Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Petroleum Research
journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/
petroleum-research/

A systematic review on nanotechnology in enhanced oil recovery

Himanshu Panchal a, Hitarth Patel a, Jash Patel a, Manan Shah b, *
a
School of Petroleum Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, 382426, Gujarat, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, 382426, Gujarat, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Primary objective of the paper is to represent the functionality of nanotechnology in Enhanced Oil Re-
Received 4 October 2020 covery (EOR). Nanoparticles can resist high temperature and pressure in subsurface oil reservoir system
Received in revised form and exhibit different properties compared to same fine or bulk molecules. Due to small in size, it in-
25 March 2021
creases surface area and it creates massive diffusion driving force at higher pressure and temperature. In
Accepted 29 March 2021
Available online xxx
small surface area, it contains much higher concentration of atoms. Nanoparticles are used to modify
optical, specific, thermal, interfacial properties of tight oil reservoir with 5e50 mm size pore diameter
which consists trapped oil in place. Study reveals that by controlling nano mineral complexes can in-
Keywords:
Nanotechnology
crease recovery of oil in oil field due to capillary hysteresis value change and specific behavior of clay
Enhanced oil recovery mineral. Nanoparticles boost the oil recovery by mechanism of reduction in mobility ratio which reduces
Interfacial tension viscosity of heavy oil and interfacial tension and increase in fault lines permeability. Nanoparticles like
Wettability silane treated silicon oxides, aluminium oxides in brine can be used. They have tendency of displacement
Flooding of water and magnifies flow of oil in well. Some nanoparticles performance depends upon its operational
Viscosity condition for EOR process. In modern oil and gas domain by using EOR technique have oil recovery factor
magnitude of 0.3e0.5; but by using nanotechnology there will be growth in oil & gas recovery efficiently
and guarantying oil recovery factor range up to 0.5 to 0.6. It is not possible to know all application of
nanotechnologies; but some experimental results and advanced technologies deduce that there is
reduction in cost of hydrocarbon production for its market use by application of nanotechnology in EOR.
Further advancement in nanotechnologies can increase more recovery of oil & gas.
© 2021 Chinese Petroleum Society. Publishing services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communication Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Today’s world is observing a declination phase of oil rate pro-

Nanotechnology is science which range to very small di-
mensions (1e100 nm) which greatly changed view point of scien-
tifically aspects and help us to solve many unsolved problems by
old techniques (Pandya et al., 2019). Surface to volume ratio of
Nanoparticles are very high which help to provide driving force for
diffusion at elevated temperatures (Darshana et al., 2020). Micro-
scopic phase transformation in nanocolloids can cause changes in
macroscopic properties of hydrocarbon media like viscosity, den-
sity and pour point (Igor et al., 2006). Nano based fluid is also used
to reduce drag and torque problems (Amanullah and Al-Tahini,
2009). Petroleum engineers working on small scale structure of
fluid saturation to increase oil recovery in early stages are very
beneficial to these enhanced properties of fluid (Patel et al., 2018).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: manan.shah@spt.pdpu.ac.in (M. Shah).
duction in oil producing regions (Hite et al., 2005). Petroleum in-
dustry faces many difficulties for producing oil and gas and
conventional techniques may not fulfill the increasing demand of
oil and gas. Fulfilling this increasing demand of oil and gas will be a
major challenge in the forthcoming decades (Saggaf, 2008). Many
older fields are facing abandonment, about 50% or more hydro-
carbon in place are unrecovered. Thus, it creates challenges for
recovering hydrocarbon efficiently and economically (Shingala
et al., 2020). Enhanced oil recovery using chemical methods has
been possibility for many years, but due to problem of low prices of
oil and gas around 1980’s and 1990’s made this technology very
much expensive (Thakar et al., 2018).
Water flooding is the most used technique for secondary re-
covery of oil all over world (Thomas, 2005). This method includes
force down injection wells to maintain the pressure of reservoir
above bubble point and sweeping oil towards the production well.
