RECORD VOLUME 127

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN

M. SADIQ MALKANI
ZAFAR MAHMOOD

ISSUED BY DR. IMRAN KHAN, DIRECTOR GENERAL, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PAKISTAN

2016
 Records Volume No. 127

REVISED STRATIGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN

BY

M. SADIQ MALKANI
ZAFAR MAHMOOD

Issued by Dr. Imran Khan, Director General, Geological Survey of Pakistan

2016
 CONTENTS

Executive Summary iii

Introduction 01

Materials and Methods 02

Results and Discussion 02

Stratigraphy of Balochistan basin (a part of Tethys), Pakistan 02

Stratigraphy of Karakoram-Hindukush basin (a southern extremity of Laurasian plate),

Pakistan 09

Stratigraphy of Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc (an arc of Tethys), Pakistan 17

Stratigraphy of northern Indus suture (suture between Indus Basin of Indo-Pak

continental plate) and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc-Tethys part) 20

Stratigraphy of western Indus suture (Indo-Pak plate sutured west by Balochistan basin
(part of Tethys) 20

Stratigraphy of Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (uppermost Indus) basin (Gondwana fragment),

Pakistan 21

Stratigraphy of Indo-Pak shield (a basement rock of Precambrian age) 31

Stratigraphy of Kohat-Potwar (upper Indus) basin (Gondwana fragment), Pakistan 32

Stratigraphy of Sulaiman (Middle Indus) basin (Gondwana fragment), Pakistan 37

Stratigraphy of Kirthar (lower Indus) basin (Gondwana fragment), Pakistan 43

Mesozoic greenhouse world of Pakistan: paleoenvironmental and

Sea level changes -land-ocean linkages 46

Geoheritage and paleobioheritage of Pakistan; museums, national and

Global geoparks-a media for public education 50

Closure of Tethys from Pakistan; geobiological evolution of Indo-Pak peninsula

(South Asia) 54

References 68

ii
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Pakistan has three main basins like Indus (part of Gondwana), Balochistan-Kohistan-Ladakh
(part of Tethys) and Hindukush-Karakoram (southern slope of Asia plunged into Tethys-a part of
Laurasia). Indus super basin is further subdivided into Uppermost/northern most/Khyber-Hazara-
Kashmir, upper/north/Kohat-Potwar, middle /central/Sulaiman and lower/south/Kirthar basins.
The Uppermost/northernmost/Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin shows marine to terrestrial
deposition during Precambrian evidenced by thick gypsum beds and coal (in high metamorphic zone
metamorphosed to graphite), greenish grey shale (now metamorphosed to phylite/slate/schist, etc of
Hazara Formation) and some sandstone (now metamorphosed as Tanawal quartzite), and during
Cambrian the thick marine Abbottabad limestone and dolomite with some sandstone and negligible
shale, and iron bearing Formation (showing disconformity) were deposited. In the Khyber and
Hazara areas (western and middle part of basin) the continental Hazira, the Jurassic marine
Samanasuk limestone, Cretaceous marine Chichali, Kawagarh and Paleocene Hangu (synonym
Patala), Eocene Sakaser (synonym Margala hill) and Chorgali formations were deposited under
marine conditions. The Early Eocene Kuldana formation shows alternations of marine and
continental environments. After that the area raised and shows no deposition up to Late Oligocene.
During Miocene-Pliocene Murree formation (synonym Kamlial and also Potwar group) was
deposited under the mollasse conditions, which are continuing so far. In the Azad Kashmir area
(eastern part of basin) the Ordovician to Latest Cretaceous continental Indus Formation (bauxite and
laterite in Kotli area-southern part of Kashmir while northern part close to Muzaffarabad partly
remained marine) and during Latest Cretaceous to Paleocene Hangu (synonym Patala; shale,
sandstone and coal), Eocene Nammal (shale and subordinate marl), Sakaser (synonym Margala hill
limestone) and Chorgali (green shale) formations were deposited under marine conditions. The Early
Eocene Kuldana Formation (red shale just above the Chorgali green shale and just below the Murree
sandstones) shows alternations of marine and continental environments. After that the area raised and
shows no deposition up to Late Oligocene. During Miocene-Pliocene Murree formation were
deposited under the mollasse conditions, which are continuing so far.
The upper/north/Kohat-Potwar basin shows intermittently marine and terrestrial strata up to
Eocene. During Oligocene the Tethys permanently closed from upper Indus basin. The upper Indus
basin remained elevated during Oligocene and there is no record of deposition. During Miocene-
Pliocene Potwar group deposited under continental environments. Further Pleistocene-Holocene also
remained under continental environments. The terrestrial environment is continuing so far.
The middle/central/Sulaiman basin shows mostly marine stratigraphy from Triassic to Latest
Cretaceous and then Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation which is the host of dinosaurs and
associated vertebrates deposited in terrestrial meandering river (Paleo Vitakri river-source from
east/Indo-Pak shield) and flood overbank deposits. Again in the start of Paleocene transgression
occurred which deposited the Paleocene marine strata. At the Early Eocene the Tethys regressed and
the Chamalang (Ghazij) Group deposited under the deltaic environment with the Paleo Indus river
systems (source from north-Tethys and Asian plate). Again on the Middle Eocene the transgression
of Tethys deposited the marine Kahan group. The Eocene strata are the host of walking whale and
basilosauridae-the king of basal whale. At the Latest Eocene the Tethys permanently closed from the
middle Indus basin and terrestrial environment started which deposited the Oligocene-Pliocene
Vihowa group which are the host of largest land mammals and other vertebrates and Pleistocene-
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar group.
The lower/south/Kirthar basin shows marine stratigraphy from Triassic to Oligocene and then
at the end of Oligocene the Tethys permanently closed and terrestrial or continental strata came into
existence, however the Jurassic-Cretaceous and Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary show at places
continental disconformity and at places marine.
iii
INTRODUCTION

The Hindukush-Karakoram basin is located in the northernmost part of Pakistan and

represents mostly pre Cenozoic rocks belongs to Laurasia (Asian continental plate deposited by
Tethys Sea with some terrestrial strata). The Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc is located just north of
Northern Indus Suture and south of Karakoram suture (Hindukush-Karakoram belt) and consists of
mostly Cretaceous rocks. The Balochistan basin is located in the west of Western Indus suture
(western part of Pakistan) and represents arc-trench gap mostly Cenozoic accretionary wedge
complex and island arc with some Cretaceous rocks belongs to Tethys. Kohistan-Ladakh area
consists of mostly Cretaceous magmatic arc geology but the Chagai arc also started with this but
continue so far. Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc is mostly deposited in Tethys Sea under the
compressional pressure of Indo-Pak plate collision with Asia. Indus Basin is located in the south of
Northern Indus suture and east of Western Indus suture (centre and eastern part of Pakistan). Khyber-
Hazara-Kashmir mostly includes Precambrian to recent stratigraphy with igneous and metamorphic
complex. The Kohat-Potwar includes Precambrian to recent sedimentary rocks with some Igneous
and metamorphic rocks of Kirana hills. The Sulaiman and Kirthar basins include Mesozoic and
Cenozoic stratigraphy with some Igneous and metamorphic rocks of Nagar Parker.

The stratigraphy of Pakistan as well as Balochistan is documented in 1977, 2002, 2008 and
also 2009. Recently the revised and updated stratigraphy of Sulaiman/middle Indus (Malkani
2009a,2010a,b,2011a,2012h), Kirthar/lower Indus (Malkani 2011,2012h) and Balochistan basin
(Malkani 2011a,2014f) have been documented along with some new findings of gypsum (Malkani
2000,2010a,2011a; Alizai et al. 2000), celestite (Malkani 2010a,2011a) coal (Malkani 2010a,2011a,
2012a), barite (Malkani and Tariq 2000,2004), fluorite (Malkani 2002,2004f,2011a,2012i), ochre,
iron, antimony-gold-silver (Malkani 2004c,e,2011a), mercury, marbles, limestone, cement raw
materials, construction and building materials, aggregate resources (Malkani 2002a,b,c, etc), etc
from Sulaiman, Kirthar and Balochistan basins. Geological Survey of Pakistan carried the
geological mapping and mineral investigations of Balochistan, Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. Many
reports on 15’ quadrangles were published but unfortunately most of the maps remained unpublished
(like Malkani et al. 1996,2007 Kingri,2007 Toi/Chitarwata, 2007a,b,c,2002,2010a,b,c,d, etc) so far.
Malkani-the first author of reports completed and submitted more than 30 geological maps but most
of these can not be seen as published. Due to this reason the Malkani tried to preserved data in the
form of published papers as national and international publications. Further no more compilation
reports on the stratigraphy and also on mineral potential of these areas were published (except the
present first author) including the new data, however the Kazmi and Abbass 2001 on minerals
included most of the data but some also remained to include and on the stratigraphy Kazmi and
Abbasi 2008 and Shah 2009 left blank most of the new works especially Makran and Sulaiman
basin, etc. These are reason here the revised stratigraphy is presented mostly on the observation of
senior author (Malkani) in the fields of various basins of Pakistan from during 1988 to 2015. The
stratigraphy of Hindukush-Karakoram basin of Laurasia and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc are
complex because most workers used local names. However the remaining areas are revised and
updated. Previously the Balochistan, Sulaiman and Kirthar basins show missing link and also
received little attention, but this report will add insights on basin wise with revised and updated
stratigraphy along with paleobiogeography.

