell forms, used in the maqs.ura not only as ornamental decorative motifs but also in
the vault of the caliphal mihrab, should also be interpreted as a metaphor of the divine light, as Arab
4 (Puerta Vílchez 1997, pp. 492–503). Also in English: 2017. Aesthetics in Arabic Thought: From Pre-Islamic Arabia
Through al-Andalus. Leiden. Furthermore, (Puerta Vílchez 2013).
4 (Puerta and Miguel 1997, pp. 492–503). Also in English: 2017. Aesthetics in Arabic Thought: From Pre-Islamic Arabia Through
al-Andalus. Leiden. Furthermore, (Puerta and Miguel 2013).
Arts 2018, 7, 36 9 of 21
Arts 2018,
authors stated7, x (Calvo
FOR PEERCapilla
REVIEW 2010b, pp. 298–99). This motif, present in the Umayyad mosques9 of 21 of
5
Medina and Damascus and in the first mosque of Cordoba5 , as said, also reveals the desire of the
of Medina and Damascus and in the first mosque of Cordoba , as said, also reveals the desire of the
Umayyads of Cordoba to display their links with their eastern ancestors (Figure 9).
Umayyads of Cordoba to display their links with their eastern ancestors (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Scallop-shell vault of the caliphal mihrab (10th century).
Figure 9. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Scallop-shell vault of the caliphal mihrab (10th century). © Photo
© Photo took by author.
took by author.
Two other objects linked the Great Mosque of Cordoba with the time of the Prophet and the
“Wellother
Two Guided” caliphs:
objects linkedthe the
Muṣḥaf, supposedly
Great Mosque once owned by
of Cordoba Caliph
with ‘Uthman
the time of theandProphet
kept in the
and the
mosque, and the above-mentioned mobile minbar. These two objects were treated
“Well Guided” caliphs: the Mus.h.af, supposedly once owned by Caliph ‘Uthman and kept in the mosque, as relics (al-āthār al-
sharīfa) and shown in the maqṣūra during the Friday congregational prayer.
and the above-mentioned mobile minbar. These two objects were treated as relics (al-āthār al-sharı̄fa)
The origin of this manuscript of the Quran, which belonged to the Umayyads of al-Andalus, has
and shown in the maqs.ūra during the Friday congregational prayer.
not yet been determined, despite recent interesting studies. Several articles have analysed Arab
The
sourcesorigin
that of this manuscript
mention its ceremonial of use
the by
Quran, which belonged
the Almohad caliphs. Thetowork
the Umayyads
of Zadeh (Zadeh of al-Andalus,
2008;
has not
Dessus-Lamare 1938) seems to confirm that the Quran was not an “inventio” of the Almohads but,Arab
yet been determined, despite recent interesting studies. Several articles have analysed
sources thatcontrary,
on the mention itsitceremonial
that already playeduse anbyimportant
the Almohad role incaliphs.
CordobaThe work
in the 9th of
and Zadeh (Zadeh 2008;
10th centuries,
Dessus-Lamare
although the1938) seems
ceremonial to confirm
described that the
by al-Idrīsī wasQuran
probablywasfromnotthe
an 12th
“inventio”
century.of The the Almohads
older authors but,
on thepointed out that
contrary, thatthe Muṣhaf kept
it already at theanGreat
played Mosquerole
important of Cordoba,
in Cordobawhatever
in the its9th andʿUthmānī
origin, or
10th centuries,
not, served as a sacred object, a kind of relic in the liturgical setting, and also
although the ceremonial described by al-Idrı̄sı̄ was probably from the 12th century. The older authors as a propitiatory object
(Calvo
pointed outCapilla
that the 2018b).
Mus.haf kept at the Great Mosque of Cordoba, whatever its origin, ‘Uthmānı̄ or
As for the new minbar or mobile pulpit, it was installed in the caliphal maqṣūra most likely before
not, served as a sacred object, a kind of relic in the liturgical setting, and also as a propitiatory object
jumādà II 365/February 976, the date of the celebration of the bay‘a or oath of allegiance of the heir
(Calvo Capilla 2018b).
Hishām II (eight months before the death of al-Ḥakam II) (Hernández Giménez 1959, p. 381; García
As for the
Sanjuán new
2008). Theminbar or mobile
minbar had pulpit,
nine steps and wasit was
madeinstalled in wood.
of precious the caliphal
It moved maqs ūra most
on.four wheelslikely
beforeandjumādà II 365/February
was kept in a room behind 976,
the the date
qibla. of the to
According celebration of the the
different studies, bay‘a or oath
mobile chairof allegiance
model was of
the heir Hishām
probably II (eight
chosen months
to create a linkbefore themosque
with the death ofofal-H akam II)in(Hernández
the. Prophet Medina, which Giménez 1959,to
was needed p. 381;
García Sanjuán 2008). The minbar had nine steps and was made of precious wood. It moved on four
legitimize the bay’a ceremony of the prince Hishām, who was then a minor (Fierro 2007; Bloom et al.
wheels1998).
and was kept in a room behind the qibla. According to different studies, the mobile chair
model was probably chosen to create a link with the mosque of the Prophet in Medina, which was
needed to legitimize the bay’a ceremony of the prince Hishām, who was then a minor (Fierro 2007;
Bloom et al. 1998).
5 The remains of the first mihrab had been analyzed by (Fernández Puertas 2015, pp. 299–305, 326–28).
5 The remains of the first mihrab had been analyzed by (Fernández Puertas 2015, pp. 299–305, 326–28).
Arts 2018, 7, 36 10 of 21
4. Politico-Religious Apologia through the Quranic Inscriptions