Though areas are missed due to poor displacement and sweep

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptlrs.2021.03.003
2096-2495/© 2021 Chinese Petroleum Society. Publishing services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communication Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al., A systematic review on nanotechnology in enhanced oil recovery, Petroleum
Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptlrs.2021.03.003
H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al.
efficiency. Main categories of EOR are chemical, thermal, miscible
and immiscible gas (Lake et al., 1992) (Fig. 1).
Mainly EOR techniques are developed to increase recovery of oil
more than phase of secondary recovered oil. EOR using chemical
methods include use of surfactants, polymers and alkali (Fig. 1).
Even by very low amount of surfactant use may decreased surface
tension of oil-water interface which efficiently increase displace-
ment efficiency of oil at microscopic level and helps to push oil out
of pores. Sweeping efficiency can be increased by using polymer
additives which increases the viscosity of water at macroscopic
level. Likewise discussed above solid/liquid phase also is important.
Formation of thick interstitial water films and surfactants and
polymer adsorption change wettability of surface of rock (Morrow,
1990). Thus basically chemical EOR techniques include increases of
capillary number and mobility ratio (Thakkar et al., 2019; Patel
et al., 2020).
Nanotechnology have predominant role in various industry
especially in petroleum industry, it provide emerging aspect. It can
solve major problem in oil industry. One of the major problems is
production of heavy oil. For increase of oil and gas recovery effec-
tively, nanomaterials and nanoparticles in oil and gas stratums as
well as management of nanoscale processes is very important. EOR
is the process by which it invigorated reservoir property and
enhance the production of oil. Addition of nanoparticles and
nanomaterials properties of fluid like viscosity, density, specific
heat, thermal conductivity change critically (Zhang et al., 2001).
Nanoparticles have certain ability to alter some factors of the for-
mation and of oil properties for advantage in EOR. Like by using
nano sensors, nanofilterations and nano catalysts in situ fluid
properties like IFT reduction, fine fixation and wettability alteration
can be achieved.
Nanoparticles have characteristics like high surface area, sur-
faces which are active and special optical & chemical responses.
The material which have nano particles have large surface areas
which increases rapidly with decreases in diameter of particle. The
surface energy will increase as result of increase in proportion of
particles on the surface of the material as increase in area of
Fig. 1. Enhanced oil recovery techniques.
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material (Fig. 2). And this large surface to volume ratio also ad-
ministers driving force for diffusion at high temperature and
pressure. Micrometer scale including wettability, coalescence, mass
transfer effects, transient phenomena are the processes at the
nanometer which are related to the EOR. We argue that at this scale
& with the use of these phenomena for the EOR process under-
standing of oil phase distribution, oil drop mobilisation, oil bank
formation is required. EOR is dependent on process at the nano-
scale and extend to macro & micro scale.
2. Application of nanoparticles in EOR
In general, nanoparticles have certain properties to choose for
EOR process.
(a) It can be easily modified to enhance properties and increases
the oil recovery.
(b) They are environmentally free and economically cheap.
(c) They can move easily in porous media without plugging the
pore throats.
(d) They are capable of modifying oil/water interfacial tension.
(e) Metallic nanoparticles are separated easily by magnetic
separation.
(f) They create wedge film or structural disjoining pressure to
sweep the oil droplets from rock surface.
(g) It have low cost of installation.
(h) It have a high surface to volume ratio for enhanced thermal
properties.
From 1 to 100 nm size of nanoparticles open the way for elec-
trical, thermal, rheological, optical, interfacial properties which
useful to release the trapped oil from pore spaces which are order of
5e50 mm of oil formations. Nanoparticles in EOR can be approached
into three major approaches like nanocatalysts, nanoemulsions and
nanofluids (Elsayed, 2014).
Aquathermolysis process defined for nanocatalysts is nano-
sized metal particles used as catalysts for aquathermolysisa
H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al.
Fig. 2. High surface area relative to volume of nanoparticles (Abdelrahman Ibrahim El-Diasty et al., 2015).
process which occurs during injection of steam into heavy oil
reservoir. It reduces the viscosity of heavy oil and chemical reaction
between oil and steam. This reaction is called aquathermolysis.
