Name: Abhijit Dilip Mahale

Prn no.: 10303320181129310018

Unit 3 (A) Synchronous Alternator

Q.1 Derive the phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor alternator. What is the effect of
armature reaction? Draw phaor diagram for lagging, unity and leading power factors.
Ans :
In this phasor diagram we are going to use:
Ef which denotes excitation voltage
Vt which denotes terminal voltage
Ia which denotes the armature current
θ which denotes the phase angle between Vt and Ia
ᴪ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Ia
δ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Vt
ra which denotes the armature per phase resistance

In order to draw the phasor diagram we will use Vt as reference. Consider these two
important points which are written below:

1. We already know that if a machine is working as a synchronous generator then

direction of Ia will be in phase to that of the Ef.
2. Phasor Ef is always ahead of Vt.

These two points are necessary for making the phasor diagram of synchronous generator.
Given below is the phasor diagram of synchronous generator:

In this phasor diagram we have drawn the direction of the Ia is in phase with that of the Ef as
per the point number 1 mentioned above. Now let us derive expression for the excitation emf
in each case. We have three cases that are written below:

1. Generating operation at lagging power factor.

2. Generating operation at unity power factor.
3. Generating operation at leading power factor.

Given below are the phasor diagrams for all the operations.
(a) Generating operation at lagging power factor:
We can derive the expression for the Ef by first taking the component of the Vt in the
direction of Ia. Component of Vt in the direction of Ia is VtcosΘ, hence the total voltage drop
is along the Ia. Similarly we can calculate the voltage drop along the
direction perpendicular to Ia. The total voltage drop perpendicular to Ia is .
With the help of triangle BOD in the first phasor diagram we can write the expression for Ef
as

(b) Generating operation at unity power factor:

Here also we can derive the expression for the Ef by first taking the component of the Vt in
the direction of Ia. But in this case the value of theta is zero and hence we have ᴪ = δ.

With the help of triangle BOD in the second phasor diagram we can directly write the
expression for Ef as

(c) Generating operation at leading power factor:

Component in the direction of Ia is VtcosΘ. As the direction of Ia is same to that of the Vt thus
the total voltage drop is . Similarly we can write expression for the voltage
drop along the direction perpendicular to Ia. The total voltage drop comes out to be
. With the help of triangle BOD in the first phasor diagram we can write
the expression for Ef as

Q.2 Discuss the following methods for comuting regulation of alternator. How thay
differ from each other. i) Synchronous impedance method ii) mmf method and iii)
Potier (ZPF) triangle method.
Ans:
Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F. Method for finding a Voltage Regulation

The Synchronous Impedance Method or Emf Method is based on the concept of replacing the
effect of armature reaction by an imaginary reactance. The method requires following data to
calculate the regulation.

1. The open -circuit characteristic (O.C.C) : 

 The O.C.C is a plot of the armature terminal voltage as a function of field current
with a symmetrical three phase short-circuit applied across the armature terminals
with the machine running at rated speed.
 At any value of field current, if E is the open circuit voltage and Isc is the short
circuit current then for this value of excitation
 Zs = E/Sic
 At higher values of field current, saturation increases and the synchronous
impedance decreases.
 The value of Zs calculated for the unsaturated region.
 The O.C.C is called the unsaturated value of the synchronous impedance.
2. The short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C)

 The S.C.C is a plot of short-circuit armature current versus the field current.
 The current range of the instrument should be about 25-50 % more than the full
load current of the alternator.
 Starting with zero field current, increase the field current gradually and cautiously
till rated current flows in the armature.
 The speed of the set in this test also is tom be maintained at the rated speed of the
alternator.

3. Resistance of the armature winding.

 Measure the D.C. resistance of he armature circuit of the alternator.

 The effective a.c resistance may be taken to be 1.2 times the D.C. resistance.

Regulation Calculation

 From O.C.C. and S.C.C., Zs can be determined for any load condition.

 The armature resistance per phase can be measured by different methods.

 One of the method is applying d.c. known voltage across the two terminals and
measuring current. So value of Ra per phase is known.

So synchronous reactance per phase can be determined.

 No load induced e.m.f. per phase, Eph can be determined by the mathematical

expression derived earlier.

                       Eph= [ √ I(V cosφ+IRa)² + I(V Sinφ +IXs)² ]

 where     Vph = Phase value of rated voltage
Ia = Phase value of current depending on the load condition
cosΦ = p.f. of load

 Positive sign for lagging power factor while negative sign for leading power
factor, Ra and Xs values are known from the various tests performed.

The regulation then can be determined by using formula,

MMF METHOD:-

Voltage regulation of alternator by MMF method requires mmf (which is a product of field
current(I) and number of turns(N) of field winding) for two separate purposes.