1
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The materials belong to compiled data from previous work and also new field data collected
by first author during many field seasons about lithology, structure, stratigraphy, mineral
commodities, geological history, sea level changes, marine non-marine correlations, Tethys sea
closure, variations, and paleobiogeography (Fig.1,2,3,4,5,6,7). The methods applied here are many
discipline of purely geological description.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

STRATIGRAPHY OF BALOCHISTAN BASIN (A PART OF TETHYS), PAKISTAN

The Balochistan super basin is subdivided into many basin like Chagai-Raskoh magmatic arc,
Wazhdad magmatic arc, Mashkel (Inter arcs basin), Kakar Khurasan (back arc marginal flysch and
molasses basin) and Makran-Siahan (arc-trench gap) basin.

Chagai-Raskoh magmatic arc

The Chagai-Raskoh arc shows the Cretaceous to recent deposition.
Sinjrani Volcanic group was introduced by HSC (1961) after Sinjrani tribe of Chagai. It consists of
agglomerate, volcanic conglomerate, tuff and lava with subordinate shale, sandstone and limestone.
It includes Basaltic-andesitic lava flows and volcaniclastics, with minor shale, sandstone, siltstone,
lenticular bodies of limestone and mudstone. It is Middle to Late Cretaceous (Aptian to Santonian).
This group was invaded during Late Cretaceous to Pleistocene by Chagai intrusions, represented by
several phases including granite, adamellite, granodiorite, tonalite, diorite and gabbro. Its thickness is
900-1200m. The upper contact with Humai formation is generally conformable and lower contact is
not exposed.
Kuchaki volcanic group (equivalent of Sinjrani volcanic group) is named for the village of Kuchaki
(34 G/8) about 63 km southwest of Ahmad Wal (HSC, 1961). It consists of volcanic agglomerate,
lava, tuff, with subordinate inpersistent limestone, tuffaceous shale and sandstone near the top of the
assemblage. Its age is Late Cretaceous.
Bunap complex includes the obducted ophiolite mélange which includes gabbro, diorite and
serpentinite. The basic type contains pyroxene and amphibole. Its age is Late Cretaceous.
Chagai intrusions include quartz hornblende diorite, normal diorite and biotite granite.
Micropegmatitic quartz diorite is reported from Koh Naro. It is large batholiths that are invaded by
Sinjrani volcanic group. The age is Late Cretaceous and later (HSC, 1961).
Humai formation was introduced by HSC (1961) from Koh Humai (hill of Kohi Sultan) in the
eruptive zone for mixed lithology which included the ‘Hippuritic limestone” of Vredenburg (1901).
Conglomerate at the base, intercalations of shale, sandstone, siltstone and limestone in the middle
and thick bedded to massive limestone at the top. The formation overlies unconformably the Chagai
intrusion/Sinjrani volcanic group along the southern margin of the Chagai hills but in other areas has
also a disconformable contact through the presence of basal conglomerate. The age is Late
Cretaceous (Campanion-Maastrichtian) (HSC, 1961).
Rakhshani formation is derived from the tribal belt of Rakhshani at the eastern end of Dalbandin
valley (HSC, 1961). It also includes the Juzzak formation, lower half of Gidar Dhor group and basal

2
part of Pishi group of HSC (1961). It consists of intercalations of sandstone, shale, mudstone and
limestone representing a turbidite sequence, and andesitic lava flows and volcaniclastics. Its age is
Late Cretaceous to Paleocene.
Nisai (Kharan/Robat) limestone is named by (HSC, 1961) after Nisai village near Qila Saif Ullah.
It consists of medium to thick bedded foraminiferal and argillaceous limestone. Tanki sills consisting
of mainly pyroxene diorite are located in the Robat limestone. It is Early Eocene. Kharan
limestone/Robat limestone is considered as synonym with Nisai formation. See more description in
Nisai formation.
Saindak formation name is derived from Saindak Fort (a large syncline) which has been designated
as the type locality (HSC, 1961). Its synonyms are Washap formation at Gwalishtap near the
Pakistan-Iran boarder and the Amalaf formation. It consists of shale, siltstone, sandstone, marl and
limestone with andesitic lava flows and volcaniclastics in the lower part. It is Middle to Late Eocene.
Shorkoh intrusions are dykes or sills but a few small lenticular stocks have been found in the region
of Robat and Saindak. These are hypabyssal and intermediate composition. The rocks are mainly
diorite. The age is Late Eocene or later (HSC, 1961).
Pishi group/Dalbandin formation is named after the Pishi Rud lies in the Ras Koh Range south of
Dalbandin. These rocks are found in between Gaukoh Hamun (30P/15) and Bunap (34H/5). The
rocks of the group are thought to be also present in the Dalbandin synclinorium named as Dalbandin
assemblage (HSC, 1961). It consists of shale, mudstone, soft sandstone and conglomerate. The clay
is white, green, ochre and brown. A small amount of limestone in the lower part of assemblage
contains Paleocene fossils. The Pishi and Dalbandin group are similar to Urak and Multana
formations. The succession of sandstone and shale is similar to Nauroz formation but the limestone
resembles the Kharan Limestone. The sandstone of the Pishi area is more gritty and thick than
Dalbandin and Makran flysh indicating close to source and further does not show two fold
subdivision like Murgha Faqirzai and Shaigalu in the north (Kaker-Khurasan), and Hoshab and
Panjgur in the south (Makran). It is Early Miocene to middle Pliocene.
Buze Mashi Koh volcanic group consists of intercalations of andesitic-basaltic lava flows and
volcaniclastics. It is Middle Miocene.
Koh-i-Sultan volcanic group shows intercalations of dacitic-andesitic lava flows and
volcaniclastics. It is Late Pliocene to Pleistocene.
Kamerod formation is derived from Kamerod on the northern margin of the Siahan range
(31M/10). The lithology and description is same as Kech formation.
Subrecent and Recent deposits consist of unconsolidated gravel, sand, silt and clay.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHIC SETUP OF CHAGAI-RASKOH WAZHDAD MAGMATIC ARC,

PAKISTAN
Malkani (2014f) presented revised stratigraphy of Balochistan basin for researchers. The
Chagai-Raskoh-Wazhdad magmatic arc shows the Cretaceous Chagai intrusions which is invaded
by Sinjrani Volcanic Group (=Kuchaki), Cretaceous-Paleocene Nisai Group includes Akhtar Nika
and Jabrai formations (Synonyms; Humai and Rakhshani formations and Nisai Limestone
(Synonyms; Robat/Kharan/Wakai limestones); Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Shagala Group
includes Murgha Faqirzai and Mina formations (synonyms; Khojak/Saindak/Washap/Amalaf
formation), Late Eocene Shorkoh intrusions, Washuk Intrusions (granite exposed in the southern part
of western Washuk range), Wazhdad Volcaniclastics Group and Washuk ophiolite, Oligocene-

3
Pliocene Pishi Group (=Vihowa group), Middle Miocene Buze Mashi Koh volcanic group, Late
Pliocene to Pleistocene Koh-i-Sultan Volcanic Group and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar
(Kamerod/Boston/Kech) Group, Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits.

Wazhdad magmatic arc

The Wazhdad magmatic arc shows the Eocene Wakai limestone, Siahan shale, Wazhdad
Volcaniclastic group, Zurati Formation, Washuk ophiolitic mélange, Hoshab shale, Panjgur and
Kamerod formations. The detail is provided in the Makran and Siahan ranges.

Mashkel (Inter arcs basin) basin

The Mashkel (Inter arcs basin) basin mostly represents the Hamun-e-Mashkel. It represents
mostly eolian sand dunes covering the fluvial Pleistocene Kamerod formation (conglomerate,
sandstone and clays) and sub recent alluvium deposits. The older rocks may be like Siahan and
northern Makran range.

Kakar-Khurasan (Back Arc) Basin

Kakar-Khurasan basin shows the Eocene Nisai formation and Khojak group consisting of
Oligocene-Pliocene Murgha Faqirzai and Shagala formations and Pleistocene Bostan formation. The
northern part of this basin show flysch deposition like Murgha Faqirzai shale and molasses
deposition like Shagala sandstone, however the southern part like Pishi basin show both these
formations as flysch deposition.