Aquathermolysis reaction also breaks the bond between carbon
sulfur in asphaltene, thus it can upgrade heavy oil in-situ. Nano-
particles in porous media can easily transport which are micron in
size (Greff, 2011). reported Nickel nanoparticles increase the oil
recovery by 10% of steam stimulation process (Shokrlu et al., 2011).
Due to small in size, it increases the surface area 100 times than
microparticles. Thus larger surface area increases the reaction
reactivity compared to microparticles. This larger surface area in-
creases the contact area between two phases.
Nanoemulsions are pickering emulsions in which emulsions are
stabilized with nanoparticles instead of polymers are under high
temperature and pressure and salinity (Mandal, 2012). The large
viscosity of nanoparticles stabilized the emulsions help to manage
mobility ratio during flooding. It pushes highly viscous oil from
micron-size pores, rather than polymers which are large and high
retention in reservoir. But nanoparticles stabilize the emulsions and
can easily flow through the pores.
Most commonly used nanoparticles are spherical fumed silica
which is diameter in range of several tens of nanometers and
wettability is controlled by coating extent of silanol groups on their
surface (Mcelfresh et al., 2012a,b). The nanoparticles can be made
hydrophilic by coating 90% silanol group on silica and they form oil-
in-water (o/w) emulsions. And it can be hydrophobic by coating
10% silanol group on silica and they form water-in-oil (w/o)
emulsions. Furthermore, when coating of silanol group is 70%, they
become intermediate hydrophobicity thus stable emulsion type
generate based on oil polarity. If oil is nonpolar, thus it is (o/w)
emulsions and oil is polar, thus it is (w/o) emulsions (Fig. 3)
(Aveyard et al., 2003).
Ogolo et al. (2012) demonstrated importance of nanoparticles in
EOR in surface condition. Experiment conducted at two states. First
was displacing of injected oil with nanofluids. Second was sands
were soaked in nanofluids for 60 days before injection of oil is
displaced by low salinity brine. Main essence for this experiment is
which method has efficiency to displace the oil. Oxides of nano-
particles like Zn, Mg, Si, Ni, Zr are consumed in experiment in
different dispersing media like brine, distilled water, disseland
ethanol. Which type of fluid is used for nanoparticles dispersion in
sands because it plays a very important role to improve oil recovery.
Mg and Zn oxides nanoparticles in distilled water and in brine
create a permeability problem, this EOR recovery is very poor.
Aluminium oxides nanoparticles in diesel dispersing media can
increase 30% of oil recovery. Hydrophobic silicon oxides in ethanol
1.7% and aluminium oxides in brine 5.0% boost the oil recovery. By
reducing the interfacial tension between oil and water, solitary
ethanol can also uplift the oil recovery. Silane treated silicon oxide
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give the highest recovery in all the conducted experiments.
Hendraningrat and Torsaeter (2014) conducted two water based
nanoparticles (Al2O3 and TiO2), for EOR in the size range of
40e60 nm. Nanofluids were made by using 0.05 wt% metal nano-
particles in saline water. Porous media was taken as Berea sand-
stone core samples which have 15% porosity and 60 md
permeability. Providence was taken as stability for nanofluids. The
result showed that EOR increased 24% more than non metal oxides
and contact angle decreased from 54 to 21
(altered the wettability
to more water-wet).
Moghaddam et al. (2015) demonstrated eight different types of
nanoparticles for wettability alteration from oil to water wet in
carbonate rocks. The result showed that CaCO3 and SiO2 nano-
particles increased the oil recovery about 8e9% by injecting of this
nanofluid.
Nwidee et al. (2017) investigated the influence of nanoparticles
on fractured limestone. Zirconium (IV) oxides gave the better
wettability oil-wet to water-wet. ZrO2 demonstrated better effi-
ciency wettability changed from 152
to 44
and NiO changed
wettability to intermediate wet condition 86
by adding 0.05 wt%
nanoparticles concentration. And contact angle decreased with
increase of suitable nanoparticles concentration and time.