1. It must have an mmf which is necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open
circuit condition.
2. It must have an mmf to circulate the full load current equal and opposite to that of
armature reaction mmf.

The field mmf (If1) required to induce the rated terminal voltage is obtained by conducting
open circuit test.

This method replaces the effect of armature leakage reactance by an equivalent armature

reaction mmf. If2 is the field current required to circulate the full load armature current by
balancing or overcoming the armature reaction, which is obtained by conducting the short
circuit test.

This method is also called an optimistic method because the voltage regulation obtained by
this method is less than the actual value.

The MMF method requires the following data’s to determine the regulation

 Armature resistance/phase
 Open circuit characteristics (OCC)                   
 Short circuit characteristics (SCC)

Armature Resistance per phase

Armature Resistance per phase can be obtained by conducting stator resistance test on the
alternator. It is done by connecting the dc voltage supply to the stator armature winding and
the corresponding current is measured. By doing so, the dc stator resistance is calculated and
then by using the formula Rac = 1.6 Rdc the ac stator resistance is determined.

Open Circuit Characteristics(OCC)

  Open circuit characteristics is obtained by conducting open circuit test in the
Alternator. To do that, the connections are given as per the following circuit diagram.
 To perform this test, the stator windings are kept open.
 The Alternator was made to run at synchronous speed by adjusting the field rheostat
of the dc motor.
 The field current of the alternator was varied in steps until the machine attains its
maximum voltage. The corresponding readings were noted down.
 From the readings, a graph is drawn as below, where OCC represents the open circuit
characteristics.

Experiment to determine the voltage regulation by MMF method

Short Circuit Characteristics(SCC)

 Short circuit characteristics is obtained by conducting short circuit test in the

Alternator. To do that, the connections are given as per the above circuit diagram.
 The stator windings of alternator are Shorted and an ammeter is connected to measure
the current flow.
 The Alternator was made to run at synchronous speed by adjusting the field rheostat
of the dc motor.
 The field current of the Alternator was adjusted so that the armature current reaches
its maximum rated value.
 Note the corresponding current readings and draw the graph. SCC in the graph below
represents the short circuit characteristics.

Determination of Voltage regulation for Leading Power factor

  Plot the OCC and SCC curve in a graph.
 Find the value of induced emf with the resistance drop using the formula , if
resistance is given,

E1= V + IRa

 For the rated voltage(Eoph), draw a line that cuts the OCC curve, from that, draw a
vertical line and find the field current If1 and mark it as A.
 [If the resistance is not given, neglect it and hence for the rated voltage Vph, find the
corresponding field current If1]
 Find the field current If2, that is responsible to circulate the full load short circuit
current (Isc) by balancing the armature reaction. This is obtained by drawing a line for
full load short circuit current.
 Now, With A as centre and If2 as radius, draw a semi-circle.
 For Leading power factor, current leads the voltage, so considering AB as voltage
phasor, draw the current phasor such that it leads the voltage by Φ inside the semi-
circle(the angle between this current phasor and x-axis is 90-Φ in anti-clockwise
direction) and mark the point on the semi-circle as C.
 Join OC, which is the resultant Field current (If) that is responsible for generating
rated voltage with the drops.
 Now, in order to find the corresponding voltage, with O as centre and OC as radius,
draw an arc that cuts the x-axis at point D.
 From this point D, draw a vertical line which cuts the OCC curve, from that draw a
horizontal line to y-axis and find the no load voltage (Eph).

Graph to find the voltage regulation for leading power factor

Finally the voltage regulation o alternator by mmf method can be determined from the
formula,
Determination of Voltage regulation for Lagging Power factor

To draw the graph for lagging power factor, the same steps are repeated as above to
determine the voltage regulation, except for the following change.

For Lagging power factor, current lags the voltage, so considering AB as voltage phasor,
you have to draw the current phasor such that it lags the voltage by Φ inside the semi-
circle(the angle b/w this current phasor and x-axis is 90-Φ in clockwise direction) and mark
the point on the semi-circle as C.

Graph to find the voltage regulation for lagging power factor

Determination of Voltage regulation for Unity Power factor

For Unity power factor, repeat the same procedure but for a small change. Here current is in
phase with voltage, so considering AB as voltage phasor, draw the current phasor such that it
is in phase with the voltage inside the semi-circle (on the voltage phasor itself) and mark the
point on the semi-circle as C and continue with the same steps to determine the voltage
regulation.
Graph to find the voltage regulation for Unity power factor

POTIER TRIANGLE METHOD

The Potier triangle determines the voltage regulation of the machines. This method depends
on the separation of the leakage reactance of armature and their effects. The graph of the
Potier triangle is shown in the figure below. The triangle formed by the vertices a, b, c has
shown below in the figure is called Potier Triangle.
Consider a point B on the Zero Power Factor Curve corresponding to rated terminal voltage
V and a field current of OM = If = Ff/Tf. If, for this condition of operation the armature
reaction MMF has a value expressed in equivalent field current will be given as

Then the equivalent field current of the resultant MMF would be represented as shown
below.