Nisai Formation: Hunting Survey Corporation (1961) proposed the name Nisai group for the black
nummulitic limestone, conglomerate, etc but the Cheema et al. 1977 redefined as Nisai formation for
Nisai group, Nimargh limestone, Wad limestone, Wakabi limestone, Wakai limestone, Khude
limestone, Kasria group, and upper parts of Jakker and Jhamburo groups of HSC (1961) of similar
lithology. The section is exposed 12 km north of the Nisai Railway station and traversed by the road
leading north from the Railway station, was designated as type section (39B/1) by HSC (1961). In
the type section it consists of limestone, marl and shale with subordinate sandstone and
conglomerate. HSC (1961) subdivided in two units like thin (few lithologies) and thick (more diverse
lithology) assemblages. The thick sequence is further subdivided in to three parts like lower dark
limestone and pale grey shale, the middle largely shale with some limestone, marl and sandstone, the
upper part contain thick member of limestone and sandstone with thin layer of shale and
conglomerate. Thick assemblages are only found in the northern Balochistan Basin. The thin
assemblages have a few exposures in northern and southern Balochistan basins and it is exposed
mainly in the Axial Belt areas.

Shagala Group; It includes the Murgha Faqirzai, Mina and Shagala formations.

Murgha Faqirzai Formation: It is named after the village of Murgha Faqirzai about 25 km north of
Muslimbagh (34M/16; HSC, 1961). It is mapped by HSC (1961) in the northern and southern

4
Balochistan Basin and also in Indus Suture. It comprises shale with minor sandstone and shelly
limestone. The shale is pale greenish grey and calcareous. Pencil cleavage is the typical feature of
this shale observed in the metamorphosed area. The sandstone is green to grey, calcareous and ripple
marked. Thin shelly limestone beds are found in the base and top for fossil collection source. The
source of this formation is mostly Hinterland and partially Indus Suture. The tentative thickness
ranges from 400-1200m. The lower contact with the Nisai formation and upper contact with Shagala
formation seems to transitional and conformable. According to stratigraphic position, its age is
supposed to be Early-Middle Oligocene.

Mina Formation: Mina Formation (previous Panjgur formation and lower part of Shagala formation
in northern Balochistan) is named by Malkani (2014f) after the Mina village on the Shagala-Zhob
road which is about 30Km southwest of Zhob. It consists of marine alternating green shale and
sandstone. The sandstone is fine to coarse grained, gritty, thin to thick bedded, grey to greenish grey
and weathers light grey and at places black desert varnish on its surface. It is about 2000m thick in
the northern Balochistan Basin and 1000-2000m thick in the area between the Khwaja Amran Range
and Jangal. This formation shows the marine conditions in all Balochistan basins. Its upper contact
with Continental Shagala formation is disconfirmable while lower contact with Murgha Faqirzai
shale is confirmable.

Shagala Formation: It is named after the militia post of Shagala about 50Km southwest of Zhob
(39A/16). It consists of sandstone and shale but at places conglomerate and limestone. The sandstone
is fine to coarse grained, gritty, thin to thick bedded, grey to greenish grey, brown and weathers light
grey, brown, rusty with patches of black desert varnish on its surface. In the central and eastern part
of Kaker Khurasan range the sandstone is more coarsely grained and thick bedded than western part.
It shows the source from the Indus Suture, however the western part may have northern and
northwestern source. Some sandstone is pebbly, red and maroon. Cross bedded and ripple marks are
common. The shale is maroon, red ochre type, grey, greenish grey and calcareous. The red and
maroon color is dominant in the Kaker Khurasan area while grey to greenish grey shale color is
dominate in the southern Balochistan basin. It is 3000m thick and only exposed in the northern
Balochistan Basin (Kakar-Khorasan range). This formation shows the continental (Molasse)
conditions in the Kaker Khurasan range. Continental vertebrate bones of rhinoceros, horses,
crocodiles, wood fossils, etc (Malkani et al. 2013; Malkani 2014f) are also found in the Kaker
Khurasan areas.

Multana formation: It is named by HSC (1961) after Multana/Multanai Kili (39E/4) west of Mina
Bazar railway station. It consists of conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. Actually it
belongs to Vihowa Group (Malkani 2014f) which consist of Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and
Chaudhwan formations

Bostan Formation: It is named after the Village Bostan, 20km east of Kuchlak (HSC, 1961). It
consists of clay, silt, sandstone and conglomerate. The clay and silt are red to maroon and brown.
The sandstone and conglomerate are medium to thick bedded and mostly friable, and show uplift of
the area. It belongs to Sakhi Sarwar group (Malkani 2014f) and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar
Group (Boston formation) represents Dada and Sakhi Sarwar Formation (mud and sandstone with

5
poorly developed conglomerate, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) concealed at places
especially in the valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial
deposits.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHIC SETUP OF KAKAR-KHURASAN (BACK ARC) BASIN

Malkani (2014) review the stratigraphy of Balochistan basin for present and future research
and studies. The revised Stratigraphy of Kakar Khorasan basin includes Cretaceous-Paleocene
Nisai Group (=2000m thick) comprises of Akhtar Nika Formation (alternated limestone and shale;
1000-1500m thick), Jabrai Formation (mudstone/shale with alternation of thin marl/limestone
beds; 500-1000m thick) and Nisai Formation (mainly two massive limestone unit separated by shale
unit; 100m thick), Paleocene-Eocene Shagala Group consists of Murgha Faqirzai Formation
(shale, 2000m thick), Mina Formation (alternation of green shale unit and sandstone unit; 3000m
thick) and Shagala Formation (=Shagalu; alternation of terrestrial red shale unit and sandstone unit;
3000m thick), Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group (synonyms; Malthanai/Dasht Murgha group)
represents Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations and Pleistocene-Holocene
Sakhi Sarwar Group (Boston formation) represents Dada and Sakhi Sarwar formations (mud
and sandstone with poorly developed conglomerate, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant)
concealed at places especially in the valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent and Recent mud flows,
fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits. The Nisai Group is correlated with Early Cretaceous Parh
Group, Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group and Paleocene Sangiali Group (Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and
Dungan formations) of Sulaiman basin. The Shagala Group is correlated with Chamalang (Ghazij)
Group and Kahan Group of Sulaiman basin. The southern part of Kakar Khorasan basin shows flysch
deposition like Murgha Faqirzai Shale and Mina Formation (green shale and sandstone) while the
northern part of Kakar-Khorasan basin shows both these formations as flysch deposition while the
middle-Late Eocene Shagala (Shaigalu) Formation (sandstone and red to maroon, brown shale and
sandstone) as terrestrial/molase deposits which is supported by continental rhinoceros-baluchithere
mammal fauna.

MAKRAN-SIAHAN BASIN (ARC-TRENCH GAP), WAZHDAD ARC AND MASHKEL/KHARAN (INTER

ARC) BASIN

It represents Paleocene Ispikan, Eocene Nisai/Wakai, Siahan group (Siahan, Wazhdad

volcaniclastic and Zurati formations), Oligocene Washuk ophiolite complex and Makran group
(Hoshab and Panjgur formations), Miocene-Pliocene Talar group (Parkini, Talar and Chatti
formations), Pliocene-Pleistocene Ormara, Jiwani and Kech formations, Subrecent to Recent Makran
extrusive muds and surficial and coastal deposits (Table 1).
Ispikan conglomerate is named after the village of Ispikan about 12 miles northeast of Mand (31
J/4; HSC, 1961). Conglomerate consists of pebbles of quartz, granite, andesite, and other igneous
rocks. Matrix of conglomerate is chloritic (green). Its lower contact with the thin bedded marl
assigned to Parh series seems to be unconformable. Its upper contact is not clear but some remnants
of Wakai limestone are found at the eastern end of the hill near Ispikan which show contact with
Wakai formation. Age of Ispikan conglomerate is Paleocene determined by stratigraphic position
between the Cretaceous and Eocene rocks and some diagnostic fossils (HSC 1961).