3. EOR processes
The processes which are well known are thermal, chemical and
microbial EOR processes respectively and also injection of gas is
included. By varying properties of fluids like viscosity, density,
wettability alteration and reduction in interfacial tension oil re-
covery can be enhanced. The various mechanisms of the chemical,
thermal and microbial processes are distributed into mass, Ther-
modynamics & surface energy changes and heat & mass transfer
are done inside micro-scale pore structure at molecular scale.
Therefore, the nanotechnology is the solution of most of challenges
which are summarized below.
3. 1Nano-scale movement in micro size porous medial
The transfer into porous media of injected components as the
pore throats could be obstructed causing the reduction of perme-
ability & cost of injection increase. The rock pore structure is most
of greater than 10 mm. Since the components which are in nano-
scale are in the size of 100e500 nm and easily flow into the rock
pore structure of size greater than 10 mm. Dust injection is the well
known form of nanoparticles which are injected into the oil satu-
rated formation for the fluid-fluid & fluid-solid interfaces to apply a
variety of changes from fluid properties to interfacial changes.
H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al.
Fig. 3. Contact angle of hydrophilic, intermediate and hydrophobic silica (Abdelrahman Ibrahim El-Diasty et al., 2015).
3.2. Very high specific surface area of nanoparticles
This is great property for enhancing mass transfer between the
changing fluid properties &phases very easily. The cost is lower and
distribution in porous media is homogeneously adsorbed on the
surfaces of rock to change the wettability & also for the thermal
conductivity of the fluids & the rock.
3.3. Tailored molecules
Based on the mechanisms of EOR with the help of nanotech-
nology, the idea of tailoring specific types of chemical molecules to
play a define role in porous media is derived which is a stimulating
idea.
3.4. Smart delivery of the EOR agent
As the injection cost increase, then it is of use of chemicals in
mega scale reservoirs. There are many other cases in which excess
amount of chemical solutions are used to situate the solution of
separate oil patches remained in the reservoir for EOR. Selective
plugging of the reservoir layers to prevent unwanted fluids to be
produced would enhance both performance of production facilities
& recovery efficiency. This hopeful technology is being used in drug
delivery in advance, and it is cost effective and more useful.
3.5. Nanofiltration in EOR process
Furthermore, with the use of the filtration technology in surface
facilities for effective separation of phase, it would be more useful if
it was done underground in the neighbourhood of well bore for in-
situ separation. For close-off unwanted phase flow into the well
bore, petroleum engineers were struggling for the past ten years &
by doing this, they want to improve surface facility conditions and
keep water & gas in the oil reservoir exploiting them as natural
energy sources.
3.6. Nano-sensors
Very complex types of fluids & rock structure explain the sci-
entists to provide reservoir engineers with sensors which are
installed in the wells observe flow regimes, composition of fluids &
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reservoir properties. Besides, in the reservoir, there are discrete
types of tools which are used for scanning, logging and testing the
rock, fluids as well as reservoir condition for purpose of find the
optimize production scenario for battery recovery efficiency &
highest production rate. When the well opening is done, then the
well bore sensors and monitoring tools which we used need extra
space because of their large size. Therefore, they can rarely monitor
for beyond the well location which is very small compared to
reservoir volume. Besides having the right size corresponding with
reservoir pore size distribution & geometry, these should have
suitable dispersibility, which may be induced by functionalization.
Moreover compared to bulk counterparts, nanoparticles experience
noticeable change in magnetic, optical and electrical properties
which are excellent for the development of nano sensors
(Krishnamoorti, 2006). By, the use of nano-sensors engineers will
achieve the chances as follows:
(a) Trace the trapped oil, oil’s saturation &location of oil with
respect to pore spaces and associated forces require it for
EOR.
(b) Observe the openings of rock in micro-scale to have digital
maps of the pore-throat network for modelling the fluids
which are producing or injecting.