This field current OL would result in a generated voltage Eg = Lc from the no-load saturation
curve. Since for lagging Zero Power Factor operation, the generated voltage will be

The vertical distance ac must be equal to the leakage reactance voltage DROP IaXaL where
Ia is the rated armature current.

Therefore,

For Zero Power Factor operation with rated current at any other terminal voltage, such as
V2. As the armature current is of the same value, both the Ia and XaL voltage and the armature
MMF must be of the same value. Therefore, for all the conditions of operation with rated
armature current at zero lagging power factor, the Potier Triangle must be located between
the terminal voltage V, a point on the ZPFC and the corresponding Eg point on the O.C.C.

If the Potier triangle cab is moved downward so that the side ab is kept horizontal and b is
kept on the ZPFC, the point c will move on the O.C.C. When the point b, reaches the point e,
the Potier triangle cab will move on the position fde shown in the figure. The location of
point f on the O.C.C will determine the voltage Eg2. When the point b, reaches the point b’,
the Potier Triangle will be in the position c’a’b’. This is the limiting position which
corresponds to short the circuit condition because the terminal voltage is zero at the point b’.

The initial part of the O.C.C is almost linear, another triangle Oc’b’is formed by the O.C.C.
The hypotenuse of the Potier triangle and the baseline. A similar triangle such as ckb, can
 construct from the Potier triangle in any other location by drawing a line kc parallel to Oc’.

Steps for Construction of Potier Triangle on ZPFC

 Take a point b on the ZPFC preferably well upon the knee of the curve.
 Draw bk equal to b’O. (b’ is the point for zero voltage, full load current). Ob’ is the
short circuit excitation Fsc.
 Through k draw, kc parallel to Oc’ to meet O.C.C in c.
 Drop the perpendicular ca on to bk.
 Then, to scale ca is the leakage reactance drop IaXaL and ab is the armature reaction
MMF FaR or the field current IfaR equivalent to armature reaction MMF at rated current.

The effect of field leakage flux in combination with the armature leakage flux gives rise to an
equivalent leakage reactance Xp, known as the Potier Reactance. It is greater than the
armature leakage reactance.

For cylindrical rotor machines, the Potier reactance Xp is approximately equal to the leakage
reactance XaL. in salient pole machine, Xp may be as large as 3 times XaL.

Assumptions for Potier Triangle

The following assumptions are made in the Potier Triangle Method. They are as follows:-

 The armature resistance Ra is neglected.

 The O.C.C taken on no load accurately represents the relation between MMF and
Voltage on load.
 The leakage reactance voltage Ia XaL is independent of excitation.
 The armature reaction MMF is constant.

It is not necessary to plot the entire ZPFC for determining XaL and Fa, only two points b and
b’ are sufficient. Point b corresponds to a field current which gives the rated terminal voltage
while the ZPF load is adjusted to draw rated current. Point b’ corresponds to the short circuit
condition (V = 0) on the machine. Thus, Ob’ is the field current required to circulate the short
circuit current equal to the rated current.

Q. 3 What is Synchronizing power? Derive expression for Synchronizing power of

cylindrical and salient pole rotor alternator. Discuss the role in successful operation of
an alternator. When it is maximum and when negative?
Ans:
Synchronizing Power is defined as the difference between input power to alternator at power
angle 𝛿  and input power to alternator at power angle 𝛿 + 𝛿'.Synchronizing Power is denoted
by PSY.
Consider an alternator connected to the infinite bus bar. Let V be the bus bar voltage and E be
the EMF induced in the alternator.The excitation of the alternator is adjusted in such a way
that E and V are equal in magnitude.In the local circuit, the two voltages E and V are in phase
opposition while in the external circuit they are in the same phase.This is represented in the
below figure. 

Consider the alternator to be at no load. If by some means power input to the machine is

decreased and it's induced EMF E will then lag behind V by say angle 2𝛿.Due to this
difference, E and V will not remain in exact phase opposition but will give rise to resultant
EMF Er.This ER will act in the local circuit and a synchronizing current will start flowing in
the local circuit.The synchronizing current is given by, 

                                              ISY = Er/Zs

Isy is lagging behind Er by an angle θ given by

                                               θ = tan⁻¹(Xs/R)

R is very small it can be neglected.

                                            θ ≈ 90°

          The angle 2𝛿 is very small and θ is approximately equal to 90° so the synchronizing
current Isy is almost in phase with V and in phase opposition with E.So infinite bus bar will
deliver some power to the alternator.As the current in the local circuit is always opposing to
induced EMF E, the alternator will act as a synchronous motor. 