6
Wakai limestone is named after Koh-i-Wakai in the valley of Tagrana Kaur (31 J/11; HSC, 1961).
It consists of limestone, marl and shale. The age of formation is Early Eocene to Middle Eocene
(HSC, 1961). The formation is important for petroleum prospecting and source, if it has large
subsurface extension.
Siahan group is named by the present author. It represents Siahan shale, Wazhdad volcaniclastic,
Zurati and Washuk formations.
Siahan formation is named after the Siahan Ranges (31 M/8; HSC, 1961). It comprises shale, slates,
with siltstone and sandstone. The lower contact is with Wakai limestone and the upper contact is
with the Zurati formation and Wazhdad volcaniclastic group which are conformable. According to
(HSC1961) megafossils are rare in the shale and can not be thoroughly tested for microforaminifers,
however some thin limestone beds yielded fossils which may be equivalent to Wakai limestone.
According to HSC (1961) and stratigraphic position the age is being assigned as middle Eocene.
Wazhdad volcaniclastic group is named after the Wazhdad Mountain (35 A/6) by the Malkani, et
al. 1995 for Wazhdad volcaniclastic group. The Wazhdad Range is located just west of Washuk and
east of Palantak. These rocks are exposed in the Wazhdad Mountain (35 A/6) and may be extending
upto 35 A/10. It consists of tuff, agglomerate, tuff breccias, tuffaceous sandstone and shale. These
rocks are dark green colour and weather in to dark grey to black colour, hard and resistant, forming
high peaks. The estimated thickness of this formation is 1200 to 1500m in the Wazhdad Range, the
actual measurement is also difficult due to intense faultings and foldings. Their lower and upper
contacts are faulted but seem to be conformable with the lower Siahan shale and upper Zurati
formation. According to law of superposition the age of Wazhdad volcaniclastic group may be early
to middle Late Eocene.
Zurati formation is named after the Zurati Koh and Tank e Zurati 31 M/11 by Hafez et al, 1995.
Hunting Survey Corporation 1961 gave the composite name as Panjgur and Siahan shale. Hafeez et
al 1992 separated the Siahan shale and Panjgur formation, but one unit arises complication exist in
between these two formation. So it was named as Zurati formation. It comprises sandstone, shale,
slates, and minor siltstone. The lower contact with the Wazhdad volcaniclastic formation and upper
contact with the Hoshab shale is gradational and confirmable. Fossils are not observed but according
to law of superposition, it seems to be middle to late Eocene age.
Washuk ophiolite complex is named by the Malkani et al 1995. These ophiolite (part of complete
sequence) is exposed in the thrusted plane of Wazhdad mountain range. It is exposed on the southern
side of Wazhdad mountain range at Mazargati (35 A/6), Jhal Kaur (35 A/7), and Toekoh (35 A/10)
and also in Zurati quadrangle 31 M/11 areas. The observed rocks are granite, peridotite, bronze
dunite, asbestos, (serpentine), soapstone (talc), and chromite. Its exposures are small, however in the
southern vicinity, there is a wide alluvium cover which may yield more ophilitic rocks in subsurface.
The contact with the Zurati formation is faulted. Some phylite/schist is observed near the contact
zone. The age may be Late Eocene or Early Oligocene.
Hoshab formation is named after the village of Hoshab in the Kech valley (31 N/16; HSC, 1961).
HSC 1961 correlated it with the upper part of Murgha Faqirzai shale of north Zhob district. It
comprises shale with minor siltstone and sandstone. The lower contact with the Zurati formation and
upper contact with the Panjgur formation which are conformable. According to HSC (1961) the
Hoshab formation has no age guide fossils tested only one sample. Further (HSC 1961) correlated
the Hoshab shale with the Murgha Faqirzai shale and upper part of Siahan formation. According to
stratigraphic position, its age is supposed to be Early Oligocene.

7
Panjgur formation is named after the Panjgur town (35 B/1; HSC, 1961). It consists of alternated
sandstone and shale. Sandstone is light green to light grey to grey, fine to medium grained, thin to
thick bedded, hard and calcareous. It is correlated with the Shaigalu sandstone of the north Zhob
district which also contains Oligocene vertebrate fossils. Panjgur formation is devoid of fossils in the
Panjgur area, however on the west of Panjgur near Iran Boarder, this formation has yielded
Oligocene age diagnostic foraminifers. Further the stratigraphic position tells Middle to Late
Oligocene. In the Eocene-Oligocene strata, the undersurface sedimentary structure commonly
observed are groove marks, and load casts, and rarely observed are flute casts, upper surface
sedimentary structures are ripple beddings. A general paleocurrent direction of Eocene-Oligocene
strata of northwestern part of Makran basin was northwest to southeast, deduced from the vector
sedimentary structures such as flute casts, and scalar sedimentary structures such as ripple and
groove marks. However the source of the northeastern part of Makran basin seems to be both from
northwestern and also from east/Indus Suture due to its close vicinity.
Talar Group: It represents marine Parkini mudstone, Talar sandstone and Chatti mudstone. Talar
group is named by present author due to well exposures of these formation and their contacts. The
Hinglaj series of Vredenburg is considered here in this group. Talar group is well exposed in the
South Makran.
Parkini Formation is named after the Parkini Kaur, a tributary of the Hingol River (35 G/6). It
consists of mostly poorly bedded mudstone with minor intercalations of siltstone or fine sandstone.
The lower contact with the Panjgur formation is abrupt and gradational and upper contact with the
Talar formation is transitional. Large fossils are rare while Miocene microforams are prolifically
abundant and can be obtained relatively easily from the mudstone, most of which disintegrates
readily in warm water. According to microforms and stratigraphic position its age is Early Miocene.
Talar Formation is named after the Talar gorge (31 K/10; HSC, 1961). It is considered equilent to
Hinglaj group of HSC (1961). It consists of sandstone, shale, mudstone and shelly limestone. Its
lower contact with Parkini and Chatti formations is transitional but at places sharp. The fossils like
gastropods (Mollusks) and lamellibranches are common. The microforms are Miocene age
diagnostic (HSC 1961). The age of the formation is Late Miocene to Early Pliocene.
Chatti Formation is after the locality of Chatti (31 K/3) about 17 miles north west of Gawader
(HSC, 1961). These rocks were also included in the “Upper Mudstone” of Khan (1951). It is a part
of Makran series paleontologically defined by Vredenburg (1909; p. 299-300). It consists of mostly
mudstone which is interbedded with siltstone or fine grained sandstone and marl. The Ormara is the
synonym of Chatti because Ormara is mapped in the eastern part of southern Makran coastal areas
where Chatti formation is not mapped and distinction between Ormara and Chatti mudstone is also
difficult in the western part also (HSC, 1961).
Kech formation is named by HSC (1961) after the Kech valley near Gish Kaur (Map 9; 31N/8) and
Kech Valley generally existed from Hoshab area to Turbat. It is also correlated with Kamerod/
partly Ormara formation. It consists of conglomerate, mudstone and sandstone facies. It also has
upper angular contact with Subrecent to Recent surficial deposits. The age of the formation is
Pleistocene.
Jiwani formation is named after the coastal village of Jiwani (31 G/12), where it is best exposed. It
is synonymous with the “Sub-Recent shelly limestone” (Directory, p.12) and “littoral concrete”
(Blanford, 1872a, p.45). The formation is restricted to the South Makran division of the arenaceous
zone and has a thickness upto 100 feet in the type area of Jiwani headland (HSC, 1961). The

8
formation is composed mainly of shelly limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate. The lower contact
with Ormara formation is gradational and placed at the base of lower persistent bed of shelly
conglomerate, and at places angular unconformable with Ormara, Parkini and Chatti formations. Its
upper contact with the recent deposits or extrusive mud may be angular. The age may be Late
Pleistocene to Subrecent (HSC, 1961).
Makran Mudvolcanoes are common in coastal areas of Makran but also found in the Pishin Zhob
basin particularly near the Qilla Saif Ullah area (HSC 1961). It consists of solidified silty and gritty
muds. It is soft and friable. In general the mud appears in two forms like cones and ridges. The cones
formed by one or more ventral vents. It involves series of eruption and cone is formed from the
drying of muds. The ridge type of mud accumulation seems to have no connection with ventral vents
or discrete points of eruption but appear as high, broad hill with steep sides and long and parallel
with the regional structures.. Rutile is also present in these volcanoes. Its age is Pleistocene to Recent
Subrecent and Recent deposits: These are represented by Terrace gravel deposits, Fan gravel
deposits, sand, silt and clay deposits (cultivated and noncultivated lands), Hamun deposits like Sand
dunes (Seif/longitudinal and Barchann), and present channel deposits.

STRATIGRAPHY OF MAKRAN OFFSHORE

The offshore areas are significant for petroleum exploration. The Makran offshore areas
located in the west of Indus Suture line and show the Balochistan basin stratigraphy and further the
trench is also located in the near offshore area. The Indus offshore area located in the east of Indus
Suture line and shows the Kirthar basin stratigraphy.

REVISED STRATIGRAPHIC SETUP OF MAKRAN BASIN, PAKISTAN

Malkani (2014f) presented revised stratigraphy of Balochistan basin. The Makran basin
show the Cretaceous-Paleocene Nisai Group includes Akhtar Nika and Jabrai formations (Parh like
limestone near Mand) and Nisai Limestone (Wakai limestone), Late Paleocene-Early Eocene
Shagala Group includes Murgha Faqirzai Shale (Siahan shale, Zurati shale and sandstone; Hoshab
shale), and Mina Formation (Panjgur sandstone and shale), Oligocene-Pliocene Talar (=Vihowa)
Group (Parkani mudstone, Talar sandstone and Chatti mudstone), and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi
Sarwar Group (Malkani 2014f) .

STRATIGRAPHY OF KARAKORAM-HINDUKUSH BASIN (A SOUTHERN EXTREMITY OF

LAURASIAN PLATE), PAKISTAN

This tectonostratigraphic basin belonging to southern end of Asian plate prior to collision of
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is subdivided into northern sedimentary, Central Karakoram batholiths
and southern metamorphic belts (Shah, 2009).