(c) Determine the depth heterogeneities especially for vuggy &
fractured reservoirs.
(d) For making of accurate seismic view of 3D/4D of the forma-
tion, we should check the boundaries, fluid contacts, &
connectivity with the neighbouring reservoirs so that it will
enhance the understanding for any EOR activities.
(e) If any technique of the success of remediation have been
used during many EOR processes such as selecting plugging
& close-off of water; through nano-sensors nanotechnology
can be utilized to check if it has been successfully install or
not.
(f) Nano-sensors or highly effective EOR agents can assist in
locating the by passed oil, application of nano sized particle
for oil mobilization & other uses.
3.7. Nano-analysis
In the field of nanotechnology there are several analytical
H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al.
equipments are used to examine the surface changes such equip-
ments are Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), X-ray Photo Spectros-
copy (XRP), Zeta potential meter, Raman Spectroscopy & Scanning
tool such as Micro & Nano CT Scanners & Scanning Electron Mi-
croscopy (SEM) are very useful tool in determination of porous
media & many other investigations at nano scale.
4. Structural disjoining pressure
Using nanoparticles for oil displacement is not yet fully under-
stood. An underlying displacement mechanism by structural dis-
joining pressure has been reported for increase in size of
nanoparticle’s EOR (Wasan et al., 2014). Structural disjoining
pressure is defined as pressure happening due to the reciprocal
overlapping of two surface layers (Engeset, 2012). This mentioned
effect occurs due to sum effect of forces, having difference in nature.
According to Chengara et al. (2004), aqueous film spreading on a
surface having aim of displacing other fluid is very much impera-
tive in EOR and modification in surface operations. Nano fluids
wetting and spreading on a solid surface, is believed to be enhanced
by structural disjoining pressure (Wasan et al., 2011).
Wasan et al. (2011) operated experiments by use of suspension
of silica of 5, 10, 12.5 and 20 vol % concentrations and by size of
20 nm nanoparticles. Advanced optical technique was observed in
spreading of nanofluids against canola oil drop beneath a surface of
glass. Their results showed that size of nanoparticle, more volu-
metric concentration and very less equilibrium contact angle is
favorable of nanofluids system dynamic spreading. The structural
disjoining pressure act normally to solid and liquid interface and
thus results into nanoparticles consolidation in the wedge film
discovered between surface of solid and oil drop (Fig. 4).
Thus according to Moon (2010), the droplet of oil was separated
from surface of solid or from rock due to result of structural dis-
joining pressure by film of wedge which apply pressure on a
discontinuous phase. According to (Birkeland, 2013), the structure
disjoining pressure effect is a surface energy effect happens due to
the millions of nanoparticles consolidation at the interface. The
structure disjoining pressure components have been recognized as
van der Waals forces, or combining force that is electrostatics forces
and solvation forces and van der Waals forces (Wasan et al., 2014).
Fig. 4. Illustration of wedge film resulting in structural disjoining pressure (Wasan et al., 2011).
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The structural disjoining pressure is also affected by some factors
which are identified in literature including poly-dispersity (Chu
et al., 1996), diameter of particles (Chengara et al., 2004), volume
fraction and charge of particles (Wasan et al., 2014).
5. Challenges of nanoparticle augmented EOR
According to Ju et al. (2002), nanoparticle augmented EOR is one
of the major challenges which is decrease in permeability and
porosity due to retention of nanoparticle in porous medium. This
was indicated in the coreflood experiments (Hendraningrat et al.,
2012; Hendraningrat et al., 2013; Hendraningrat et al., 2013b; Li
et al., 2013a, b). For success of EOR procedure at field scale, For
success of EOR process at field scale it would be expected that
nanoparticles travel long distances with very less absorption in the
porous reservoir between producer well and injector well by means
process of convection, hydrodynamic forces and diffusion
(Birkeland 2013; Dahle 2014). According to Khilar and Fogler
(1998), due to combination of ranging forces from van der Waals,
repulsion, attractive, acid-base titration and electrical double layers
repulsive forces and hydrodynamics, early stage of flooding which
characterized by desorption and adsorption of nanoparticles on
pore wall happens.