From recent studies by Bierman (1989), Blair and Bloom (2006), Grabar (2006, pp. 59–63)6 ,
Montasser (2009), or Tabbaa (1991; 2001, pp. 53–72), among others, there can be no doubt that the
Quranic inscriptions often transmit an ideological discourse, an “iconographic message”, according to
Grabar (1988, 1996). The foundational inscriptions, in which patronage, historical data, and political
messages are more evident, serve to complete the information. The epigraph program can be
more easily identified in buildings preserving a representative set of inscriptions from the Quran.
The epigraphs can be single quotes from the Quran or complex texts, compositions or combinations of
verses (āyāt) (complete verses, partial excerpts, paraphrases, consecutive or non-consecutive verses
of the same sura or chapter, interspersed verses from different suras). It is rather uncommon and
atypical for the epigraphic text to be composed of fragments of verses, diverse chains of Qu’ranic
sections, or unusual suras. In the case of the earliest religious monuments, we are lucky to have a set of
original epigraphs preserved almost completely intact in the Dome of the Rock, in the Mosques of Ibn
T.ūlūn and al-H. ākim (both in Cairo), and in the Great Mosque of Cordoba (Grabar 2006; Swelim 2015;
Bloom 1983). In later ages, we can also find complete programs in certain Ayyubid and Mamluk
monuments (Tabbaa 2001; Montasser 2009).
In the caliphal enlargement of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, the epigraphic program contains
a selection of Quranic verses consciously chosen by the ideologists of al-H . akam II to expose the
Umayyad da’wa. A “new” text was composed with Quranic excerpts and partial quotations to express
a specific message more accurately and effectively. This was achieved by resorting to rhetorical means
similar to those used in edicts, official speeches, or texts, as well as in the khut.bas, in which quotes
from fragments of the Quran were commonly used to emphasise or reinforce an idea or argument and
to express it more eloquently. One of the first scholars to bring attention to the iconographic content
of the program was Nuha Khoury (1996), who interpreted the messages as a generic claim of the
Umayyads over tradition and the caliphate, thus strengthening the divine nature of their mandate:
“The epigraphic program of the Cordoba mosque combines with its mythical and historical dimensions
to project the monument yet another step back in time, making it a counterpart of the mosque-shrine
founded by the Prophet.” Thereby, according to the same author, they presented the dynastic mosque
as an universal Islamic shrine, like Mecca and Medina. However, it seems to me that the Cordoba
mosque is not modelled on the Medina one, but rather on Damascus Umayyad mosque, and actually,
I believe that many Andalusi references were introduced into the politico-religious discourse displayed
in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.
Before continuing with an analysis of the epigraphs, it is important to explain where they have
been preserved (Figure 10). On the exterior part of the building, inscriptions are located on the doors of
the two 10th century enlargements, one by al-H . akam II and the other by his son, the caliph Hishām II
in the 980s (although the works were directed by his h.ājib al-Mans.ūr). They are partially preserved on
the western façades and are more intact on the eastern façades. Inside, they can be mostly seen in the
qibla and maqs.ūra area, as well as in the central nave. The most well-preserved are the ones carved in
marble; many others, carved in wood or painted, have mostly disappeared (Figure 11).
Together with the universal religious messages, which are liturgical and dogmatic in the interior,
while eschatological and for indoctrination on the doors, the most remarkable aspect of the epigraphic
program in the Great Mosque of Cordoba is a specific set of messages that are apologetic and
controversial in nature, and that gave an ideological response to several transcendent concerns of the
caliphal power in the 10th century.
Some of the inscriptions were used to theologically refute the heterodox or directly heretical
currents spreading in al-Andalus, which were viewed as dangerous political dissent. The inscriptions
displayed the basics of orthodox doctrine that ensured consensus among Muslims, with regard to
6 Grabar coined the expression “talkative building” in reference to the Dome of the Rock (Grabar 2006, p. 93).
Among these “heterodox” currents, one of the most important and concerning for the caliph was
Arts 2018, 7, 36 Among these “heterodox” currents, one of the most important and concerning for the caliph was 11 of 21
the one created by Ibn Massarra (269–319/883–931) and his followers. Although today he is known as
the the
firstfirst
scholar
scholarto to
spread
spreadmysticism
mysticismininal-Andalus,
al-Andalus,some
some of
of his dogmaticpositions
his dogmatic positionswere
wereconsidered
considered
heretical by by
fuqahā’ (jurists) and Māliki theologians in the 10th century. Afterthe
thedeath
deathofofIbn
Ibn Masarra,
an order presided over by divine will. In al-Andalus, this orthodoxy was defended byMasarra,
heretical fuqahā’ (jurists) and Māliki theologians in the 10th century. After the prevailing
his his
disciples
disciplescontinued
continued growing
growing ininnumber
number and
andtheir
their positions
positions becamemore
became moreextreme.
extreme.Thus,
Thus, between
between
school of jurisprudence, the Māliki, publicly supported by the caliph. Consequently, fuqahā’ backed
952952
andand 957957a statement
a statement condemning
condemningmasarrism
masarrismwas
was read
read three times before
three times beforethe
thegates
gatesofofthethegreat
great
the ruler’s
mosques divine power (Marín
of al-Andalus, and in2011,
961 pp. 286–87).
mosques of al-Andalus, and in 961his
hisbooks
bookswere
wereburned
burned inin front of the
front of theGreat
GreatMosque
MosqueofofCordoba.
Cordoba.
Figure 10. Plan of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. The signs indicate the location of the inscriptions.
Figure 10. Plan
Based on of
thethe
planGreat Mosque(Calvo
of A. Almagro of Cordoba. The signs indicate the location of the inscriptions.
Capilla 2014a).
Figure 10. Plan of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. The signs indicate the location of the inscriptions.
Based on the plan of A. Almagro (Calvo Capilla 2014a).
Based on the plan of A. Almagro (Calvo Capilla 2014a).
Figure 11. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Panoramic view of the axial nave to the qibla wall. © Photo
took by author.
Figure 11. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Panoramic view of the axial nave to the qibla wall. © Photo
Figure 11.byGreat
took Mosque of Cordoba. Panoramic view of the axial nave to the qibla wall. © Photo took
author.
by author.
Among these “heterodox” currents, one of the most important and concerning for the caliph was
the first scholar to spread mysticism in al-Andalus, some of his dogmatic positions were considered
heretical by fuqahā’ (jurists) and Māliki theologians in the 10th century. After the death of Ibn Masarra,
