CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW
1.1. Coffee powder
1.1.1 Overview about coffee
Coffee is a most popular drink around the world. Coffee plants from the Rubiaceae
family consist of several species such as: Coffea arabica (Arabica coffee), Coffea
canephora (Robusta coffee), Coffea liberica, Coffea excelsa, and Coffea stenophylla.[1]
Coffee has many varieties, but not all coffees produce high yields. The two coffee species
of higher commercial importance are Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora. Arabica and
Robusta coffees account for 64% and 35% of total world coffee output, respectively.. [2]
Coffee is used in many areas of the food industry, but the most common use of coffee is
for the production of roasting coffee and instant coffee. When consumers consume coffee
products, they are mainly interested in their sensory quality and medicinal value. The
nutritional value is of little concern.
1.1.1.1. Classification of coffee
Almost, arabica and robusta are the two coffee species of the most importance in
agronomical and produced in over the world. Other varieties of coffee make up a little
portion. Both species are chemically unique, with varying amounts of minerals, volatile
compounds, chlorogenic acids, and caffeine.[2] Arabica coffee is commonly used to
produce  roasted coffee and is regarded more for its taste qualities. Robusta coffee is
frequently used to produce instant coffee or is mixed with Arabica coffee to produce
roasted coffee.
• Arabica: According to the International Coffee Organisation, more than 60% of
world coffee production comes from Arabica cultivators. This was the type of bean that
started off the whole coffee story in Ethiopia, and it still grows best in higher elevations. It
was the first coffee bean species to be employed in the production of coffee from roasted
coffee beans. In the wild, the Arabica plant can grow to a height of 9 to 12 meters, but
when produced commercially, it can reach a height of 5 meters. There are usually two
arabica beans in each berry and they are harvested once they achieve a deep red color.
Each 2.5 – 3 kg of seeds yields 1 kilogram of bean and the bean is gray-green, green, light
green, and so on. The caffeine content of the bean varies depending on the processing
procedure and ranges between 1 - 3%.
• Robusta: After Arabica beans, the Robusta coffee bean is the world's second most
popular coffee bean. It provides for almost 40% of global coffee production. It is
commonly farmed in Africa and Indonesia, although Vietnam is the greatest producer of
Robusta coffee. Robusta coffee is a popular ingredient in espresso and instant coffee.
When planted in the wild, the Robusta plant can grow up to 10 meters tall, but when grown
for commercial purpose, it is pruned to around 5 meters in height to make harvesting much
easier. Each 3 kg of seeds yields 1 kilogram of bean and the bean is gray-green, silver-
green, pale yellow, and have a slightly rounded oval shape. The caffeine content of the
bean varies depending on the processing procedure and ranges between 1.5 - 3%.
1.1.1.2. Structure and chemical composition
a) Structure
The coffee berry is divided into 2 main parts: the pericarp and the seed.
- The pericarp is the external 3 layers of the fruit, which are the exocarp (skin),
mesocarp (mucilage), and endocarp (parchment).
+ The exocarp, also known as the peel, skin or epicarp is the coffee fruit's outermost
layer. Depending on the variety, it can be red, dark red, or yellow.
+ The mesocarp, also known as mucilage, is the flesh of the coffee berry. While the
term "pulp" might sometimes refer to only the mesocarp, it usually refers to a mixture of
the exocarp and a portion of the mesocarp that is removed during the pulping process.
+ The endocarp, also known as parchment, is the innermost layer of the pericarp and
is the hull that covers the coffee bean. It is primarily composed of cellulose. It is made up
of 3 to 7 layers of sclerenchyma cells.
- The coffee seed or bean is made up of three parts: a silver skin, an endosperm, and
an embryo.
+ The silver skin, also known as the perisperm or spermoderm, is the seed's
outermost covering. It is thin, and varies in color depending on the strains.
+ The endosperm is the seed's principal reserve tissue and is made up of only one
tissue, albeit the cells on the exterior and inside of the endosperm differ in oil content and
cell wall density.
 Figure Error! No text of specified style in document..1. Coffee Fruit & Seed Anatomy
b) Chemical composition
In green coffee beans there are many different chemical components. Green coffee's
chemical composition is determined by the species and variety in question, as well as, to a
lesser extent, by other factors like as cultivation methods, degree of maturity, and storage
conditions. [3] This is a summary table generated in 1975 by Clifford or Vitzthum based
on available data to offer reasonable information. It has been modified since then, although
not significantly..
Table 1. A summary of compositional data (%db) for Arabica coffee beans and
Robusta coffee beans

Content
Component
Arabica coffee Robusta coffee
Minerals 3.0 – 4.2 4.0 – 4.5
Caffeine 0.9 – 1.2 1.6 – 2.4
Trigoneline 1.0 – 1.2 0.6 – 0.75
Lipids 12.0 – 18.0 9.0 – 13.0
Total chlorogenic acids 5.5 – 8.0 7.0 – 10.0
Aliphatic acids 1.5 – 2.0 1.5 – 2.0
Oligosaccharides 6.0 – 8.0 5.0 – 7.0
Total polysaccharides 50.0 – 55.0 37.0 – 47.0
Amino acids 2.0 2.0
Proteins 11.0 – 13.0 11.0 – 13.0
In addition to the components listed above, green coffee contains organic acid,
nicotinic acid, pectin, lignin, and others.
1.1.2. Sensory and physicochemical criteria of coffee
a) Requirements for coffee beans
 Green coffee beans are generally used in medicinal and dietary preparations,
while roasted coffee beans are mainly used in beverage preparations (Uman et al.
2016). However, numerous factors contribute to the fragrance, taste, and overall quality of
the coffee (Angeloni et al. 2019). Quality is critical in the current coffee industry to satisfy
the demands of the coffee consumer market (Barbin et al. 2014). The following factors are
commonly used to assess the quality of green coffee:
+ Moisture content is typically less than 13%(w/w).
+ Particle size: determined using an ISO standard set of sieve sizes.
+ Density, mass and number of defects on coffee beans.
+ The sensory qualities of coffee beans, as well as a variety of other criteria.
Currently, green coffee production firms in Vietnam rely on the TCVN 4193: 2014
standard to assess quality. This set of standards contains nearly the same content as the
standards of  International Coffee Organization (ICO).
b) Requirements for sensory of ground coffee
Sensory requirements for ground coffee are shown in Table 2 according to TCVN
5251:2015
Table 2. Requirements for sensory of ground coffee