This nanoparticles retention in porous medium is noticed at core
scale by an increase in differential pressure. Oil recovery increases
with increase in nanofluid concentration but when concentration is
higher than some critical value, it decreases (Hendraningrat and
Torsaeter, 2014). Nanofluid optimum concentration ranges from
0.01 to 0.05 wt % and rate of injection less than 0.5 cm3/min is
needed to avoid formation damage and permeability impairment
(Hendraningrat et al., 2013a).
6. Wettability alteration as oil displacement mechanisms
Mechanism for nanoparticle EOR is not completely understood
but alteration in wettability has been described in literature
favorable to residual recovery of oil. According to (Karimi et al.,
2012), nanoparticles property are fully controlled by their adsorp-
tion on surfaces of solid and surface energies which changes the
wettability and surface energy. Green and Willhite (1998) define
H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al.
wettability as tendency of fluid separation or adhere to surface in
presence of other fluid. Thus, rock wettability greatly affects fluid
saturation nature and general relative permeability of Crude Oil,
Brine and Rock system. According to Whillhite (1986), simply,
reservoir surface mineralogy and property of reservoir fluid have
very high effect on wettability. Generally water wet, oil wet, mixed
wet or intermediate wet are classifications of reservoir rock. When
a rock has a strong preference for water phase, it is considered as a
water wet rock, oil wet when a rock has high liking for oil phase, or
it is considered as intermediate wet when reservoir rock has not
any liking for water and oil phase, or oil and mixed wet when
surface of rock are heterogeneously water and oil wet. Reservoir
rocks initially are mostly considered as water wet rock, because
these rocks are mostly buried in water filled environment to
deposition of sediments which are overlying reservoir rock
(Warner, 2007). Phases having a higher liking for wetting can be
known by the contact angle. A system is water wet when q < 90
or
highly water wet when angle tends to 0
, and oil wet rock when
q > 90
or highly oil wet when angle tends to 180, or an interme-
diate wet solid when q is very close to 90
(Fig. 5).
7. Factors affecting nanofluid flooding recovery
7.1. Concentration of nanoparticles
Concentration of nanoparticles also affected on EOR. The con-
centration of nanoparticles increases double effect. The Brownian
motion increases and disjoining pressure increases with increases
in concentration of nanoparticles (Chengara, 2004). Hence the
porosity and absolute permeability of the porous medium also
reduce and it is affected by increases in concentration of nano-
particles (Maghzi et al., 2012). Oil displacement efficiency increases
by adding of nanoparticles concentration and it can occur due to
spreading of nanofluids on the surface and increasing the viscosity
of fluid. Nanoparticles concentration about beyond 3 wt% increases,
thus, ultimate oil recovery decrease noticeably due to blockage of
throats by dispersion silica nanoparticles (Maghzi et al., 2012). The
adsorption site on the pore wall is filled with silica nanoparticles
from increases in optimal concentration of nanoparticles. With
increases of the concentration, recovery factor of the oil will
decrease because permeability reduction is more effect than
wettability alteration. And also the rate of retention of nano-
particles in pore throat increases and pore diameter reduces. So
ultimate oil recovery is reduced by adsorption of nanoparticles on
Fig. 5. Wettability of oil/water/solid system (Warner, 2007).
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the pore wall and wettability alteration is also affected by this
(Murphy, 2012).
7.2. Size of nanoparticles
Size of nanoparticles and charge density also affect the dis-
joining pressure strength. If the particles are small and thus it have
higher charge density and higher electrostatic repulsion between
nanoparticles (Mcelfresh et al., 2012a,b). The size of nanoparticles
should be in the range, it should not be big to be trapped or it
cannot be small to cause log-jamming (Aurand et al., 2014).