his disciples continued growing in number and their positions became more extreme. Thus, between
Arts 2018, 7, 36 12 of 21
952 and 957 a statement condemning masarrism was read three times before the gates of the great
mosques of al-Andalus, and in 961 his books were burned in front of the Great Mosque of Cordoba.
The most dangerous aspect of their thinking was the apologia for the doctrine of free will.
This idea, which stemmed from the Mu’tazilı̄ school in the East, had been rejected and even persecuted
by the Umayyad Caliphs of Damascus, the Abbasids and the Fatimids. The reason was that free will
represented a threat to the established order and the very foundations of caliphal power, because it
defied the principle of authority. Religious determinism, instead, represented a fundamental pillar of
the absolute power and infallibility of the caliph, ensuring subservience and obedience from the Umma
(community of Muslims). These principles are clearly stated in the official propaganda texts of the
Caliphate of Cordoba.
Masarrism also believed in the createdness of the Book, in opposition to the Sunni creed. With this
notion, they adopted the same position in the debate over the nature of the Quran as the Umayyads
enemies, the Fatimids. As recently studied by Johns (2018) in the Quran presumably copied in Palermo
in 372/982–3, this theological view was one of the major points of dissension between Sunni and
Fatimids in the North of Africa. Indeed, verses that reinforce the idea of predestination and the divine
revelation of the Quran are significantly present in the Cordovan enlargement program (in the central
nave, the maqs.ūra, and the doors).
This topic leads us to a second important threatening current at that time: the spread of the Shi’i
propaganda. The caliphal authorities suspected that secret agents of the Fatimid state were propagating
their creed, considered “heretical” by the Sunni caliphate, throughout al-Andalus7 . Masarrism, as much
as Shi’a religious ideas, led to social and religious instability and broke the doctrinal unity of the umma
wāh.ida or a ‘single community’.
Christians were a third concern. In 928, ‘Abd al-Rah.mān III put an end to the rebellion of ‘Umar b.
H. afs.ūn, who was accused, apart from insurrection, of apostasy (he converted to Christianity) and
of being a Fatimid agent. The Christian community (dhimmis) in Cordoba was large, and there
had been cases of apostasy even within the Umayyad family in the early 10th century. Christians
were also the foreign enemy (al-kāfirūn or unbelievers). It cannot be by accident that Quranic verses
denying the divine nature of Christ appear on three doors, one inside and two outside, all located
near the qibla wall; there, we found three different verses with the same meaning, a refutation of the
two doctrines of the Trinity and divinity of Christ. The association of the three quotations and their
location, as well as the complementarity of the external and internal verses, confirms that they were
put there purposely (Figure 12).
These three threats were undoubtedly present when conceiving the politico-religious message
inscribed on the caliphal mosque walls. Apologetic texts seem intended to provide Muslims with
arguments for believing in the destiny marked out by God and to secure their faith by distancing
themselves from heresies and the Christian creed.
The message was reinforced on the mosque western doors opposite the Alcázar (royal palace)
with inscriptions urging the faithful to be pious and follow the straight path by reminding them of the
severity of God’s supreme justice and, implicitly, the earthly justice delivered by his representative
on Earth, the caliph. The Quranic texts would be a reminder to the faithful that they were subject to
both divine and earthly justice. If they are tested, they revert to their old ways, losing both this world and the
next–that is the clearest loss (Q. 22:11), said Qād.ı̄ Mundhir b. Sa’ı̄d (m. 355/965–66) in one of his sermons.
Official edicts, proclamations and sentences were read out before the doors of the Great Mosque of
Cordoba, a sign of their importance as socio-political showcase.
Other common messages, of a missionary and eschatological character, are also found on the
doors. Inscriptions often close with the Tas.liya¸ praise to the Prophet, which was recited on entering
7 Another singular aspect of the Mosque of Cordoba is that there is no known intervention of damnatio memoriae or modification
of a previous inscription in the Islamic period. Maybe they existed, but those have been lost. (Abdeljaouad 2018; Bloom 2015).
Arts 2018, 7, 36 13 of 21
and leaving the mosques (De la Puente 1999, pp. 121–29). The texts urged them to give alms (on the
east and west doors) and also reminded Muslims of the dangers at the time of death and the Day of
Reckoning, which explains why calls to attend funerals and pray over the dead on their stretchers
were made from the doors (Figure 13).
Figure 12. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Eastern door of the al-Ḥakam II’s enlargement, called “del
Figure 12. Great
Punto” andMosque of Cordoba.
located next Eastern
to the qibla wall. ©door
Photoof theby
took al-H. akam II’s enlargement, called “del Punto”
author.
Figurenext
and located 12. to
Great
theMosque of Cordoba.
qibla wall. © Photo Eastern door
took by of the al-Ḥakam II’s enlargement, called “del
author.
Punto” and located next to the qibla wall. © Photo took by author.
Figure 13. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Southeastern doors of the Hisham II’s enlargement. © Photo
took by author.
Figure 13. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Southeastern doors of the Hisham II’s enlargement. © Photo
Figure 13.
tookGreat Mosque of Cordoba. Southeastern doors of the Hisham II’s enlargement. © Photo
Theybyall
author.
supported the Andalusi Umayyads’ claim to legitimacy in proclaiming the caliphate
took bytheir
and author.
ambitions towards the Middle East, praising al-Ḥakam II as the supreme imam, ‘amīr al-
They all supported the Andalusi Umayyads’ claim to legitimacy in proclaiming the caliphate
Mu’minīn or “emir of the believers”, pillar of the truth (al-ḥaqq) and of Islam, and the true heir of the
and their ambitions towards the Middle East, praising al-Ḥakam II as the supreme imam, ‘amīr al-
Rashīdūn
They caliphs (Rightly
all supported Guided) and
the Andalusi of the eastern
Umayyads’ claimUmayyads (Ibn Ḥayyān
to legitimacy 1965, pp. 177–78;
in proclaiming 1967,
the caliphate and
Mu’minīn or “emir of the believers”, pillar of the truth (al-ḥaqq) and of Islam, and the true heir of the
pp. 217–19).
their ambitions towards the Middle East, praising al-H akam II as the supreme imam, ‘amı̄r
Rashīdūn caliphs (Rightly Guided) and of the eastern.Umayyads (Ibn Ḥayyān 1965, pp. 177–78; 1967, al-Mu’minı̄n
or “emir the believers”, pillar of the truth (al-h.aqq) and of Islam, and the true heir of the Rashı̄dūrn
of217–19).
pp.
caliphs (Rightly Guided) and of the eastern Umayyads (Ibn and Halaf 1965, pp. 177–78; 1967, pp. 217–19).
¯
Arts 2018, 7, 36 14 of 21
5. On the Forms of Epigraphic Settings

