Chapter 5

CNC Controllers and Programming

Techniques

5.1 Introduction

The development of machine tool hardware since the introduction of numerical con-
trol in the late 1940s and early 1950s, has been progressively evolving and continues
to do so, as we saw in chapter 1. Even more dramatic than this development are the
rapid advances in software engineering and electronic integration during this time and
the speed of change has not abated. In fact with the advent of CNC in the 1970s,
controller sophistication has considerably increased. The advantages gained from
utilising CNC technology over conventional manual skills were argued in chapter 1.
The maturity of the latest controllers, in terms of their programming ability and
reliability, makes them even more necessary for fast "turn-around" of parts coupled
with improved productivity and flexibility in accommodating design modifications on
components with the minimum of disruption to production.
The research and development departments where such systems are designed are
continually looking for ways of simplifying controls and machine interfaces. System
specialists are attempting to widen the scope of CNC and move into areas where its
application would have previously been impracticable. The current machine controllers
offer greater ease in their use - often termed "user-friendliness", a much abused term
- with some versions allowing "conversational language program" (CAP) input in
plain English, as an alternative to the conventional "word address format", yet to
be discussed. As we shall see, with the more sophisticated and expensive CNCs,
fully integral programmable logic controllers (PLCs) having a 32-bit data processing
capability are increasingly being offered. The advent of Manufacturing Automation
Protocol (MAP) and other LocallWide Area Networks (LANIWAN) has allowed
previous stand-alone machine tools - often termed "islands of automation" - to be
successfully interfaced to other machines, or peripheral devices typically associated
with Flexible Manufacturing Cells or Systems. Such communication ability allows
the successful data transfer of information from one controller to another, without
corruption - often euphemistically termed "hand-shaking" - but more will be said
about data transfer and communication techniques in the final chapter. Most systems
are designed for "modularity" and "compatibility" - this latter term we have briefly
touched on above. "Modularity" of the hard/software, means that the system/

G. T. Smith, CNC Machining Technology

© Springer-Verlag London Limited 1993
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machine tool designers have greater design flexibility, whilst an expansion in size and
power of the integral PLC can accommodate both soft/hardware additions within the
confines of the controller.
Most of the current controllers allow the programmer a variety of means of
programming parts, such as:
"word address programming" - where a series of alpha-numeric characters, "G" and
"M" codes associated with numbers, are used to control and manage the numerical
distances between one feature and another
"parametric programming" - uses "free-variable" values which can be assigned to
linear distances for either motions or calculations of slideway moves to obtain a
component feature within the program. Such "parametric" techniques allow skeletal
programs to be developed for a range of parts and by changing assigned numerical
values, a feature can be changed at will, it can be used for a "Group Technology"
(GT) approach for families of parts. "Parametric programs" can be condensed
into fewer "blocks" of information for a desired part, when compared with "word
address" formats and as such require less memory space (see section 5.4.10)
"conversational programming" - or as it is sometimes termed "blueprint" /"shop
floor" programming - is achieved by answering a series of questions related to the
desired part feature, e.g. pitch circle of holes, which is then compiled into a format
acceptable to the CNC for tool motions. NB: A "graphics capability" is required to
build up the desired features of the part and for "tape prove-out" (see section 5.4.11)
"background" /"parallel programming" - allows an operator to program a different
part from one that is at present being machined - using a different area of the
memory of the CNC for its compilation. This considerably speeds up the lead-time
necessary for the production of a successive part
"off-line programming" - is usually undertaken on either a CAD/CAM workstation,
or using "computer-assisted part programming" (CAPP) equipment normally with a
"direct numerical control" (DNC) link to the controller through the RS232 interface,
or via punched paper tape and tape reader into the controller - rather an old-
fashioned method nowadays. NB: "Off-line programming" can be achieved away
from the machine tool. This overcomes the distractions associated with program-
ming in a production environment and as such, allows the programmer to develop
programs under ideal conditions whilst not affecting the demands of production
"digitising" - often termed "reverse engineering", whereby a model or component's
dimensional features are "captured" and used as a basis for the generation of a part
program. NB See Figs. 5.32 and 5.33, together with a description of the process,
in section 5.7.
In the following sections we will see how the use of programming aids can minimise
the length of programs. This may be an important criterion when one is faced with
either a small memory capacity in the CNC, or many parts already stored in the
memory, or a complex part geometry, which might otherwise take up considerable
space in this memory. These programming aids are usually available for most CNC
controllers, or may be offered as "options" from many universal/proprietary builders.
Such options are: "mirror-imaging", "scaling", "angular rotation", "datum shifting",
"canned-cycles", "subroutines" and "nested subroutines", which all reduce the
length of the part program considerably, with the secondary benefit of minimising
the expertise necessary in writing such programs. The structure of "word address
programs" will be enlarged upon later - arguably the most cornmon technique used in
developing CNC part programs for both turning and machining centres. For the sake