Central Karakoram batholith

Central Karakoram batholith represents granite, granodiorite, tonalite, diorite, granite-

gneiss, hornblende rich amphibolite and diorite, intruded by late stage aplitic monzogranite and

9
pegmatitic leucogranite. It forms the tallest peaks of the region including K2. It forms large parallel
or en echelon plutons. Tirich Mir zone is separated from Karakoram by Tirich Mir fault. From west
to east these are Kafiristan, Garam Chashma, Tirich Mir, Buni Zam, Zargar-Umalist-Ghamu Bar,
Dobargar-Darkot, Hunza and Baltoro plutons. The age range is Jurassic-Miocene (Searle 1991).
Along the northern margin of Karakoram batholith near Baroghil Pass, there are small outcrops of
Pre Ordovician granites (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008).
Chikar formation named after the Chikar village by Kazmi and Jan (1997) in the upper reaches of
Yarkhun valley south of Darkot pass, contains siltstones and quartzites intruded by several granitic
dykes, southward schist and hornfels and migmatites. Its age is Late Proterozoic to Early Cambrian
(Le Fort et al. 1994).
Karakoram metamorphic complex show unsorted Darkot group, Dumordo formation, Chalt
formation, Ganchen formation, Ashkore/Ashkole amphibolite, Panmah ultramafics, Hushi complex
and Dassu gneiss. Due to no age control and insufficient information, the Searle (1991) named as
Karakoram Metamorphic complex.
Dassu gneiss is named after the Dassu village, the upper Shigar valley in the southern metamorphic
Karakoram belt, consists of domed shape batholith intrusion of massive, felsic-gneiss which is criss-
crossed by gem bearing pegmatite dykes (Kazmi et al. 1985). Hanson (1989) has reported a U-Pb age
of at least 1Ga (109; Precambrian) in zircons from Dassu gneiss. Bauma Harel formation is named
after the Bauma Harel locality by Kazmi and Abbasi (2008) for the sequence of amphibolites,
marbles and metapelites bear a minimum Ar-Ar age of 650Ma, in the Askole-Skoro Lungma, Bauma
Harel and Thalle village areas in the NE of Skardu. These rocks form the Late Proterozoic basements
and also in the Baroghil area of western Karakoram, they are overlain by platform type sedimentary
sequence with lower Ordovician fossils (crinoids and graptolites). Bauma-Harel formation consists
of volcanic metasediments metamorphosed to chlorite-epidote greenschists interbedded with slate,
phyllite, minor carbonate layers and conglomerate.
Ishkarwaz granite is named by Le Fort et al. (1994) after a small village in the western part of
Karakorams in the upper Yarkhun valley and south of Baroghil pass. Its outcrops are in the form of
small stock or bosses of Late Proterozoic to Cambrian (most likely Cambrian) in age. Baroghil
group was named by Tahirkheli (1982) after the Baroghil pass, exposed in the Yarkhun valley, and
south of Baroghil pass in Chitral district. Talent et al. (1999) have divided it into lower Yarkhun
formation and upper Vidiakot formation.
Yarkhun formation consists of 170m arkosic sandstone interbedded with siltstone and black slate.
It is Silurian age.
Vidiakot formation consists of fine grained slates and siltstone with fine sandstone intercalations.
Its age Lower Ordovician.
Thalle limestone is named after the Thalle valley, NE of Khapalu.
Karakoram metamorphic complex of Searle (1991) show a number of marble horizons from
Shigar, Hunza and westward and one of these horizons is named as Thalle limestone after Thalle
valley, NE of Khaplu. It extends from Thalle to northwestward up to Bauma Harel and Skoro La
valleys. Paleozoic fossils (gastropods, crinoids and lower Ordovician graptolites) have been found
(Rolland et al. 2000). The Ordovician age is also mentioned by LeFort and Pecher 2001). Verchere
(1867) reported echinoderms possibily of Silurian age.
Devonian Charun quartzite named after the Charun village about 11.5km NE of Reshun, consists
of 100m white quartzite at the base of Devonian succession (Stauffer 1975). According to Tahirkheli

10
(1982) the Charun quartzite is unconformably overlain by the remaining Devonian sequence. Talent
et al. (1999) reported the quartzite passes gradationally upward into the overlying Shogram
formation. According to Talent et al. (1999) the uppermost beds transitional to the Shogram
formation may be Middle Devonian.
Chilmarabad formation consists of Devonian slates, dolomitic limestone and dolomites
unconformably overlies the Baroghil group in the Baroghil pass region (LeFort et al., 1994). It is
overlain by Late Devonian Shogram formation (Gaetani et al. 1995).
Shogram formation is named after the Shogram mount and village in Yarkhun valley (Desio, 1966),
consists of dolomite, limestone and thin shales in the lower part and quartzite and limestone in the
upper part. The Sewakht formation (Leake et al. 1989) and Sarikole shale (Hayden 1915; Calkins et
al. 1981) are synonyms. Talent et al. (1999) reported conodonts of Middle to Late Devonian age.
Lasht unit named after Lasht village in Yarkhun valley by Gaetani et al. (1995,96). It consists of
three main thrust sheets overlying the Reshun fault. The lowest sheet consists of Chilmarabad and
Shogram formations. It is overthrusted by sandstone of Gircha formation and fusulinolid limestones
and upper thrust consists of marl and massive limestone. It is unconformably overlain by the Tas
Kupruk unit containing Early Carboniferous limestones.
Lun shales is named after Lun village by Desio (1966), consists of paper and needle shale, quartzite
and limestone overlies the Devonian Shogram formation. It may be synonymous with the Sarikol
shale. However with the inclusions of green grey and black shales of Lutkho and Arkari beds of Leak
et al. (1989) the age of the Lun shale may be Permian to Jurassic (Shah, 2009). On the left bank of
Mastuj valley between Gol and Zait, a thick massive black dolomitic limestone with 6m thick
pisolitic ironstone containing lower Triassic conodonts named as Zail limestone (Tahirkheli 1982).
Perri et al. (2004) has also reported conodonts of Early Triassic. This limestone has been named as
Ailak formation farther north in Yarkhun valley. It overlies a sandstone sequence which may be a
part of Lun shales (Kazmi and Abbasi 2008).
Shah Jinali phyllite is named after the Shah Jinali Pass by Zanchi et al. (1997) consists of dark
green phyllites with quartzites. The Lun shale where crop out and this formation occupies, so it may
be a metamorphosed version of Lun shale.

Northern Sedimentary belt

Margach formation is named after the Margach cattle shelter on the north side of the Ribat River
along Zoe glacier by Gaetani et al. (2004), consists of 200m slates, siltstone, sandstone and
limestone. It overlies the Shogram formation and its age is Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous by
Gaetani et al. (2004).
Ribat formation is named after the Ribat River by Gaetani et al. (2004), consists of fossiliferous
limestone and marl overlying the Margach formation. It is Early Carboniferous (Gaetani et al. 2004).
Lupsuk formation is named after the Lupsuk glacier north of Karambar Pass by Gaetani et al.
(2004), consists of quartzarenites, microconglomerates, sandstone, siltstone and limestone. The
upper part of this formation is cliff forming carbonate with sharp lateral variations, so named as
Twin Valley member after the Twin valleys at the head of Karambar River by Gaetani et al. (2004).
According to Angiolinin et al. (1999) the Twin valley member is Late Carboniferous in age, as it
overlies Moscovian brachiopod fauna.

11
Tas Kupruk unit is named by Kafarskyi and Abdullah (1976) after the east of Sarhad village in the
Ab-i-Wakhan river valley of Afghanistan to the Morich valley in Chitral and beyond, consists of
metabasites, tuffs, volcaniclastics and limestone with fossils of Early Carboniferous (Tournaisian)
(Gaetani et al. (1996).It overlies Late Devonian limestones with an angular unconformity of about
150.
Gircha formation is named after Gircha village in upper Hunza valley by Desio (1963), consists of
sandstone and slate intercalations of earliest Permian. Gaetani et al. (1995) consider Pasu slates as
being a local facies of the Gircha formation and also include in it the Shimsal slates of Casnedi et al.
(1985) and Kilik formation of Desio (1963).
Chapursan group is named by Gaetani et al. (1990a) for the Lupghar and Panjshah formations in
upper Hunza region and Lashkargaz formation in the Baroghil region of Shimshal and Chapursan
Valleys of the upper Hunza.
Lashkargaz formation is named after the Lashkargaz village in the upper Yarkhun valley 10km
ESE of Baroghil Pass by Gaetani et al. (1995) and he presented members of siltites, packstone,
wackstone, shales and marls of Early Permian age.
Lupghar formation is named after Lupghar valley, a tributary of Chapursan by Gaetani et al. (1995)
and he presented lower member includes shale, muds and sandstone with phosphatic nodules, and
upper member bioclastic and oolitic limestone and dolomite of Early Permian. Panjshah formation
is named after Panjshah village in the lower part of Chapursan valley by Gaetani et al. (1995),
presented lower member include shales, siltstone and feldspathic quartzites and upper member
include limestone and marl of Late Permian age.
Kundil formation is named after Kundil valley, south of Darband post about 10km NW of Sost
(Shimshal and Chapursan Valleys of upper Hunza) by Gaetani et al. (1990a), presented 3 members
of marl, limestone and fine tuffs of Late Permian age.
Wirokhun formation is named after Wirokhun nala between Kundil and Borom in the Chapursan
valley by Gaetani et al. (1995), and consists of lower dark shales and marls with mudstone, thin
bedded cherty limestone and upper shale and marl of Late Permian to Early Triassic.
Gharil formation is named after the Gharil village in upper Yarkhun valley, 5km east of Baroghil
pass by Gaetani et al. (1995), and consists of siltstone, sandstone and marl of Late Permian to Late
Triassic age.
Ailak formation is named after Baroghil Alak by Gaetani et al. (1995), and consists of dolomite and
limestones of Late Permian to Late Triassic age.
Misghar slate is named after Misghar village in upper Hunza by Desio (1963) and consists of slates
and phyllite of Paleocene age intruded by sills and dykes of dolerite, gabbro, pegmatite, aplite and
quartz syenite (Tahirkheli, 1982).
Pasu slate is named after the Pasu village in the upper Hunza valley. North of the Karakoram
granodiorite a thick sequence of dark grey and black slates with intercalation of grey limestone and
yellowish grey quartzite of Permian to Carboniferous age has been named as Passu slate by Desio
(1963). It is correlated with Gircha formation.
Guhjal dolomite is named by Gaetani et al. (1995) for the limestone, dolomite, slates and quartzite
of Middle to Late Permian age to Triassic age.
Singhie shales (Baltoro formation) is named after the Singhie glacier in the upper Shaksgam valley
between Karakoram and Aghil ranges by Desio (1963), consists of black shales (like Pasu slates). It
is exposed north of Karakoram Batholith in Shaksgam-Baltoro region of eastern Karakoram. Various