In the inscriptions of the al-H . akam II’s enlargement, the floriated Kufic, used in his father’s time,
was replaced
5. On the by simple
Forms Kufic. AsSettings
of Epigraphic some specialists have pointed out, attention should be drawn to
the fact that floral finials were suppressed in the calligraphy of the great mosque. We can only find
In the inscriptions of the al-Ḥakam II’s enlargement, the floriated Kufic, used in his father’s time,
simple motifs, like the half-palmette at the end of the letter nūn, as well as the fleur-de-lis and other
was replaced by simple Kufic. As some specialists have pointed out, attention should8 be drawn to
flowers with four petals placed above the words, without interfering with the letters . Clearly, the use
the fact that floral finials were suppressed in the calligraphy of the great mosque. We can only find
of simple
simple Kufic facilitated
motifs, reading and at
like the half-palmette intelligibility.
the end of the letter nūn, as well as the fleur-de-lis and other
Iflowers
recently had the opportunity to
with four petals placed above the words, study the epigraphic bands of with
without interfering the central nave
the letters of the caliphal
8. Clearly, the
enlargement. This nave contains two inscriptions
use of simple Kufic facilitated reading and intelligibility. in relief that are carved in two parallel stone
friezes below the had
I recently wooden roof. Thetoepigraphic
the opportunity friezes under
study the epigraphic bands of the
theroof in nave
central the other naves were
of the caliphal
likelyenlargement.
made of wood, This nave contains two by
as mentioned inscriptions
al-Idrı̄sı̄ in(d.
relief thatand
1164) are carved in two (d.
al-Maqqarı̄ parallel
1632): stone friezes each
“under
below the wooden roof. The epigraphic friezes under the roof in the other
roof [samā’, literally “sky”] there is a wooden frieze (izār) where verses of the Quran are written.” naves were likely made of
wood, as mentioned by al-Idrī s ī (d. 1164) and al-Maqqarī (d. 1632): “under
(Al-Idrı̄sı̄ 1949, pp. 6–7) One small fragment of that frieze survives, preserved in the Archaeological each roof [samā’, literally
“sky”] there is a wooden frieze (izār) where verses of the Quran are written.” (Al-Idrīsī 1949, pp. 6–
Museum of Cordoba9 . Al-Maqqarı̄ said that the inscriptions chosen for each location were intended
7) One small fragment of that frieze survives, preserved in the Archaeological Museum of Cordoba9.
to “stimulate the minds of the faithful to contemplation and devotion.” (Brisch 1959, p. 185;
Al-Maqqarī said that the inscriptions chosen for each location were intended to “stimulate the minds
Al-Maqqarı̄ 1840, v.
of the faithful to I, cap. 3, pp. 231,
contemplation and 501; 1967, vol.
devotion.” (Brisch 1, p. 369).
1959, p. 185; Al-Maqqarī 1840, v. I, cap. 3, pp.
Rodrigo Amador de los
231, 501; 1967, vol. 1, p. 369). Ríos read the inscriptions visible before the restorations of this central
nave (Figure 11). Amador
Rodrigo Only a few de loserrors
Ríos in readidentifying the verses
the inscriptions visibleare detected
before in his reading.
the restorations of this The
centraldouble
inscription begins11).
nave (Figure at the
Only fara right of theinscreen
few errors of intersecting
identifying the verses are arches delimiting
detected the maqs
in his reading. The
. ūra (Figure
double 14)
inscription begins at the far right of the screen of intersecting arches delimiting
and continues in the east arcade; two separated inscriptions decorate the screen of intersecting arches the maqṣūra (Figure 14)
and continues
(delimiting in the east arcade;
the Villaviciosa chapel, twoat separated
the northinscriptions
end of thedecorate nave)10the screen
, and, of intersecting
finally, two other arches
parallel
(delimiting the Villaviciosa chapel, at the north end
11 of the nave) 10, and, finally, two other parallel
friezes decorate the upper part of the west arcade . Obviously, the epigraphs run from right to left.
friezes decorate the upper part of the west arcade11. Obviously, the epigraphs run from right to left.
Only the sura 3 is inscribed on all four sides of the nave, on the lower frieze, although its verses are
Only the sura 3 is inscribed on all four sides of the nave, on the lower frieze, although its verses are
not copied in order.
not copied in order.
Figure 14. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Screen of intersecting arches delimiting the central bay of the
Figure 14. Great
maqṣūra. Mosque
© Photo of author.
took by Cordoba. Screen of intersecting arches delimiting the central bay of the
maqs.ūra. © Photo took by author.
8 According to Martínez Núñez (2015, pp. 37–38), the definitive consolidation of the simple kufic occurred in
8 the inscriptions of the extension ordered by al-Ḥakam II in the Mosque of Córdoba. For the evolution of the
According to Martínez Núñez (2015, pp. 37–38), the definitive consolidation of the simple kufic occurred in the inscriptions
kufic script, see Ocaña (1970, 1988).
of the extension ordered by al-H . akam II in the Mosque of Córdoba. For the evolution of the kufic script, see Ocaña Jiménez
(1970, Hernández Giménez (1928, pp. 197, 207–8); Cabañero Subiza and Herrera Ontañón (2001, pp. 273–74, Figure
9
1988).
9 7). Only
Hernández one fragment
Giménez of the
(1928, pp. 197,epigraphic frieze isSubiza
207–8); Cabañero known andsoOntañón
far. (2001, pp. 273–74, Figure 7). Only one fragment
In the upper
of 10the epigraphic frieze
frieze on the intersecting
is known so far. arches delimiting the Villaviciosa chapel are Q. 3:18 (complete), that
10 In the upper frieze on the intersecting arches delimiting thethe
Villaviciosa chapel are Q. 3:18 (complete), the Tahlı̄l,
is, the Tahlīl, a variant of the profession of faith, plus first sentence of 3:19. Basmala plus Q. 33:that is, are
70–71
a variant of the
in the profession
lower of faith,
inscription. plus
All the the first
details are sentence
analysedofin3:19. Basmala plus
a forthcoming Q. 33: 70–71 are in the lower inscription.
article.
All11theOndetails are analysed
the west side, theinlower
a forthcoming article.fragments of Q. 3:190–94; in the upper frieze, we found a small
frieze contains
11 On the west side, the lower frieze contains fragments of Q. 3:190–94; in the upper frieze, we found a small fragment of Q.
fragment of Q. 20:110, probably preceded by 20:109 and followed by 20:111; the remaining half of the upper
20:110, probably preceded by 20:109 and followed by 20:111; the remaining half of the upper frieze is occupied by Q. 2:286,
which frieze is occupied
was probably by Q.cited
partially 2:286,
(aswhich
in thewas
sābātprobably
. façade).
partially cited (as in the sābāṭ façade).
s 2018,Arts
7, x2018,
FOR 7,
PEER
ArtsArts
x FOR 2018,
REVIEW
2018,
PEER 7, 36 PEER REVIEW
7, xREVIEW
FOR 15 of 21 15 of 21 15 of1521of 21
15 of 21
An interesting
An interesting
decorative
An interesting
decorative
detail decorative
draws
detail attention.
draws detail
attention.
In
drawsthe epigraphic
attention.
In the epigraphic
In
bands
the epigraphic
on
bands
the east
on the
bands
side,east
three
onside,
the three
east side, three
ecorative
detail draws attention. AnIninteresting
the epigraphicdecorative
bands detail
on the draws
east attention.
side, three In the epigraphic bands on the east side,
decorative
elementsdecorative
elements
have been have
Anelements
preserved;
beenhave
interesting preserved;
unlike
been preserved;
decorative those
unlikeinthose
the unlike
mosaic
in the
those
mosaic
inscriptions,
in In
the
inscriptions,
mosaic
theyinscriptions,
arethey
separating
are separating
theytheare
eastseparating
n preserved; unlike three
those decorative
in the elements
mosaic havedetail
inscriptions, been draws attention.
preserved;
theynon-consecutive
are separating unlike the epigraphic
those bands
in the mosaic oninscriptions, side,they
threeare
ords; words;
specifically,
specifically,
words;
they specifically,
arethey
decorativeplacedare placed
separating
they
elements are
separating
placed
two
have beentheynon-consecutive
separating
two
preserved; two
unlike verses
non-consecutive
from
verses
those in the the
from
mosaicsame
verses
the sura
same
from(Q.sura
the
3
inscriptions,verses same
(Q.
they are 3 sura (Q.
separating3
placed separating separating
two words;
non-consecutive specifically,
verses from the aresame
placedsuraseparating
(Q. 3 two non-consecutive from the same
d Q. and