7.3. Salinity
Typically salinity increases, thus nanoparticles becomes less
stable (Mcelfresh et al., 2012a,b). When Zeta (z) potential decreases,
salinity increases and it colloid in mass. This is because lack of
modification of nanoparticles maintains the disjoining pressure
functionality and stability in this environment. It can be achieved
by manipulation of surface charge density either by particles sur-
face modification or by surfactant for control of the ionic environ-
ment. By using both monovalent (Naþ) and divalent (Caþ2) cations
up to 10 wt% for increases in the salinity, it does not prevent the
nanoparticles for transport it (Kanj et al., 2009). However, it does
noticeably change for nanoparticles retention in the rock.
7.4. Temperature
Temperature of reservoirs is higher than that of conditions of
surface, so before applying reservoir conditions in field, injection of
nanofluid should be valid at higher temperature condition. When
we increase the temperature, then the zeta potential decrease and
the colloid agglomerate with increase of temperature stability of
nanoparticles decrease (Mcelfresh et al., 2012a,b). The temperature
rarely affects stopping reducing the reservoir slightly was found by
(Caldelas et al., 2011). By increasing the temperature, it will be
result into increase of displacement efficiency and increase of re-
covery due to injection of nanofluid. But the temperature related
mechanisms are complicated and not properly understood yet.
Another possibility is the intensity of Brownian movement increase
with the temperature and when the viscosity reduces and particle
size reduces.
7.5. Wettability of nanoparticles
The wettability of silica particle is identified by the choice of
surface coating. It can be made hydrophobic and hydrophilic. The
hydrophilic silica particles choose to stay in the water phase while
hydrophobic is attracted towards the oil surface. The wettability
determines that how the nanoparticles will be situated on the oil-
water interface. The wettability change happens due to absorption
of nanoparticles on the solid-rock interface. Making of static oil
flow is the purpose of wettability alteration. When the liquid
contains nanoparticles, then the wetting behavior of liquid is
changed. The wettability variation of pore walls in the reservoir
rock lead to the flow resistance’s change of oil & water, so that the
changes in relative permeability of oil & water (Binshan et al.,
2012). If the water wetting oil formation is stronger than for wa-
ter flooding reservoirs, there is higher oil recovery. This conclusion
is drawn from the fact that the oil can be displaced in thin pores by
high capillary & in the system in which water-wetting is strong. The
treatment can be used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The mostly
used nanoparticles for wettability alteration are nanosilica parti-
cles. The nanosilica is given in various types of wettability and
contact angles.
H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al.
7.6. The rock grain size
The rock grain size is expected to be a factor that may impact the
holding of nanoparticles. The area of the surface of the porous
medium is related to the grain size. If rock grains are larger than it
results in decrease in the surface area per unit bulk volume.
Porosity of larger grain size is greater than the smaller one. When
reduction in surface area per unit bulk volume decrease, then the
retention of the nanoparticles on the rock also decrease. Also
mechanism like naturally occurring fines entrainment and rede-
position can cause abnormal productivity decline (Gruesbeck and
Collins, 1982).
7.7. Clay content
Nanoparticles retention on the rock can be affected by the clay
content. As the clay occupies empty space between grains, there
will be great reduction in porosity as the clay amount increases.
Also with increasing content of the clay, retention of nanoparticles
increases on the reservoir rock. This happens due to greater surface
area per unit volume of bulk of clay particles, as it allow more sites
with more surface area at which particles can be retained and
attached (Caldelas, 2010).
7.8. Reservoir permeability effect
Some Berea cores of sandstone with permeability ranging from
7 to 223 mD have been conducted flooding of nanofluid about 7 nm
and 0.05 wt % to notice the effect of rock permeability on oil re-
covery increment (Luky et al., 2013). But results show that there is
no proportion relationship of oil recovery increment with
increasing permeability. Also the results show that even in low
permeability, the nanofluid can work. Thus, the nanofluid is effec-
tively applicable in a variety range of reservoir permeability.