           Thus synchronizing torque will be developed which will try to accelerate the machine.
Thus the angle 2𝛿 will go on decreasing and resultant EMF Er also goes on decreasing.
Finally, the two EMF's E and V will again be in phase opposition and the machine will now
act as an alternator in synchronism with the bus bar. 
         Thus the power which automatically comes into play and accelerates the machine which
was retarding and decelerates the machine which tries to accelerate is called synchronizing

power. This power will keep the machine in step with the infinite bus bar.

Expression for Synchronizing Power(PSY):

Consider an alternator which is operating at a power angle 𝛿 i.e.  E leads V by an angle 𝛿.

            Let power input of this alternator be increased suddenly so that it will now operate at
a new power angle given by 𝛿 + 𝛿'.So the synchronizing emf ESY will come into play and
sends a circulating current given by ISY = ESY/Zs. This current produces synchronizing
power. Now we will derive the expression for synchronizing power per phase.

Before increasing the input of alternator, the power input Pi1 is given by,

            
        When power angle 𝛿 has changed to 𝛿±𝛿′ (+ sign indicates acceleration and - sign
indicates deceleration) the power input Pi2 is given by

          The difference between these two powers is nothing but synchronizing power PSY.

                                           PSY = Pi2 - Pi1

If 𝛿′ is small then 𝛿′/2 is very very small. Therefore sin²(𝛿′/2) can be neglected as it is tending
towards zero.

For large synchronous machines θ = 90° and Zs = Xs as Ra is neglected 

For synchronous generator which is synchronized with bus bar V = E, 𝛿 = 0 and 𝛿′ is very

very small.

Sin 𝛿′ = 𝛿′    and  Cos 𝛿 = 1

The above expression is per phase power. Therefore for the machine having 'm' phases
the synchronizing power is given by,

Expression for Synchronizing Power in Salient pole machine:

          The same expression is not valid for salient pole machine. The expression for salient
pole machine can be obtained as follows:

From figure(a), it can be observed that

From figure(b), it can be observed that

Thus the total power consists of a fundamental component and a second harmonic component
which is present because the armature reaction flux has a tendency to pass through the field
structure along its minimum reluctance path i.e. along field pole axis and direct axis.

 Since  2𝛿 exists because of difference in reluctance along p and q axes and is called
reluctance power and the term is called reluctance torque. The first term is identical with that
obtained for the cylindrical machine and component of power is known as electromagnetic
power. 

 Now dP/d𝛿 gives the Synchronizing power.

Q. 4) Bring out the characteristics of two alternators working in parallel. What is the
effect of change in excitation and change in mechanical power input on load sharing?
Ans:
The transfer of active power between alternators in parallel is accomplished by adjustment of
the noload speed setting of the respective prime-mover governors, and the transfer of reactive
power is accomplished by adjustment of the respective field rheostats or voltage regulators .A
typical primemover governor characteristic, shown in Fig: 2.11, is a plot of prime-mover
speed (or generator frequency vs. active power. Although usually drawn as a straight line, the
actual characteristic has a slight curve. The drooping characteristic shown in the figure
provides inherent stability of operation when paralleled with other machines. Machines with
zero droop, called isochronous machines, are inherently unstable when operated in parallel;
they are subject to unexpected load swings, unless electrically controlled with solid-state
regulators.
The no-load speed setting (and hence the no-load frequency setting) of a synchronous
generator can be changed by remote control from the generator panel by using a remote-
control switch. The switchactuates a servomotor that repositions the no-load speed setting of
the governor, raising or lowering the characteristic without changing its slope. Curves for
different no-load speed settings are shown with broken lines in Figure 2.11.Governor Speed
Regulation

Governor speed regulation (GSR) is defined as:

Where, nrated = rated speed (r/min)

nnl = no-load speed (r/min)
frated = rated frequency (Hz) & fnl = no-load frequency (Hz)
Governor Droop
Governor droop (GD) or droop rate is defined as the ratio of the change in frequency to the
corresponding change in active power:

Where,
frated = rated frequency (Hz) & fnl = no-load frequency (Hz)
Prated = rated active power (kW)

Effect change in excitation:

A change in the excitation of an alternator running in parallel with other affects only its KVA
output; it does not affect the KW output. A change in the excitation, thus, affects only the
power factor of its output. Let two similar alternators of the same rating be operating in
parallel, receiving equal power inputs from their prime movers. Neglecting losses, their kW
outputs are therefore equal. If their excitations are the same, they induce the same emf, and
since they are in parallel their terminal voltages are also the same. When delivering a total
load of I amperes at a power-factor of cos φ, each alternator delivers half the total current and
I1 = I2 = I/2.