2) . Q.
12 The2)fragmentary
and
12 . TheQ. 2) . The
fragmentary
words;12 state fragmentary
ofstate
specifically,the12inscription
of the
they state
areinscription
ofprevents
placedtheseparating
inscription
prevents
us fromtwous
prevents
knowing
from knowing
us
whether
non-consecutivefrom whether
knowing
therefrom
verses were
there
whether
thewere
same there
surawere
(Q. 3
state of themarkers sura (Q.
inscription 3 and Q.
prevents 2)
usifwest
from . The fragmentary
knowing whether state of were
there the inscription prevents us from knowing whether
ore markers
more in the
more west
inand
markers
the
arcade
Q.west
2)in12.arcade
and
the
The they
andarcade
always
if theyand
fragmentary always
separated
stateifofthey separated
the always
non-consecutive
separated
non-consecutive
inscription prevents verses
non-consecutive
or
verses
us from even or
verses
knowing even
verses verses
or even
whether verses
there were
adedifferent
and if different
they thereseparated
always were morenon-consecutive
markers in the west verses arcade
or evenand if they always separated non-consecutive verses or
verses
om from suras.
from Normore
suras.
different
havemarkers
Nor wesuras.
have inwe
locatedthelocated
Nor west
havearcade
other examples
weother and
located ifother
examples they
preserved always
examples
preserved
in theseparated
mosque,
preservednon-consecutive
in the mosque,
butinthat
thebutmosque,
does
that verses
notdoes or even
but not
that doesverses
not
e we located other even
examplesversespreserved
from differentin the suras.
mosque, Norbut have
that we
doeslocated
not other examples preserved in the mosque, but
ean they
mean didthey
not
mean
did
exist from
not
they different
(Figure
exist
did(Figure
15). suras.
not exist 15). Nor have
(Figure 15). we located other examples preserved in the mosque, but that does not
re 15). that does not mean they did not exist (Figure 15).
mean they did not exist (Figure 15).
Figure 15. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Details of the Kufic inscription at the top of the wall in the axial
Figure 15.
Figure
Great15.
Mosque
Great
FigureMosque
of15.
FigureCordoba.
Great
of Mosque
Cordoba.
Details
15. Great Mosqueofof
Details
Cordoba.
the Kufic
of the
Details
of Cordoba.inscription
Kuficofinscription
Details the
ofatthe
Kufic
theKufic
top
inscription
at of
thethe
top
wall
ofatthe
inscription in
the
atthe
wall
top
theaxial
of
in the
top wall
axial
of the in the
wall axial
in the axial
Cordoba. Details of the nave.
Kufic © Photosattook
inscription by
topauthor.
nave. © nave.
Photos©took
Photos
nave.
bynave.
took
author.
© Photos
byPhotos
© author. bythe
tooktook author. of the wall in the axial
by author.
hor.
The best known parallel that comes to mind is, again, the Dome of the Rock, whose inscriptions
The bestThe
known
best known
parallel
The best parallel
that
knowncomes
that
parallel
to
comes
mind that
tois,mind
comes
again,is,to
the
again,
mindDome the
is, of
again,
Dome
the Rock,
the
of the
Dome
whose
Rock, of inscriptions
whose
the Rock, inscriptions
whose inscriptions
that comes to mind have
is, The
again,best
recently
the known
been parallel
Dome analysed
of the that
Rock,by comes
Milwright
whose to mind(2015).
inscriptions is, again,
On thethe Dome
outer side of of
thetheRock, whose inscriptions
octagon-ambulatory,
ve recently
have recently
beenhave analysed
been
recently
circularanalysed
bybeen
motifsMilwright
analysed
by Milwright
framed (2015).
in by Milwright
squares (2015).
Onarethe On
usedouter
(2015).
theseparate
to side
outer
Onofthe
side
theouter
not octagon-ambulatory,
of the
verses side
octagon-ambulatory,
but of the octagon-ambulatory,
sections of the text (composed
by circular
Milwright have
(2015). recently
On the been
outer analysed
side of by
the Milwright (2015).
octagon-ambulatory, On the outer side of the octagon-ambulatory, circular
cular motifs framed
motifs
circularframed
in motifs
by squares
basmalainframed
squares
are
plus usedinare
Quranic squares
toused
separate
to
are
periphrasisseparate
used
notplusverses
totanot
separate
but
verses
liya). sections
not
butverses
Although sections
ofthey
thebuttext
ofsections
have the
(composed
beentext of(composed
thetotext
related the (composed
illuminated
ares arebasmala
usedQuranic
to motifs framed
separate in squares
notperiphrasis
verses but are used
sections to
theseparate
ofplus text not verses but sections of the text (composed by basmala
(composed
basmala
by plus by
plus
basmala
Quranic
periphrasis
markers plus Quranic
between plus ta
periphrasis
versesplus
liya).
in ta Although
the liya).
Quran Although
ta theyliya).
manuscripts, haveAlthough
they been
have
they related
they
been
do not have
related
to the
have been
illuminated
the tosame
the
related
illuminated
to thein
function illuminated
eithermarkers
case,
hrasis plus
plus ta between
liya). Quranic
Although periphrasis
they haveinbeen plus tas
related liya). Although
. to the illuminated they have been related to the illuminated
arkersmarkers
between markers
verses in
verses
between
the
in either Quran
in the
verses
Jerusalem manuscripts,
Quran orthe
manuscripts,
Quran
Cordoba. they manuscripts,
do they
not
In the case have
do notthey
the have
same
do the
not
function
same
have function
the
in same
either in
function
case,
either case,
in either case,
eeither
Quran manuscripts, between
they verses in thethe Quran manuscripts, theyofdo thenotCordoba,
have themotifs do not derive
same function from
in either the in
case, abyad
either
in Jerusalem
either Jerusalem
in either ordo
or annotation
Cordoba.
Jerusalemnot
Cordoba.
In
or
have
the
or Cordoba.
from case
Inthethesame
of case
Quranic
function
theIn Cordoba,
of
thethecase
markers
in either
Cordoba,
of
motifsthecase,
(rosettes Cordoba,
motifs
doand
not dots):
do
derive
motifs
notthe derive
fromdo not
three the
fromderive
abyadthe abyad
preserved from the abyad
examples are a
oba. In the ofJerusalem or Cordoba. In not
the case of from
the Cordoba, motifs do not derive from the abyad annotation
notation orcase
annotation
from the
annotation
or the
from Cordoba,
Quranic
stylisedthe
ordouble
Quranic
from motifs
markersthe
stem,
do
markers
Quranic
(rosettes
a double
derive
(rosettes
markers
and dots):
palmette, and
(rosettesthe
the
and dots): abyad
three
a and
thepreserved
dots):
scroll. three
They the
preserved
are, examples
three
rather, preserved
examples
are ato examples
similar are
the a
floral are a
motifs
anic markers or from
(rosettes and the Quranic markers (rosettesexamples
and dots):are the three preserved examples are a stylised double
ylisedstylised
double double
stem,
stylisedainserted
stem,
double
doubleadots):
in the the
double
palmette,
stem, a three
palmette,
coins double
and
minted apreserved
scroll.
palmette,
and a They
scroll.
by al-Ḥakam and are,
They
II abetween are, aThey
scroll.
rather, rather,
similar
352 are,
and similar
torather,
the floral
357H/963 to similar
themotifs
and floral
968 to(Figure
the
motifs
floral motifs
inserted16).
13
le palmette, and stem,
aminted a
scroll. double
They palmette,
are, rather, and a
similarscroll. They
to and
the are,
floral rather, similar to the floral motifs in the coins
sertedinserted
in the coins
ininserted
the coins in minted
the
by al-Ḥakam
coinsbyminted
al-Ḥakam
II between
by al-Ḥakam
II between
352 II352
betweenandmotifs
357H/963 357H/963
352
andand968357H/963
and
13 (Figure
13 968 13 and
(Figure
16). 968 16).
13 (Figure 16).
by al-Ḥakam II between minted byand
352 al-H akam II between
.357H/963 and 96813352 and 357H/963
(Figure 16). and 968 (Figure 16).
12 On the east side arcade run also two inscriptions. The lower one contains probably full verses of Q. 3, not
On 12
the east
On theside
12east
arcade
12Onside theconsecutive
run
arcade
east
also side
run
two and
arcade
also separated
inscriptions.
two by alower
runinscriptions.
alsotwo
The
two decorative
inscriptions.
Theone
lowermotif:
contains
one
The 3:4 one
Q.lower 3:8 verses
+ probably + 3:26 [¿?] + 3:133–34. The upper one
On the east side arcade run also inscriptions. The lowercontains
probably
one contains full
contains full
probably probably
ofverses
fullQ. 3,
verses full
of
not
ofQ.verses
Q. 3,
3, not
notof Q. 3, not
consecutive and
also two consecutive
inscriptions.
consecutive and separatedThe contains
consecutive
and lower
separated
by a one
and a fragment
bycontains
decorative
separated
a of
decorative theaQ.
motif:
by Q.
probably 2:110
full