Name of criteria Requirements

Color The product's typical brown color
Smell The product's distinctive aroma, no strange smell
Taste The specific characteristics of product
Status Powder, smooth, and free of lumps
Brewed coffee There is a specific color of the product
c) Requirements for physicochemical of ground coffee
Physicochemical requirements for ground coffee are shown in Table 3 according to
TCVN 5251:2015
Table 3. Physicochemical requirements for ground coffee

Name of criteria Level

Fineness expressed as a percentage of mass:
– pass through a sieve with a hole size of 0.56 mm or greater 30
– retained on a sieve with a hole size of 0.25 mm, but no more than 15
Moisture expressed as a percentage of mass, but no more than 5,0
Caffeine content expressed as a percentage of mass, but no less than 1,0
 Water-soluble matter expressed as a percentage of dry matter, but no less than 25
Ash content insoluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl) expressed as a percentage of
0,2
mass, but no more than
1.1.3. Coffee roasting production process
Coffee beans, also known as green coffee, are used as raw materials in the
production of roasted and ground coffee. The dry method and the wet method are the two
main methods for preliminary processing. However, preliminary processing by the wet
method will help the coffee product to be of higher quality than the dry method. The
graphic below depicts a typical coffee roasting operation's process flow.

Figure 2. Typical coffee roasting operation

Raw material: To ensure the consistency of the coffee during the roasting process,
coffee beans whose size and density are not assured must be removed. The moisture
content of the input material is less than 13%.
a) Cleaning: The coffee farmer who wants to produce high-quality coffee should
never forget this, even if it means eliminating all impurities (sticks, dirt, stones, leaves,
etc.) during the field pre-cleaning process. The coffee must must go through a cleaning
procedure to separate fine particles adhered to the surface of the coffee bean and to
separate the coffee beans from undesirable materials based on density difference.
b) Roasting: This is the most essential and crucial stage in determining the quality of
the final coffee since it modifies the physicochemical qualities of the coffee beans, making
the subsequent grinding process simpler. This procedure begins at a temperature of 120 °C
and ends between 180 and 200 °C. A variety of actions occur in accordance with the
roasting process throughout this very basic procedure. Roasting is a time-temperature-
dependent procedure that induces chemical changes in green coffee beans while
simultaneously causing significant physical changes in the coffee's structure. (Clarke,
2011)

Figure 3. The growth of a coffee bean throughout the roasting process.

The roasting process defined for a certain degree of roasting (light, medium, or dark)
(Fig. 3) should include various steps that are directly related to Agtron color standards
(Melo, 2004), as indicated in Table 4:
 Table 4. Overview of Agtron roasting stages relating to temperature and color
(Source: Adapted from Bald mountain coffee company, Melo, 2004)
Phase Grain properties Agtron number Temperature (oC) Grain appearance
Raw grain with Ambient
Crude 99-81 Green
12% mass/water temperature
Yellow coloring, grass
Yellow Moisture loss 30-100
aroma.
Delicate brown with a
Volatile vapors
Cinnamo light texture and a tea-
cause grain to 80-75 90-130
n like flavor. There is no
expand.
oil on the grain's surface.
The beans are
still expanding.
This is the point Dark brown. Big in size.
American at which the first 74-65 170-190 Evident acidity, grain
crack appears. surface without oil.
Acidity is more
than sugar.
Cracks in the grain due to
City 64-60 210-220
the release of gases.
Chips of grain begin to
Grain is nearly at
come loose. Oil is
its maximal
slightly visible. Acidity is
Full city expansion. The 60-50 224-230
balanced, the color is
frst crack stage
richer, and the grain
ends.
surface is normally dry.
Maximum grain
expansion. Sugar Darker brown, grain has
Vienna acid balance. 49-45 230-235 oil on it. Slight bitterness.
The second crack Low acidity, dense body.
stage starts.
More gases are
Black with oil stains,
discharged, the
Espresso 44-35 235-246 shiny surface. Bitterness
second crack
is the dominant flavor.
stage ends.
Black, shiny surface.
Decreases
Italian 24-15 246-265 Burnt favor
aromas.
predominates.
c) Grinding
d) Packaging
1.2. Tangerine peel
1.2.1. Introduction to tangerine peel
1.2.2.1. Classify
1.2.2.2. Structure and chemical composition
Clarke, R. J. (2011). Roasting and grinding. Coffee, 73–107.
Melo, W.  L. B. (2004). A Importância da Informação Sobre do Grau de Torra do Café e
sua Infuência nas Características Organolépticas da Bebida. Embrapa Instrumentação
Agropecuária. Comunicado Técnico, 4.