Since their induced emfs are the same, there is no resultant emf acting around the local circuit
formed by their two armature windings, so that the synchronizing current, Is, is zero. Since
the armature resistance is neglected, the vector difference between E1 = E2 and V is equal to,
I1Xs1 = I2Xs2 , this vector leading the current I by 900, where XS1 and XS2 are the
synchronous reactances of the two alternators respectively.
Now consider the effect of reducing the excitation of the second alternator. E2 is therefore
reduced as shown in Figure. This reduces the terminal voltage slightly, so let the excitation of
the first alternator be increased so as to bring the terminal voltage back to its original value.
Since the two alternator inputs are unchanged and losses are neglected, the two kW outputs
are the same as before. The current I2 is changed due to the change in E2, but the active
components of both I1 and I2 remain unaltered. It can be observed that there is a small
change in the load angles of the two alternators, this angle being slightly increased in the case
of the weakly excited alternator and slightly decreased in the case of the strongly excited
alternator. It can also be observed that I1 + I2 = I, the total load current.

Mechanical power input on load sharing:

For any alternator its driving torque can be changed by controlling the gate opening in case of
hydrogenerators or by controlling the throttle opening in case of turbogenerators. Again we
will consider two cases that are alternator with and without load respectively.

Alternator on No Load

       Suppose that two alternators are running in parallel without any load in them. The
excitations for two alternators are adjusted in such a way that the induced e.m.f.s. are equal in
magnitude. The resultant voltage in the local circuit will be zero. With respect to external
circuit the two e.m.f.s are in phase whereas in local circuit they are in opposition.

       Now the driving torque of alternator 1 is increased. This increment in torque will try to
accelerate the alternator 1 and its induced e.m.f. E 1 will lead e.m.f. E2. This will give rise to
resultant voltage Er. This voltage Ē = Ē1 - Ē2 circulates current ISY in local circuit which is
given by

       This current lags behind Er by angle of approximately 90o if the resistance of the
armatures of the two alternators are neglected. This is represented in following phasor
diagram shown in Fig. 1.
 Fig. 1

       This circulating current ISY is almost in phase with E1 and in phase opposition with E2.
Now here the synchronizing power will come into play. The alternator 1 produces a power
E1 ISY cosΦ1  which is positive as Φ1 < 90o while alternator 2 generates a power
E2 ISY cosΦ2 which is negative as Φ2 > 90o. Alternately we can say that alternator 1 experience
a generating action which will try to retard it and alternator 2 receives the power produced by
alternator 1. Hence it will experience a motoring action which will tend to accelerate it. Thus
there will be automatic synchronizing action will retard the faster machine and accelerate the
slower machine and synchronism is maintained.

       It can be seen that the autosynchronizing action is on account of Z 1 and Z2considered
mainly reactive. If Z1 and Z2 are purely resistive then ISY will be in phase of Er. Then power
for both the machines is positive and both will experience generating action. So there would
not be synchronizing power will tend to accelerate the slower machine.

. Alternator on Load

       Again we will consider two alternators which are loaded and running in parallel. The
sharing of load between these alternators is governed by speed-load characteristics of their
prime mover. In the Fig. 2 the two alternators are shown driven by prime movers 1 and 2.

Fig. 2

       In Fig. 3 the lines 1 and 2 represent the speed load characteristics of prime movers 1 and
2. For clarity and simplicity the slopes are exaggerated.
 Fig. 3

       Horizontal line ab represents total load of 2P with load on each alternator as P. The
frequency of bus bar is f.

       Now if by governer setting, the torque of prime mover 1 is increased, its speed will be
increased which will shift its speed-load curve upwards. This is shown by dotted line 1'. Then
original operating points a and b are now shifted to c and d. This will give new operating
conditions which will increase load on alternator 1 from P to P 1 and decrease load on
alternator 2 from P to  P2 with P1 + P2 = 2P. From the Fig.3 it can be seen that frequency has
increased from f to f'. Now, if it is desired to maintain the frequency constant then the input
to prime mover 2 must be reduced which will shift its speed-load curve download shown by
dotted line 2' The operating points c and d now shift to new points x and y. The horizontal
line xy indicates that the load on alternator 1 is further increased from P 1 and P'1 and that on
alternator 2 is reduced from P2 to P'2 such that the relation P'1 + P'2 = 2P is maintained. Thus
the load sharing between the alternators and the frequency can be controlled by changing the
mechanical torque input to the alternators. By controlling the gate opening of water turbines
or the throttle opening of steam turbines, the speed-load characteristics of prime movers can
be shifted up and down.