7.9. Rate of injection
Nanoparticles flowing through porous medium have been
classified into two types of particles retention in pores: pore surface
deposition and pore throat blocking. Mechanical entrapment and
log-jamming (accumulation) are two main reasons for pore throat
blocking. It occurs because a single particle is greater in size than
size of pore throat. Bridging of pore throat takes place if two or
higher numbers of particles are trapped at pore throat. Blocking
and bridging plugging of throat is stochastic in nature and causes
some of throat for close of flow. As injection rate increases, smaller
molecules of water will accelerate faster than nanoparticles, so it
will assemblage and block pore throat, and thus recovery of oil is
reduced. So it is expected that as the injection rate increases, the
nanofluid injection effect on oil recovery will be reduced as the
nanoparticles will assemblage at pore throat. Thus further reduc-
tion happens in absolute permeability and thus recovery factor
decreases (Luky et al., 2013).
8. Future scopes
Production of crude by using nanoscience is a far better way
than past techniques (Abdelrahman and Adel, 2013). Future vision
is dramatically influence by innovation in new technology with
manufacture of atomic scale nano materials (Bueno O., 2004). From
the technical and economic aspects of EOR it provides better so-
lution to industry and investigation & research on nanotechnology
in EOR receives more attention & investment in petroleum industry
(Pourafshary et al., 2009). Developed technologies field trial has
been conducted yet. But it is very important to develop new types
7
Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
of specific materials and technical means, for verifying new nano-
technologies, so consolidation of workers efforts from various
economic branches will be required. Thus management of nano-
processes in oil-field system (gas-oil-water-rock) will help to in-
crease oil recovery factor by application of nanotechnologies. These
factors will fulfill demand of oil of hydrocarbon resources for many
years. It is possible to see the directions of oil &gas nanotechnol-
ogies development:
(1) Increase in oil recovery factor
(2) Lowering of well stream water cut.
(3) Regulation of rock wetting
(4) Low pressure gas utilization
(5) Stabilization of unstable collectors
(6) Power consumption decreases for oil recovery and injection
of water
(7) Methane extraction from coal beds
(8) Ecological compatibility of oil and gas industry functioning
9. Conclusions
Oil and gas industry faces many challenges for producing oil and
gas and conventional techniques may not fulfill the increasing de-
mand of oil and gas. Nanotechnology could be considered as
headway for the various obstructions which have already been
encountered in the EOR field and porous media fluid flow and thus
the nanotechnology can provide significant new market opportu-
nities and enables the industrial revolution. The salient features for
the EOR enhancement are the nanoparticles size and their distinct
characteristics like surface properties. Nanotechnology gives
development of new measurement method for reservoir condition
and tiny equipment placed underground including nanosensors
that can increases the possibility of finding trapped oil and gas in
the reservoir and can increase oil recovery factor significantly. The
micro model flooding experiments of brine, poly-ethylene oxide
and nanofluid showed that the highest recovery of 46% can be
achieved with Al2O3 nanoparticles at the lowest concentration of
0.01 wt% (Hogeweg et al., 2018). Using nanotechnology it is possible
to develop and manufacture multi-purpose coating materials
having specific properties like anti-pollution/antimicrobial, heating
insulation, scratch-resisting and anticorrosive would encourage the
more rigid-minded engineers and ensuring safety use of nano-
technology in upstream and EOR processes. Combine efforts of
physicians, chemists and petroleum engineers would further
elucidate this route. For augmented process, the nanotechnology
should be appropriate with the reservoir specification and condi-
tion and its size and concentration also specific with dispersing
medium for achieving the desired reservoir wetness. More simu-
lation studies and investigation are required preceding to any
nanotechnology field use for reducing the risk and selecting best
method.
Authors contribution
All the authors make a substantial contribution to this manu-
script. HP, HP, JP and MS participated in drafting the manuscript. HP,
HP, JP and MS wrote the main manuscript. All the authors discussed
the results and implication on the manuscript at all stages.
Availability of data and material
All relevant data and material are presented in the main paper.
H. Panchal, H. Patel, J. Patel et al.
Funding
Not Applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to School of Petroleum Technology and
Department of Chemical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum
University for the permission to publish this research.
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