decorative
motif:
3:4 
Q.+ (separating
verses
3:4
3:8 
 of
motif: +
+ Q.
Q.
3:8
3:26mark
3,
3:4not
[¿?]
+ at
3:26
+ the
3:8
+ end+ of
[¿?]
3:133–34. this
3:26
+ verse).
3:133–34.
The
[¿?]upper+
The3:133–34.
one
upper The
one upper one
separated by a decorative motif: Q. 3:4 3:8 3:26 [¿ ?] + 3:133–34. The upper one contains a fragment of the Q.
bycontains
a decorative motif: 13
Q. The
3:4  dates of +the

+(separating
3:8 Q. 3:26coins coincide with those of the one
construction of the mosque. See similar motifs in the
contains
a fragment 2:110
a fragment
contains
of the Q.
aof2:110
fragment
the 2:110 mark [¿?]
(separating
of the at
Q. the +end
3:133–34.
(separating
2:110
mark  ofatthis The
theverse).
(separating
mark end upper
at the
of this
mark
endverse).
of
at this
the end
verse).
of this verse).
13 Thedirhams of al-Ḥakam II with those of the construction Arqueológico
preserved in the Museo Nacional (MAN): nº dirhams
inv. 2008/103/85
. 2:110  The
(separating
The13dates ofdates
the
13 coins
of mark
The the dates
at the
dates
coincide
coinsofofend
the coins
coincide
the
with of this
coins
thosecoincide
withverse).
coincide
ofthose
the construction
with
of the those
construction
ofofthe of of the mosque. See
theconstruction
mosque.
the mosque.
Seeofsimilar
theSee similar motifs
mosque.
motifs
similarSee in in the
motifs
the
similar motifsofin
in the al-H. akam
the
II preserved
(352H/963–4), in thenº Museo
inv. Arqueológico (353H/964–5),
2008/103/129 Nacional (MAN): nº nº inv.
inv. 2008/103/85
2008/103/213 (352H/963–4),
(354H/965) or nº nº inv.
inv. 2008/103/129
2008/103/211
cide with those
dirhamsdirhams of
of al-Ḥakamthe
ofdirhamsconstruction
al-Ḥakam
II preserved
of II of
al-Ḥakam the
preserved
in the mosque.
II Museo
preserved See
in the Museo similar
Arqueológico
in the motifs
Arqueológico
Museo in
Nacional the
Arqueológico
Nacional
(MAN): (MAN):
Nacional
nº inv. nº
2008/103/85
(MAN):
inv. nº2008/103/85
nº inv. 2008/103/85
(353H/964–5),
(354H/965),nºnºNacional
inv.
inv. 2008/103/213
104314 (354H/965)
(357H/967–8). or
Also,nº in
inv.http://www.andalustonegawa.50g.com/alḤakamII.htm
2008/103/211 (354H/965), inv. 104314 (357H/967–8).
eserved in the nº
(352H/963–4), Museo
(352H/963–4),inv. Arqueológico
(352H/963–4),
2008/103/129
nº
Also, inv. 2008/103/129
nº (353H/964–5),
inv. 2008/103/129 (MAN):
(353H/964–5),
nº inv. nº
nº inv.
inv. 2008/103/85
(353H/964–5),
in http://www.andalustonegawa.50g.com/alHakamII.htm2008/103/213
2008/103/213
nº (354H/965)
inv. 2008/103/213
(354H/965)
or of
(Coins nºal-Andalus
inv.
(354H/965)
or 2008/103/211
nº inv.
in the2008/103/211
orTonegawa
nº inv. 2008/103/211
collection).
(Coins of al-Andalus in the Tonegawa collection).
103/129 (353H/964–5),
(354H/965),
(354H/965), nº inv.
nº inv.(354H/965),
nº
104314inv. 2008/103/213
(357H/967–8).
104314
nº inv. (354H/965)
(357H/967–8).
104314 or nº
Also,(357H/967–8).
inAlso, in inv. 2008/103/211
http://www.andalustonegawa.50g.com/alḤakamII.htm
http://www.andalustonegawa.50g.com/alḤakamII.htm
Also, in http://www.andalustonegawa.50g.com/alḤakamII.htm
(357H/967–8).
(Coins of
(Coins Also,
al-Andalus in http://www.andalustonegawa.50g.com/alḤakamII.htm
of al-Andalus
(Coins
in theofTonegawa
al-Andalus
in the Tonegawa collection).
in the Tonegawa
collection). collection).
Tonegawa collection).
Legibility was also improved by location and colour. It is worth noting that, on some of the
external doors, the carved words stood out against a background of lapis lazuli blue and were framed
by red bands (Figure 17). In the inner epigraphic stone friezes (maybe also the wooden ones14) located
under the roof, some remains of red still exist in the background. The letters were probably painted
Artstoo, 7, 36
2018,perhaps gilded as in the mosaics of the maqṣūra. Finally, some of the inscriptions were not16in
of 21
relief but painted red, as in the arch located in the west end of the arcade parallel to the qibla.
by red bands (Figure 17). In the inner epigraphic stone friezes (maybe also the wooden ones14) located
too, perhaps gilded as in the mosaics of the maqṣūra. Finally, some of the inscriptions were not in
relief but painted red, as in the arch located in the west end of the arcade parallel to the qibla.
Figure 16. Dirhams of al-Ḥakam II: 963-964/352H (MANF2008_103_85_P) and 964-965/353 H