5) Derive an Expression for current shared by two alternators in parallel by following

methods ;
Ans:
1) Impedance method and

Consider two alternators with identical speed load characteristics connected in parallel as
shown in Fig:
Let E1, E2 be the induced emf per phase,
Z1, Z2 be the impedances per phase,
I1, I2 be the current supplied by each machine per phase
 Z be the load impedance per phase,
V be the terminal voltage per phase
 From the circuit we have V = E1 - I1Z1 = E2 - I2Z2 and hence, I1 = E1 - V/Z1 and I2 = E2 -
V/Z2
 and also V = (I1 + I2 ) Z = IZ solving above equations
 
I1 = [(E1- E2) Z + E1 Z2]/ [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]
 
I2 = [(E2- E1) Z + E2 Z1]/ [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]
 
The total current I = I1 + I2 = [E1Z2 + E2Z1] / [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]
 
And the circulating current or synchronizing current Is = (E1 - E2) / (Z1 + Z2)

2) Admittance method
A circuit which consist of two branches say A and B are considered as shown in figure
below. ‘A’ comprises of an inductive reactance, XL and a resistance, R1 and ‘B’ comprises of
a capacitive reactance, XC and a resistance, R2. The voltage, V is applied to the circuit.

For Branch A

For Branch B
So, if the admittance of a circuit is known, then the total current and power factor can be
obtained easily.

Q.6. How the operation of an alternator on infinite bus differs from that when two
alternators operate in parallel? Discuss the effect of change in excitation and change in
mechanical power input on the operation of an alternator on infinite bus?
Ans:

EFFECT OF CHANGING EXCITATION

For simplicity, let us consider two identical alternators sharing equally a load whose power
factor is cos ɸ. If both machines have exactly the same excitation it will be found that their
currents I1 and I2 are equal in magnitude (say I each) and in phase, since the conditions are
identical for both machines. The phasor diagram for the total load, for one phase is given in
Fig. 13.4 (a).
Now, if the excitation of one of the alternators is increased, it will cause flow of
synchronising current Isy almost in quadrature with supply voltage V. Therefore, the load
current of alternator 1, whose excitation has been increased, will be I1, the phasor sum of
Isy and I and that of alternator 2 will be I2, the phasor difference of Isy and I.

Hence power factor cos ɸ, of alternator 1 decreases and that of the other improves. Because
synchronising current Isy is in quadrature with V, therefore, it does not change wattful (active)
components but changes wattless (reactive) components. Hence by changing the excitation,
the power factors of the alternators are changed.

If the excitation of an alternator operating in parallel with other alternators is increased above
its normal value of excitation, its power factor changes in the lagging direction and its current
output increases with no appreciable change in its kW load. Likewise, if the generator is
under excited its power factor becomes more leading and its current output increases with no
change in kW output.

This increase in current in either case is not supplied to the load but circulates between the
alternators connected to the system, thereby increasing their losses and reducing their useful
capacity. It is desirable in most cases, therefore, to operate each alternator at the same power
factor (at or near the power factor of the load) keeping the circulating current to the
minimum.

In general, the proper amount of field excitation for alternators operating in parallel is the
amount of excitation each alternator would need if it were carrying its load alone at the same
voltage and frequency.

EFFECT OF CHANGING MECHANICAL INPUT

When the driving torque of one of the alternators is increased (e.g., by increasing the steam
supply in case of steam turbine driven alternator), it immediately starts to accelerate. The
rotor of the alternator 1 (whose driving torque has been increased) takes lead in relation of
rotor of alternator no. 2, and  the condition when the rotor of alternator 1 has taken a lead of δ
degrees (electrical).
This causes a phase difference between E1 and E2, the magnitude of induced emfs remaining
the same, resulting in flow of synchronising current Isy. Thus the power delivered by the
alternator, whose driving torque has been increased, will increase by an amount equal to
E1 Isy cos ɸ1.

Hence by increasing the driving torque of one of the alternators, it is further loaded and other
is relieved of its load. If the output of the alternator, whose driving torque has been increased,
becomes more than the total load supplied, then the other alternator will run as a synchronous
motor.

The kW load division between alternators is made by adjusting the governor controls. One
prime-mover governor is opened while the other is closed simultaneously. Thus, the system
frequency is maintained constant while the load is shifted from one machine to the other.
Governor control switches are mounted on the switchboard so that the operator is able to
watch the switchboard instruments while making adjustments of load division.

Q.7 Explain two reaction theory of salient pole machines. Draw the phasor diagram as
per two reaction theory. How the regulation of an alternator is computed from this.
Ans:

Two Reaction Theory was proposed by Andre Blondel. The theory proposes to resolve the
given armature MMFs into two mutually perpendicular components, with one located along
the axis of the rotor of the salient pole. It is known as the direct axis or d axis component.
The other component is located perpendicular to the axis of the rotor salient pole. It is known
as the quadrature axis or q axis component.