12
names like Shimshal shale, Baltoro shale, Rimo shale, Sarpo Laggo slates, Doksam sequence are
adapted by different authors at different places.
Shaksgam formation is named after the Shaksgam valley north of K2 between Karakoram and
Aghil ranges by Auden (1938), represents 600-1000m thick limestone, marl, siltstone and sandstone
of Lower to Permian age.
Staghar Cherty limestone is named by Gaetani et al. (1995) for the upper cherty limestone of
Shaksgam formation. Its age is Late Permian.
Following Triassic rocks have been reported. Zait limestone is named by Talent et al. (1979)
exposed in the Chitral area and consists of fossiliferous limestone. Tahirkheli (1982) mentioned
Triassic age on the base of fossils.
Dark limestone is named by Gaetani et al. (1996a) and consists of 150m thick limestone and its age
is Liassic (Pliensbachian).
Wirokhun formation is named after the Wirokhun gorge, a tributary of Kundil valley (a tributary of
Chapursan) by Gaetani et al. (1995) and consists of shale, mudstone, marl and limestone of Late
Permian to Early Triassic.
Urdok conglomerate is named after the Urdok glacier north of the Gasherbrum ridge by Desio
(1963). Desio (1964, 1969) mapped this conglomerate broadly from western Karakoram to eastern
Karakoram like Baltoro Kangri peak (7312m), Abruzzi glacier and western margin of South
Gasherbrum glacier, surrounding the Gasherbrum I, II and III peaks, and in the ridge west of Urdok
glacier. Fluvial and Late Cretaceous in age (Gaetani 1990b).
Chikchi-ri shale is named after Chikchi-ri Range by Desio (1963), exposed in the type area and
Singhie glacier, large area of eastern Karakoram from Shaksgam valley and Karakoram pass to
Shyok valley. It consists of black, green, brown and red shales with thin beds of limestone, tuff and
lava flows.
Borom formation (300m) is named after the Borom valley, 3.5km NW of Sost (Chapursan valley of
Upper Hunza) by Gaetani (1990a) and consists of limestone and chert of Early to Middle Triassic
age.
Aghil limestone is named after the Aghil pass (Baltoro) by Desio (1964), consists of grey and white
limestone and dolomite, exposed in upper Hunza and Shaksgam-Baltoro region i.e. above the Baltaro
and Abruzzi glaciers, this limestone forms highest peaks of the Karakoram like Hidden peak
(8068m), and Gasherbrum peaks II (8035m), III (7925m) and IV (7925m) and also exposed in the
Sost (upper Hunza). Age middle Triassic to Early Jurassic.
Jurassic Chitral slate is named after the Chitral town by Desio (1959) and consists of shale with
some ash and fine sandstone. Pudsey et al. (1985) considered it to be a Jurassic in age.
Koghozi greenshicht is named after the Koghozi village near the confluence of Yarkhun and Lutkho
rivers by Pudsey et al. (1985) and consists of greenschists include chlorite quartz schist with thin
acidic layers with abundant quartz.
Gahirat limestone is named after Gahirat village 10km N of Drosh by Desio (1958) for limestone,
phyllite and 3km thick marbles.
Ashtigar formation is named after the Ashtigar village by Gaetani et al. (1993) and comprised of
shale and fine grain sandstone (turbidites) of Liassic age.
Yashkuk formation is named after Yashkuk village at the confluence of Chapursan river and
Yashkuk Yaz glacier by Gaetani et al. (1990a) for reddish sandstone with many sedimentary
structures. It is middle to upper Liassic. The Mesozoic terrestrial strata of Karakoram (for example

13
Fig.6) are significant for the exploration of Mesozoic vertebrates for Paleobiogeographi link.
Pakistan is lucky to include both Laurasian and Gondwanan blocks along with Tethyan deposits.
Reshit formation is named after the Reshit village in Chapursan valley by Gaetani et al. (1990a) for
the mudstone and wackestones of late Middle Jurassic age.
Tekri formation is named by Gaetani et al. (1990b) for oncolitic limestone and bioclastic
packstones of middle Jurassic age, exposed in the Shaksgam region of eastern Karakorams. Marpo
sandstone is named by Gaetani et al. (1990b) and consists of 20-100m sandstone and siltstones and
exposed in the Aghil pass and Shaksgam valley and age is middle Jurassic. Bdongo-La formation is
named by Desio and Fantini (1960), exposed in the Shaksgam valley, comprised of marly sandstone
and dark coloured limestones of upper Jurassic age.
Krinj limestone is named after Krinj village in Lutkho valley east of Shigar by Desio (1959) for
platform type limestone about 2.5km thick.
Reshun formation is named after Reshun in Mastuj valley by Hayden (1915) of Cretaceous or early
Tertiary. Tahirkheli (1982) divided this formation into lower psammites as Awi conglomerate and
upper micritic limestone and maroon shales as Reshun shales.
Tupop conglomerate is named by Gaetani et al. (1993) for Cretaceous conglomerate exposed in the
Kundil and Borom tributaries of lower Chapursan valley in upper Hunza.
Darband formation is named after the Darband post in Chapursan valley by Gaetani et al. (1993)
for red to grey nodular limestone with conglomerate at the top Late Cretaceous age. Sarpo Lago
slate is named after the Sarpo Lago valley on the northern slope of Karakoram by Desio (1963)
mainly slates with intercalations of gneiss of upper Paleozoic.
Savoia formation is named after the Savoia glacier, a tributary of Godwin Austin glacier in the
Baltoro basin by Desio (1963) for 1000m schist, marl and conglomerate.
Khalkal formation is named after the Khalkhal glacier, a tributary of Godwin Austin glacier in the
Baltoro basin by Desio (1963) for 800m slaty calcareous sandstone, phyllite and conglomerate.
K2 gneiss (200m thick) is named after the highest peak in the Karakoram range by Desio (1936) as
K2 series, and Desio (1963) named as K2 gneiss. It contains porphyroblastic biotite muscovite gneiss
with medium sized plagioclase gneiss striking out dark grey and greenish grey base prevailing
associated with amphibole gneiss, augengneiss, and dark fine grained gneiss.
Falchan Kangri gneiss is named after the Falchan Kangri or a Broad peak in the Baltaro region by
Desio (1963) for 1000 m black to dark gray phyllitic paragneiss alternated with light quartz
arenaceous gneiss.
Yellow conglomerate is named by Gaetani et al. (1996b) for yellow polymict conglomerate covered
the Shaksgam sedimentary belt in the north of K2 and Karakoram fault.

Tirich Mir Zone shows some following strata.

Arkari formation is named by Leake et al. (1989) for the west of Tirich Mir fault is largely
represents metasediments metamorphosed up to lower amphibolite facies. It consists of schist,
phyllite and quartzite and extensive deposits of marble. Considering metamorphosed facies of Lun
shales with Permian to Jurassic age.
Wakhan slates are named by Hayden (1915) for black slate, siltite and sandstone containing fossils
of Permian to Triassic age. It forms a continuous belt from Tirich Mir in the west to the Chapursan
valley in upper Hunza in the east. From south (Arkari) to north the metamorphism is being decreased

14
and represented by Wakhan slates instead of Arkari formation. Its lateral facies extends to Chapursan
as Misgar slates.
Atark unit is named by Buchroithner (1978). It consists of dolomite, limestone, shale, sandstone and
marbles. It is Sakmarian to Midian in age (Gaetani and Leven 1993).
Rich Gol Metamorphic Complex is named after the Rich Gol stream (from Tirich Gol to Shahjinali
Pass) for the high grade metabasites, metapellites, staurolite mica schist and amphibolite. Zanchi et
al. (1997) pointed out the sharp jump in metamorphism with respect to surroundings. It is intruded by
Mid Cretaceous Tirich Mir Pluton which suggests and Early to Pre Cretaceous age.