Figure 16. Dirhams of al-H
(MANF2008_103_129_P) . akam
coined at II:
the 963-964/352H (MANF2008_103_85_P)
mint of Madinat and 964-965/353
al-Zahra’. Museo Arqueológico Nacional, H
(MANF2008_103_129_P) coined at the mint of Madinat al-Zahra’.
Madrid. Photo: María del Mar Gómez Talavera, © In public domain. Museo Arqueológico Nacional,
Madrid. Photo: María del Mar Gómez Talavera, © In public domain.
by red bands (Figure 17). In the inner epigraphic stone friezes (maybe also the wooden ones14 ) located
Figure 16. Dirhams of al-Ḥakam II: 963-964/352H (MANF2008_103_85_P) and 964-965/353 H
too, perhaps gilded as in the mosaics of the maqs.ūra. Finally, some of the inscriptions were not in relief
(MANF2008_103_129_P) coined at the mint of Madinat al-Zahra’. Museo Arqueológico Nacional,
but painted red, as in the arch located in the west end of the arcade parallel to the qibla.
Madrid. Photo: María del Mar Gómez Talavera, © In public domain.
Figure 17. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Eastern door of the al-Ḥakam II’s enlargement with traces of
polychromy. © Photo took by author.
As Tabbaa (2001, pp. 53–54, 70–71) has argued in his studies on the semiotic interpretation of
calligraphy, the form, accessibility, and readability of the monumental inscriptions are also part of
the message. Moreover, the aesthetic values were linked with questions of status and power.
Replacing floriated Kufic, used by Fatimids in public inscriptions, by cursive is understood by this
author as the manner in which Sunnism rendered messages more clear and accessible, in contrast to
the cryptic and esoteric character of shi‘a inscriptions. Other scholars have a more nuanced view, like
Figure 17. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Eastern door of the al-Ḥakam II’s enlargement with traces of
Figure 17. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Eastern door of the al-H . akam II’s enlargement with traces of
polychromy. © Photo took by author.
14 polychromy. © Photo took by author.
About the polychrome ceiling, see (Cabañero Subiza and Herrera Ontañón 2014). As for the lighting, there
isAs Tabbaa
little (2001,about
information pp. 53–54, 70–71)
the lamps has from
hanging argued in his studies
the ceiling: (Kider eton
al. the semiotic interpretation of
2009).
calligraphy,
As Tabbaathe form,pp.
(2001, accessibility,
53–54, 70–71)and readability
has arguedofinthe hismonumental
studies on the inscriptions
semiotic are also part of of
interpretation
the message.
calligraphy, Moreover,
the form, the aesthetic
accessibility, values were
and readability linked
of the with questions
monumental of status
inscriptions andpart
are also power.
of the
Replacing floriated Kufic, used by Fatimids in public inscriptions, by cursive
message. Moreover, the aesthetic values were linked with questions of status and power. Replacing is understood by this
author as the manner in which Sunnism rendered messages more clear and accessible, in contrast to
the cryptic and esoteric character of shi‘a inscriptions. Other scholars have a more nuanced view, like
14 About the polychrome ceiling, see (Cabañero Subiza and Ontañón 2004). As for the lighting, there is little information about
the lamps hanging from the ceiling: (Kider et al. 2009).
14 About the polychrome ceiling, see (Cabañero Subiza and Herrera Ontañón 2014). As for the lighting, there
is little information about the lamps hanging from the ceiling: (Kider et al. 2009).
Arts 2018, 7, 36 17 of 21
floriated Kufic, used by Fatimids in public inscriptions, by cursive is understood by this author as the
manner in which Sunnism rendered messages more clear and accessible, in contrast to the cryptic and
Arts
Arts 2018, Arts
7, 2018,PEER
2018,
x FOR 7,xxFOR
7, FOR PEERREVIEW
PEER
REVIEW REVIEW 17of
17 of21
17 of 21 (2018), 21
esoteric character of shi‘a inscriptions. Other scholars have a more nuanced view, like O’Kane
who draws attention to the use of several styles like cursive and less ornate Kufic in some Fatimid
O’Kane
O’Kane O’Kane
(2018), (2018),
(2018),
Artswho
2018, draws
7, who
who
x FOR draws
draws
attention
PEER REVIEW attention
attention
to the use toof
to the
the use of
use
several ofstyles
several
several styles
styles
like likeand
like
cursive cursive
cursive and
lessand
ornate lessKufic
less ornate
ornate Kufic
inofKufic
17 21 in
in
monuments. In the case of Cordoba, we wonder whether the reason for choosing simple Kufic was
some Fatimid
some
some Fatimid Fatimid
monuments. monuments.
monuments.
In the case In the
In the case of
case
of Cordoba, of Cordoba,
Cordoba,
we wonder we wonder
we wonder
whetherwhetherwhether
the reason thefor
the reason
reason for choosing
for
choosing choosing
also to facilitate diffusion of attention
the caliphal messages. Thestyles
different texts composed for Kufic
the mosque
simple Kufic was also to facilitate diffusion of the caliphal messages. The different texts composed in
simple
simple O’Kane
Kufic
Kufic (2018),
was
was who
also
also draws
to
to facilitate
facilitate to
diffusion
diffusion the use
of
of of
the
the several
caliphal
caliphal like
messages.
messages. cursiveThe
The and less
different
different ornate
texts
texts composed
composed
weresome probablyFatimidintended
monuments. to make thecase
In the ideological
of Cordoba, messages
wethe morewhether
wonder direct and convincing,
the reason like khut.ba
for choosing
for the for for
mosque the mosque
the mosque were probably
were
were probably probably intended
intendedintendedto maketo tothe make
make the
ideological ideological
ideological
messages messages
messages
more direct more
more direct and
direct
and and
compositions,
simple Kuficas well
was as totoexpand
also facilitate the reach of
diffusion of the
the message.
caliphal messages. The different texts composed
convincing, convincing,
convincing,
like khuṭba like
like khuṭba compositions,
khuṭba
compositions,compositions,
as well as asto
as well
well as to
as
expand tothe
expand
expand the
reachthe reach
of reach of the
of
the message. the message.
message.
Finally,
for the Imosque
would likewereto probably
mention another
intendedsingular
to makeepigraph (Figure 18).
the ideological Little attention
messages more direct hasandhitherto
Finally,
Finally,
Finally, convincing, II
I would like towould
would like
like
mention to
to mention
mention another
another
anotherassingular singular
singular epigraph
epigraph
epigraphthe(Figure (Figure
(Figure 18).
18). Little attention
Little attention has
has
been paid to thelike khuṭba
circular compositions,
inscription located wellon
as totheexpand
north face reach
of theof18).
the Little
message.
screen
attention has
of arches delimiting the
hitherto
hitherto hitherto been
been paid
to paid to the
to the circular
circular inscription
inscription located on thetheface
north facescreen
of the
theof screen of arches
arches
been paid
west bay Finally,
the
of the maqs
circular
I would likeinscription
ūra, that to the
of mention another located
located
sābāt. door:
on
singular on
the north
epigraph north face
of the
(Figure 18).ofLittle screen
arches
attention of
has
delimiting
delimiting the
the west
west .bay
bay of
of the
the maqṣūra,
maqṣūra, that
that of
of the
the sābāṭ
sābāṭ door:
door:
delimiting thehithertowest bay beenof paid
the maqṣūra,
to the circularthat ofinscription
the sābāṭ door: located on the north face of the screen of arches
delimiting the west bay of the maqṣūra, that of the
ttt)) and  sābāṭ door:

t),), and
The gloryThe gloryt(al-’izza
glory
The(al-’izza (al-’izza
)(al-’izza
and greatness andgreatness
and greatness
greatness (waal-’az
(wa
(wa al-’a(wa al-’a
al-’a
ama ama
.  ama
t), and tt), and excellence
maexcellence excellence (al-jaīrawat)
(al-jaīrawat)
(al-jaı̄rawat)
(al-jaīrawat) and and
and
grandeur
grandeur The (al-kabīra)
(al-kabīra)
glory
(al-kabı̄ra) of
(al-’izza
of God
God
grandeur (al-kabīra) of God (li-llāh). (li-llāh).
(li-llāh).
t) and greatness
(li-llāh). (wa al-’a amat), and excellence (al-jaīrawat) and
grandeur (al-kabīra) of God (li-llāh).

Two vegetalTwoelements
Two
Two vegetalelements
vegetal
vegetal elements
elements aappear:
appear:
appear: appear: aaa fleur-de-lis
fleur-de-lis fleur-de-lis
fleur-de-lis marking
marking
markingmarking the beginning
the
the beginning
the beginning
beginning of the
of the inscription,
the
of the inscription,
of inscription,
inscription,
nearly on nearly on
nearly
nearly on
on
the axis Two
of vegetal
the word elements
Allāh appear:
placed in a fleur-de-lis
the centre marking
of the the beginning
circle, and a of the inscription,
half-palmette at nearly
the endonof the
the axis the
the axisword
of the
axis ofthe
of theAllāh
word
word Allāh
placed
Allāh placed
in
placed in the
theincentre
the ofcentre
centre the of circle,
theand
circle,
of the circle, aand a half-palmette
a half-palmette
and half-palmette atatthe at the
theend
end of endvertical
of the
the of the
the axis of of
thetheword ‫ظ‬Allāh placed in the centre of the circle, and a half-palmette at the end of the
vertical
vertical
vertical stroke
stroke of stroke
stroke
the of
“ẓ/
of thestroke
“ ‫ظ‬ the
”. “ẓ/‫ظ‬
“ẓ/ ”.
”.
.of the “ẓ/‫”ظ‬.
vertical
Figure 18. Great Mosque of Cordoba. Circular inscription located on the west bay of the maqṣūra.
Figure 18. Great
© Photo took by author.of Cordoba. Circular inscription located on the west bay of the maqs.ūra.
Mosque
© Photo
Figure
Figure 18.Figure
Great18.took
18. by
Great
Great of
Mosque author.
Mosque
Mosque of Cordoba.
of
Cordoba. Cordoba. Circular inscription
Circular
Circular inscription inscription
located on located
located
the west onbay
on the west
the west
of bay
thebay of the
of
maqṣūra. themaqṣūra.
maqṣūra.
© Photo took©© Photo
Photo
by took by
Monumental
took
author. by author.
author.
inscriptions in a circular format could be frequently found in Fatimid architecture,
Monumental inscriptionsofin
like those on the minarets thea Mosque
circular of al-Hakim in be
Cairo, with the found
word Allah in the centre 15.
format could frequently in Fatimid architecture,
Monumental
like thoseMonumental
However,
Monumental
inscriptions
on the inscriptions
theyinscriptions
are rare
minarets in ain in aMosque
circular
the a circular
ofal-Andalus;
in circular
format of format
in fact, this
format
could
al-Hakim could
beiscould
probably be
inbe
frequently frequently
the earliest
frequently
Cairo, found
within found
known
found
theFatimid
word in
in Fatimid
example.
Fatimid
architecture,
Allah in architecture,
Although
architecture,
the centre15 .
like it is
those notonunlike
the the pattern
minarets of
of coins,
the the
Mosque content
of of
al-Hakimthe inscription
in Cairo, is different,
with the since
word it speaks
Allah of
in divine
the centre1515
like thoselikeonthose
However, on the
the minarets
they areminarets
of the
rare of the Mosque
in Mosque
al-Andalus; of al-Hakim
in fact,of al-Hakim
thisin isCairo, inwith
probably Cairo, with
wordthe
theearliest
the word
Allah
known Allah
inexample. in the
the centre 15. centre
Although it..
However,qualities,
they as already
are seen.
rare inin al-Andalus; in fact,
fact, this is probably
probably the earliest known example. Although
However, However,
is not arethey
theyunlike raretheare
in rare
al-Andalus;
pattern ofal-Andalus;
in fact,
coins, the thisin
content this
is probably
of theis the earliest
inscription the earliest
isknown
different, known
sinceexample.
example. speaksAlthough
itAlthough of divine
According to M. Marín (2011, p. 284), Umayyads, aware of the propaganda power of
it
it is
is
it is not unlike not
not
qualities, theunlike
unlike
pattern
as the
the
already pattern
pattern
of coins,
seen. of
of
the coins,
coins,
content the
the ofcontent
content
the of
of the
the
inscription inscription
inscription
is different, is
is different,
different,
since it since
since
speaks it
itofspeaks
speaks
divine of divine
of divine
inscriptions, used brief pious formulations such as quwwa illa bi-llāh, rabbu-na Allāh, al-’izza li-llāh
qualities,
qualities,qualities,
as already as already
as already seen.
seen.
(“there isseen.
no strength except in God”, “God is our Lord”, and “God is the glory”), which are similar
According According
According
to M. to
to
Marín
to those of the circular
M. (2011,
M. Marín
Marín (2011,
p.(2011,
inscription 284), p.Umayyads,
p.
in the
284),Mosque.
284),
Great
Umayyads,
Umayyads, aware of aware
aware of the
of
the propagandathe propaganda
propaganda
power of power of
power of
inscriptions,
inscriptions,
inscriptions, used briefused
used brief
brief
pious pious formulations
pious formulations
formulations such such as
as such
quwwa asilla
quwwa
quwwa illarabbu-na
illa
bi-llāh, bi-llāh, rabbu-na
bi-llāh, rabbu-na
Allāh, Allāh,li-llāh
Allāh, al-’izza li-llāh
al-’izza li-llāh
15 Two circular roundels containing the word Allāh and a Quranic verse on its perimeter areal-’izza
on the northern minaret
(“there is(“there
(“there
no is
strength
(early no
is11th strength
nocentury):
strength except
inexcept
exceptO’Kane God”, in
(2018, p.God”,
in“God
God”, “God
“God
145);isBierman is
is
our Lord”, our
ourp.
(1998, Lord”,
Lord”,
and
82).“Godand
and “God
“God
is circular
Another is
is
the glory”), the glory”),
the glory”),
which
inscription, which
which
are
likely are
are
similar
Fatimid, similar
similar
is decorating
to
to the mihrab
those
those of
of façade
the
the of the inscription
circular
circular great mosque of
inscription in
in Qayrawan.
the
the Great
Great Mosque.
Mosque.
to those of the circular inscription in the Great Mosque.
15 Two circular roundels containing the word Allāh and a Quranic verse on its perimeter are on the northern
minaret (early 11th century): O’Kane (2018, p. 145); Bierman (1998, p. 82). Another circular inscription, likely
Fatimid, is decorating the mihrab façade of the great mosque of Qayrawan.
15
15 Tworoundels
Two
Two 15circular circular roundels
circular roundels
containing containing
containing the
the wordthe āword
Allword All
h andAll āhh and
and aaverse
a āQuranic Quranic
Quranic verse
on verse
its on its
on its perimeter
perimeter perimeter are
are on theare on the
on the northern
northern northern
minaret
minaret
minaret (early 11th(early
(early 11thcentury):
11th
century): century):(2018,
O’Kane O’Kane
O’Kane (2018,
(2018,
p. 145); p.145);
p. 145);(1998,
Bierman Bierman
Bierman (1998,
(1998,
p. 82). p.82).
p.
Another82).circular
Anotherinscription,
Another circularinscription,
circular inscription,
likely likely
likely
Fatimid, is
Fatimid, is decorating
decorating the
the mihrab
mihrab façade
façade of
of the
the great
great mosque
mosque of of Qayrawan.
Qayrawan.
Arts 2018, 7, 36 18 of 21
According to M. Marín (2011, p. 284), Umayyads, aware of the propaganda power of inscriptions,
used brief pious formulations such as quwwa illa bi-llāh, rabbu-na Allāh, al-’izza li-llāh (“there is no
strength except in God”, “God is our Lord”, and “God is the glory”), which are similar to those of the
circular inscription in the Great Mosque.
6. Recipients and Ideologists of the Epigraphic Program

As Grabar (1996, p. 68) said in his analysis of the Dome of the Rock: “There must have been
a social, political or intellectual mechanism for the composition of the inscriptions and, therefore,
for the conceptualization of the building’s purpose”, a mechanism that should imply “a learned and
thoughtful individual or group chose to excerpt parts of a written, or more likely remembered Holy
Text (the Quran) in order to formulate an iconophoric or aesthetic message about the building.”
We can suppose that among the recipients of these messages inscribed on the walls of the prayer
hall were the numerous and prestigious ‘ulamā and scholars teaching in the mosque, who would have
been capable of understanding the complex nuances of the texts. The members of the Cordoban elites
and the fuqahā would also have been able to read the epigraphs. They were precisely those who looked
after the observance of religious dogmas and earthly laws.
For this reason, it can be assumed that the Māliki fuqaha and ulama closer to power were behind
the theological discourse displayed in the dynastic great mosque. This religious elite was the caliphs’
most effective instrument to exercise control over the people (the community of believers) and to
respond to the theological and social issues posed by the appearance of heterodox schools of thought.
This explains why Caliph al-H . akam II had often publicly demonstrated his support for the Māliki
school, as pointed out in the decrees copied by Ibn H . ayyān and other writers.
We do not know the name of the authors of the epigraphic program so far, but we may suspect
that some important religious scholars like the qād.ı̄ of Cordoba, Mundhir ibn Sa’ı̄d al-Ballūt.ı̄, might
have participated (De Felipe and Lirola 2007, nº 1074; Fierro 2010, pp. 358–62). He was an honourable
and erudite jurist with great prestige in the court of Abd Rah.mān III and his son. From the year
950 until his death in 966, he was supreme judge of Cordoba and was part of the close entourage of
al-H. akam II, on whom he had some influence. Mundhir took part in the meeting I mentioned at the
beginning of this paper, in which the caliph decided to build the enlargement of the masjid al-jāmi’.
Andalusi writers pointed out his extraordinary qualities as a preacher and recalled his magnificent
sermons (khut.bas) pronounced as khat.ı̄b of the great mosques of Madı̄nat al-Zahrā’ and Cordoba. In fact,
Mundhir was chosen to convince the people of Cordoba that the money used in the enlargement works
was licit in origin. Al-Nubāhı̄ said that Mundhir always found the most suitable Quranic verses for
the subject he was dealing with to make his arguments more effective (Jones 2012, pp. 134, 247–49;
Bourdieu 1975). That was exactly what the epigraphic program of the Great Mosque of Cordoba
pursued: to make the content of the caliphal ideological message more effective.
Funding: This study is part of a project funded by the Spanish National I + D + i Plan (Research, Development
and Innovation), HAR2013-45578-R.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Keywords: al-Andalus; Umayyads; mosque; Cordoba; epigraphy; mosaics; caliphate

1. A New Scenario for the Umayyads of Al-Andalus

Arts 2018, 7, 36; doi:10.3390/arts7030036 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts

2. The Legacy of the Umayyad Ancestors and the “Imperial” Aesthetics

Figure 2. Umayyad mosque of Damascus (8th century). © Photo took by author.

3. Domes and Chrysography for a Royal Scene

Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

4. Politico-Religious Apologia through the Quranic Inscriptions

Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

5. On the Forms of Epigraphic Settings

Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

Figure 16. Dirhams of al-Ḥakam II: 963-964/352H (MANF2008_103_85_P) and 964-965/353 H

grandeur (al-kabīra) of God (li-llāh).

6. Recipients and Ideologists of the Epigraphic Program

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