The d axis component of the armature MMF Fa is denoted by Fd and the q axis component by
Fq. The component Fd is either magnetizing or demagnetizing. The component Fq results in a
cross-magnetizing effect. If Ψ is the angle between the armature current Ia and the excitation
voltage Ef and Fa is the amplitude of the armature MMF, then

Salient Pole Synchronous Machine Two Rection Theory

In the cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the air gap is uniform. The pole structure of the
rotor of a salient pole machine makes the air gap highly non-uniform. Consider a 2 pole,
salient pole rotor rotating in the anticlockwise direction within a 2 pole stator as shown in the
figure below.
 The axis along the axis of the rotor is called the direct or the d axis. The axis perpendicular to
d axis is known as the quadrature or q axis. The direct axis flux path involves two small air
gaps and is the path of the minimum reluctance. The path shown in the above figure by ϕq has
two large air gaps and is the path of the maximum reluctance.

The rotor flux BR is shown vertically upwards as shown in the figure below.

The rotor flux induces a voltage Ef in the stator. The stator armature current Ia will flow
through the synchronous motor when a lagging power factor load is connected it. This stator
armature current Ia lags behind the generated voltage Ef by an angle Ψ.

The armature current produces stator magnetomotive force Fs. This MMF lags behind Ia by
angle 90 degrees. The MMF FS produces stator magnetic field BS long the direction of Fs.
The stator MMF is resolved into two components, namely the direct axis component Fd and
the quadrature axis component Fq.

If,

 ϕd is the direct axis flux

 Φq is the quadrature axis flux
 Rd is the reluctance of the direct axis flux path
 Therefore

As, Rd < Rq, the direct axis component of MMF Fd produces more flux than the quadrature
axis component of the MMF. The fluxes of the direct and quadrature axis produce a voltage
in the windings of the stator by armature reaction.

Let,

 Ead be the direct axis component of the armature reaction voltage.

 Eaq be the quadrature axis component of the armature reaction voltage.

Since each armature reaction voltage is directly proportional to its stator current and lags
behind by 90 degrees angles. Therefore, armature reaction voltages can be written as shown
below.

Where,

 Xad is the armature reaction reactance in the direct axis per phase.
 Xaq is the armature reaction reactance in the quadrature axis per phase.

The value of Xad is always greater than Xaq. As the EMF induced by a given MMF acting on
the direct axis is smaller than for the quadrature axis due to its higher reluctance.

The total voltage induced in the stator is the sum of EMF induced by the field excitation. The
equations are written as follows:-
 The voltage E’ is equal to the sum of the terminal voltage V and the voltage drops in the
resistance and leakage reactance of the armature. The equation is written as

The armature current is divided into two components; one is the phase with the excitation
voltage Ef and the other is in phase quadrature to it.

If

 Iq is the axis component of Ia in phase with Ef.

 Id is the d axis Ia lagging Ef by 90 degrees.

Therefore,

Combining the equation (4) and (5) we get

Combining the equation (6) and (7) we get

Let,

The reactance Xd is called the direct axis synchronous reactance, and the reactance Xq is
called the quadrature axis synchronous reactance.

Combining the equations (9) (10) and (11), we get the equations shown below.
 The
equation (12) shown above is the final voltage equation for a salient pole synchronous
generator.

Q.8 Describe the procedure of slip test. How Xd and Xq are computed from this test.
Ans:

The method used to determine Xq and Xd, the direct and quadrature axis reactance is called
slip test.

Important caution for conducting slip test:-

1) Slip should be extremely low during experimentation. In case of high slip (more than about
5%) following effects may be observed:-

 Current induced in the damper winding of alternator will produce an appreciable

error.
 Induced voltage in the open circuit field may reach dangerous values.

2) It should be assured that the induced voltage in the open circuit is less than the rating of
the voltmeter connected in the circuit.