Southern Metamorphic belt

The Carboniferous to Permian age rocks are found. The southern metamorphic zone is more
than 400km arcuate type long, and bounded by Karakoram Axial Batholith to the north and Main
Karakoram Thrust (MKT, Shyok suture zone). The Karakoram metamorphic complex consists of
Paleozoic metasediments which are intruded by the Karakoram axial batholith and smaller plutons.
This sequence is thrusted southward over Ladakh-Kohistan magmatic arc along the MKT. The
region from Hunza to Skardu is complicated due to intense tectonism and various new names of
formations are used. So Searle (1991) used this group instead of Darkot group. Darkot group is
named after the Darkot village in the upper Yasin valley by Ivanac et al. (1956) for thick sequence of
slates, limestones, quartzites and garnet mica schist. Le Fort and Gaetani (1998) designated the 5
formations. White marble and Rawat formations belongs to Northern Stack while Gum formation,
Barum formation and Basal shales belong to Southern Stack. Both stacks are bordered by a fault.
White marble (150m) is exposed as high cliffs between Qalander Gum and Kerun Bar glaciers. It is
intercalated with slates and quartzite of Rawat formation.
Rawat formation is named after the Rawat village. It consists of slates, limestones, siltstone and
quartzites. The Permian fossils are reported by Hayden (1915).
Gum formation (1000m) is named after Qalandar Gum glacier and consists of limestone and slates.
Gaetani (2004) mentioned the Permian to Triassic or up to Cretaceous.
Barum formation (300-500m) is named after the Barum glacier north of Ramach and consists of
sandstone, siltstone, slates, microconglomerates and thin limestone.
Basal shales consist of black shales, slates, siltstone and lenses of white dolomitic marbles up to
50m thick.
Ghamubar crystalline mass is named by Le Fort and Gaetani (1998) for the Aghost quartzite and
migmatitic gneiss, Ramach granodiorite, Ghamubar granite and Nialthi metasediments.
Aghost quartzite and migmatitic gneiss is named after the Aghost glaciers and consists of
quartzites, gneisses and migmatites. Casnedi et al. (1978) mentioned the K-Ar age of one sample as
Late Cretaceous to Eocene. Southward Aghost sequence is intruded by Ramach granodiorite and
Ghamubar granite and further south by Nialthi metasediments.
Nialthi metasediments is named after Nialthi village in Thui valley about 24km SW of Darkot and
consists of slates, sandstone and mudsupported conglomerate (may be mudflows), and limestone.
According to Searle (1991) these units can be easily included in the Karakoram metamorphic
complex.
Dumordo formation is named after a Dumordo tributary of Biaho river in upper Braldu valley by
Desio (1963) and it consists of garnet-staurolite schist, garnet mica schist, garnet amphibole, marble

15
and limestone. Staufer (1968c) named the rocks south of Karakoram granodiorite in Hunza valley as
Baltit group of Permo-carboniferous age whereas Tahirkheli (1982) correlated with his Chitral
slates of Precambrian to Lower Paleozoic age.
Chalt formation is named after the Chalt village about 40km N of Gilgit by Desio (1964) for quartz
biotite schist, quartzite, marble and conglomerate. Ivanac et al. (1956) assigned Permo-carboniferous
age based on fossils.
Ganchen formation is named after the Ganchen peak (6462m) by Desio (1963) exposed in the
Shigar valley (Skardu district) and consists of metapelites, gneisses, amphibolites, limestone and
dolomite. Metamorphic grade is increasing NW and slates are converted into garnet biotite schists.
Hanson (1989) named this sequence as Daltumbore formation while Desio (1963) included the
Lugma slates, Daltumbore mica schist and Askore amphibolite in this sequence. The age is assigned
from Devonian to Permian by Brookfield and Gupta (1984) and Hanson (1989).
Askole amphibolite is named after the Askole village by Searle (1991) and it is exposed in Askole,
Mango Gusar, Panmah/Panah and Braldu valleys. It contains amphibolites with marbles, schists and
gneisses. It seems to be synonym or misspelled with his Askore amphibolites and earlier Desio
(1964) mapped the Askore amphibolite on the eastern and western margins of Nanga Parbat
Haramosh Massif and Shigar valley probably located in the Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc
sequence.
Panmah ultramaphic is named after the Panmah (Panah) glacier in upper Mudordo valley near the
head water of Shigar river by Searle (1991) and it consists of gabbro, metabasalt, chert, and
ultramafics in shaly matrix. The tectonic ultramafic and mafic mélanges occur in discontinuous
bands in a narrow zone south of Karakoram Batholith bounded by thrust and shear zones within
Dumordo and Ganchen formations. According to Searle (1991) it may represent a Mesozoic suture
zone with an ophiolite complex which has been oblitered by post collision ductile shearing and
folding.
Hushe complex is named after the Hushe valley (north of Khapalu village) along the hanging wall of
MKT, east and north of Shigar town in Skardu district and named by Searle (1991) and consists of
hornblendite, hornblende diorite, amphibolite and biotite granodiorite-monzogranite with U-Pb
zircon age of 145-150Ma and K-Ar hornblende ages of about 200-156Ma. Desio (1964) mapped
earlier Hushe complex as Baumaherel schist, Ashkore amphibolite and Ganchen formation.
Shittinbar formation is named after Le Fort and Pechner (2001) for the terrigenous sandy and
pelitic alternation. The area covered by this formation is overlapped by Darkot group and Chalt
formation.
Khusomik schist is named by Le Fort and Pechner (2001) in the upper Skoro and Bauma Harel
valleys and consists of pelitic schists interlayered with limestone and arenite. It linked with upper
Cretaceous Bauma Harel limestone, and also schists and limestone in Thalle valley where dated
Lower Paleozoic by Rolland (2001a).
Marble units: Many formations include crystalline limestone or marble like Dumordo and Ganchen
formations. Further Le Fort and Pechner (2001) reported 4 main limestone or marble horizons which
they refer to as Chutrun limestone, Chogo Lugma group, Baintha group and Hispar Sar group.
Chutrun limestone is exposed in the west of Basha river near the contact of Karakoram
metamorphic complex, Pakora and Niamur valley and right bank of Chogo Lungma glacier. This
limestone splits into hectometric lenses of marble wrapped in schist. It joins with the Chog Lungma
group of limestone.

16
Chogo Lungma group of limestone is exposed in the confluence of Bolocho and Chogo Lungma
glaciers, near Sost in Hunza valley, Sumayar pluton, Kero Lungma, Berelter and Hoh Lumba valleys
and near the mouth of Biofo glacier. It consists of white to grayish blue intensely folded marble,
interbedded with amphibolite horizons. The impure marble contains diopside, phlogopite and
grossularite garnet and it is interbedded with calc- silicate layers. At places marble shows acid green
color due to presence of tremolite (Le Fort and Pechner 2001).
Baintha group is named after Baintha Brak Peak above the Biofo glacier, (and also the name of a
summer pasture on the right bank of Biafo) and consists of massive beds of marble along the contact
of Karakoram axial batholith with the metamorphic complex. At places it is intruded by granites.
This group crops out near the middle part of Biafo glacier and may be traced towards the marble
peak of Baltoro and farter westward to Chogo Lungma, Nagar and Hunza.
Hispar Sar group is named after the right bank of Hispar glacier and may be traced northwestward
into the Hunza valley. It consists of massive marbles with aluminous schists and quartzites with dark
coloured amphibolite. It has tectonic contact with Hunza granodiorite and at places this contact is
intrusive. This unit hosts the famous Hunza rubies and other gemstones (Kazmi and Jan 1997, Le
Fort and Pechner 2001). Earlier this unit was named as Ganesh marble by Tahirkheli (1996).

Karakoram (Shyok) Suture Zone (Main Karakoram Thrust)

Cretaceous Karakoram (Shyok) suture with Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc is interpreted on
many isolated bodies of ophiolites and rocks and their age variations.

STRATIGRAPHY OF KOHISTAN-LADAKH MAGMATIC ARC (AN ARC OF TETHYS),

PAKISTAN

This arc belongs to Tethyan Sea which extends from the Northern Indus Suture to Karakoram
Suture. This arc is divided into parts separated by Nanga Parbat Harmosh Massif. The western part is
represented by Kohistan magmatic arc and eastern part is represented as Ladakh magmatic arc.

Kohistan magmatic arc

The Kohistan arc is divided into Northern greenstone belt consists of Late Cretaceous to
Paleocene volcanics and sedimentary rocks along with amphibolite, central Kohistan batholiths
consists of early (110-85Ma) suite of Gabbro and diorite, followed by extensive intrusions of gabbro,
diorite and granodiorite which are intruded by much younger dykes and sills of leucogranite
(Tahirkheli et al., 1980), and Southern greenstone belt (Kamila amphibolite belt).