 In an alternator we apply excitation to the field winding and voltage gets induced
in the armature. But in the slip test, a three phase supply is applied to the armature,
having voltage must less than the rated voltage while the field winding circuit is
kept open. The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig.
 The alternator is run at a speed close to synchronous but little less than
synchronous value.
  The three phase currents drawn by the armature from a three phase supply produce
a rotating flux. Thus the armature m.m.f. wave is rotating at synchronous speed as
shown in the Fig. 2.
 Note that the armature is stationary, but the flux and hence m.m.f. wave produced
by three phase armature currents is rotating. This is similar to the rotating
magnetic field existing in an induction motor.
 The rotor is made to rotate at a speed little less than the synchronous speed. Thus
armature m.m.f. having synchronous speed, moves slowly past the filed poles at a
slip speed (ns -n)
 where n is actual speed of rotor. This causes an e.m.f. to be induced in the field
circuit.
 When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the d-axis of field poles then flux  Φd per
poles is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xd.
 When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the q-axis of field poles then flux  Φq per
pole is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq.
 As the air gap is nonuniform, the reatance offered also varies and hence current
drawn the armature also varies cyclically at twice the slip frequency.
 The r.m.s. current is minimum when machine reactance is  Xd and it is maximum
when machine reactance is  Xq. As the reactance offered varies due to nonuniform
air gap, the voltage drops also varies cyclically. Hence the impedance of the
alternator also varies cyclically.
 The terminal voltage also varies cyclically. The voltage at terminals is maximum
when current and various drops are minimum while voltage at terminals is
minimum when current and various drops are maximum.
 The waveforms of voltage induced in rotor, terminal voltage and current drawn by
armature are shown in the Fig.
 it can observed that rotor field is aligned with the armature m.m.f., its flux linkage
are maximum, but the rate of change of flux is zero. Hence voltage induced in field
goes through zero at this instant. This is the position where alternator offers
reactance Xd.
 While when rate of change of flux associated with rotor is maximum, voltage
induced in field goes through its maximum. This is the position where alternator
offers reactance Xq.

9. A 750 kVA , 11 kV, 4 pole , 3 phase star connected alternator has percentage
resistance and reactance 1 and 15 Ohm respectively. Calculate the synchronizing power
per mechanical degree of displacement at (a) no load (b) at full load 0.8 lag p.f the
terminal voltage in each case is 11kV.
Ans:

F.L. Current I =( 75 × 103/ 3) (11 × 103)= 40 A

Vph = 11,000/ 3 = 6,350 V, IRa = 1% of 6,350 = 63.5
40 Ra = 63.5 Ω, Ra = 1.6 Ω; 40 × XS = 15% of 6,350 = 952.5 V
XS = 23.8 Ω ZS = (1.62 + 2.382)1/2 = 23.8 Ω
(a) No-load
α (mech) = 1° : α (elect) = 1 × (4/2) = 2°
= 2 × π/180 = π /90 elect. Radian
PSY =α E2/ Z S = α E2/ X S = (π / 90) 63502 /23.8 = 59,140 W = 59.14 kW/phase
On no-load, V has been taken to be equal to E.

(b) F.L. 0.8 p.f.

The value of E (or E0) can be found from Fig.
E = [(V cos + IRa) 2 + (V sin + IXS)2] 1/2
= [(6350 × 0.8 + 63.5)2 + (6350 × 0.6 + 952.5)2]1/2 = 7010 V
PSY = α EV/ X S =[ (π / 90) 7010× 6350] / 23.8 = 65,290 W = 65.29 kW/phase

PSY =( EV/ X S ) COS α sin δ

E = 7010 V, V = 6350 V, δ = 1° × (4/2) = 2° (elect)
from Fig
sin (+α ) = AB/OB = (6350 × 0.6 + 952.5)/7010 = 0.6794
(+α ) = 42°30′; α = 42°30 - 36°50 = 5°40

PSY = (7010× 6350)/23.8 ×cos 5°40× sin 2°

= 7010 × 6350 × 0.9953 × 0.0349/23.8 = 64,970 W = 64.97 kW/phase

10. Two three phase 6.6 kW star connected alternators supply a load of 3000kWat 0.8
p.f
lagging. The synchronous impedance per phase of machine A is (0.5+j10) Ω and of
machine B is (0.4+j12) Ω. The excitation of machine A is adjusted so that it delivers
150 A at lag p.f and the governors are so set that load is shared equally between the
machines.
Solution.
It is given that each machine carries a load of 1500 kW. Also, V = 6600/ 3 = 3810 V.
Let V = 3810 ∠∠ 0° = (3810 + j 0).

For machine No. 1

(3)1/2 / 6600 × 150 × cos1 = 1500 × 103
Cos 1 = 0.874, 1 = 29°; sin 1 = 0.485
Total current I = 3000/ (3)1/2 × 6.6 ×0.8 = 328 A
or I = 828 (0.8 - j 0.6) = 262 - j 195

Now, I1 = 150 (0.874 - j 0.485) = 131 - j 72.6

I2 = (262 - j 195) - (131 - j 72.6)
= (131 - j 124.4) = 181 A.
cos 2 = 131/181 = 0.723 (lag).
EA = V + I1Z1 = 3810 + (131 - j 72.6) (0.5 + j10)
= 4600 + j1270
Line value of e.m.f. = (3)1/2 (46002 + 12702)1/2 = 8,260 V
Load angle α1 = (1270/4600) = 15.4°
EB = V + I2Z2 = 3810 + (131 - j124.4) (0.4 + j12)
= 5350 + j1520
Line value of e.m.f = (5350 + 1520)1/2 (3)1/2= 9600 V
Load angle α2 = tan-1 (1520/5350) = 15.9°