Central Kohistan batholith

Central Kohistan batholith (Mid Cretaceous to Oligocene) comprises of plutons of calc-

alkaline composition which intrude the Chalt volcanic group, Thelichi formation and Chilas
complex. Peterson and Windley (1985) divided the Kohistan batholith in thee groups. It records into
70Ma of magmatism from 102-29Ma (Peterson and Windley, 1985).

17
Northern greenstone (amphibolites) belt

Jaglot group (Middle Jurassic-Middle Cretaceous) is named by Khan T. et al. (1994) for
the Gilgit formation, Gashu-confluence volcanics and Thelichi formation.
Gilgit formation is named by Khan T. et al. (1996) and consists of interlayered sequence of schists,
paragneisses and amphibolites may be of Jurassic age. LeFort and Pecher (2001) have included this
formation in their Gilgit-Katchura gneisses.
Gashu-confluence volcanics is named by Khan T. et al. (1994) and consists of tuffs, volcanoclastic
sediments and pillow basalt metamorphosed into amphibolites probably of Early Cretaceous age. It is
correlated with Chalt volcanics in Hunza valley.
Thelichi formation is named by Tahirkheli (1982) and consists of slates, marbles, metavolcanics
and laminated sandstone of Middle Cretaceous to Lower Late Cretaceous. It is correlated with Yasin
group of Hunza valley.
Kalam group (Cretaceous) metasedimentary vast sequence named by Matsushita (1965) after
Kalam area. Tahirkheli (1979) divided this group into Karandoki slates, Besham Banda limestone
and Shou quartzites.
Karandoki slates named after the Karandoki stream 2 km south of Kalam (Tahirkheli 1979),
consists of 120m grey, green and maroon slates contains layers of para-amphibole. At places the
Kalam group units are intruded by 75-78Ma Deshai diorites (Jan and Mian 1971). Besham Banda
limestone named after the Deshan Banda locality in upper Swat (Tahirkheli 1979), consists of 35m
crystalline and fossiliferous limestone.
Shou quartzites named after Shou stream in Kalam town vicinity area, consists of 600m thick
quartzites (Tahirkheli 1979). Total thickness of Kalam group is more than 800m.
Yasin group (Chalt volcanics; Cretaceous) is named by Ivanac et al. (1956) consists of
lavas, tuffs and agglomerates with beds of shelly limestone. The volcanics underlying and
interbedded with Yasin group have various names like Greenstone complex, Turmilk formation,
Rakaposhi volcanic group, Chalt volcanic group and Sharman volcanic group. Pudsey et al. (1985)
has mapped the Yasin group as Shamran volcanic group (Latest Cretaceous-Paleocene) which
consists of porphyritic andesites and tuff intercalated with shale with some pillow lavas, chert bands,
volcanic breccia and agglomerates. Shamran volcanics are overlain by 500m of volcanic-lithic
sandstone, shale and micritic limestone with orbitolina and rudistid. The Greenstone complex of
Ivanac et al. (1956) and Sharman volcanic group of Pudsey et al. (1985) is renamed as Rakaposhi
volcanic complex by Tahirkheli (1982). Tahirkheli (1982) extended this complex from Skardu to
Chitral south of MKT, which includes Bauma-Harel formation (now incorporated in Karakoran
block) of Desio (1963), and Purit and Drosh formations of Pudsey et al. (1985).
Kalam-Utror-Yasin groups were mapped by Pudsey et al. (1985) between Drosh and Shamran
south of MKT and he divided into three units like Drosh formation, Purit formation and Gawuch
formation.
Gawuch formation (2km thick) with Gawuch Gol type section consists of green phyllites and
limestone. Toward the base phyllite is intruded by diorite. It is overlain by Purit formation.
Purit formation (1km thick) with Drosh Gol, SE of Kawash type section, consists of dominantly red
shales with subordinate sandstones and conglomerates. It is underlain by Gawuch formation and
overlain by Drosh formation. According to Pudsey et al. (1985), this formation was mapped as part
of the Reshun formation by Calkins et al. (1981), who failed to recognized the Naz Bar fault as an

18
important suture. This formation is 1000m thick in the southeast and wedges out half way through
the Shishi valley. The age of the formation on the basis of presence of Orbitolina is Early
Cretaceous.
Drosh formation (1.5km thick) is named after Drosh and it consists of epidotised beds, vesicular
andesite and interbedded thin red shales.
Dir group (Latest Cretaceous-Paleocene) named by Tahirkheli (1979) which include the
Baraul Banda slate and Ultor volcanic formation.
Baraul Banda slate contains shale, wakes, calcareous beds and some volcanics. The Ultror
volcanic formation contains basaltic-andesitic flows, dacitic ignimbrites and pyroclastic rocks.

Southern greenstone (amphibole) belt

It is represented by mostly Kamila amphibolite consists of amphibolite and subordinate

hornblende, diorite and plagiogranite.

Northern greenstone belt, Central Ladakh batholiths and Southern greenstone (amphibole
group) belt
Skardu group: The Burji, Deosai and Katzarah, Tsordas and Skoyo formations are being considered
here as Skardu group.
Burji formation named by Desio (1978) consists of several km thick phyllites, shales, limestone and
chlorite-epidote greenschists exposed south of Indus River, is the eastward extension of upper
metasedimentary, volcanic and detritial sequence of Kohistan magmatic arc (Bard et al. 1980) just
south of MKT.
Deosai (Dras) volcanics (Cretaceous) named as Dras by Wadia (1937) after Dras town exposed
along southern margin of Deosai Plateau from Dras to Kargil up to Indus valley near Khalsi, consists
of volcanics like ash beds, tuffs, agglomerates, bedded basaltic lava flows interlayered with
limestone intruded by granitic and other plutonic rocks. Tahirkheli (1982) introduces the name as
Deosai volcanics. South of Burzil, along the Indus Suture zone these volcanics thrusted on
Precambrian Salkhala formation (Gansser 1964, Desio 1978).
Katzarah formation (Cretaceous-Eocene) is named by Desio (1978) as Katzarah schists earlier
named by him as Shigar group for the sequence of siltstones, schists, slates and phylites with
quartzitic sandstone intercalations, exposed this high grade metasediments between Shigar river and
Indus near Skardu. Desio (1963) named Tsordas gneiss, Skoyo gneiss and Askore amphibolite, and
Desio (1964) also included Daltambore mica schist, Nang Brok quartzite, Skoro Lumba slate and
Hashupa limestone in the Shigar group, actually which lies across the Karakoram suture in the
Karakoram basin.
Tsordas gneiss is named after the Tsordas locality consists of labradorite, biotite garnetiferous
gneiss, at places sillimanite bearing, with quartz and amphibolite lenses. Laterally it passes into
Bauma-Harel schists.
Skoyo gneiss is named after the small village Skoyo in the Indus gorge east of Rondu, consists of
plagioclase gneiss composed of biotite and epidote with larger crystal of feldspar and quartz. Askore
amphibolite (may belongs to southern Laddakh; may be coeval to Kamila amphibolites of Kohistan)
named after the Askore tributary of the Indus NW of Rando, consists of garnetiferous and epidote
amphibolite extends between Shigar valley and Harmosh range. This comprises of amphibole gneiss,

19
amphibole epidote gneiss, amphibole biotite gneiss interbedded with thick limestone. Searle (1991)
also named as Askole amphibolite unit.

STRATIGRAPHY OF NORTHERN INDUS SUTURE (SUTURE BETWEEN INDUS BASIN

OF INDO-PAK CONTINENTAL PLATE) AND KOHISTAN-LADAKH MAGMATIC ARC-
TETHYS PART)

Bajaur-Utmankhel tectonic mélange (In Bajaur District, near Afghan Boarder, Badshah 1979)
Tora Tigga complex in southern are of Dir District are emplaced with amphibolite of Kohistan arc.
This complex represents ultramaphic rocks dominantly hornblendite (coarse-grained to pegmatitic,
cut by felsic dykes, quartzo-feldspathic and epidote veins which are not found in other complexes)
with subordinate pyroxenites, peridotites and dunites (Jan et al. 1983)
Mohmand ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxonite, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and Kot Pranghar mélange in
Mohmand agency (Hussain et al. 1984)
Dargai (Malakand) ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that
include saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and Sachiko-Qila
ophiolitic complex in Malakand District (Rossman and Abbas 1970, Ahmed 1984,88) Mingora-
Shangla ophiolitic mélange, Charbagh greenschist mélange, and Shangla blue schist mélange in Swat
(Kazmi et al. 1984; Jan and Jabeen 1990). Allai ophiolitic mélange in Indus Kohistan region, NE of
Shangla (Baig 1989)
Besham (Jijal) ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and With radiometric dates of
91+_ 6.3 to 114+-39Ma (Jan and Howie 1981; Coward et al 1986; Miller et al. 1991)
Chilas ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include saxoniter,
dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and
Babusar Pass mélange (Chamberlain et al. 1991; Ghazanfar et al. 1991)
Sapat complex between Kaghan and Kohistan; Peridot bearing ultramaphic rocks in the NE of
Naran, consists of dominantly gabbroic and less dominant ultramaphic rocks. The ultramaphic rocks
are exposed at the base and contain dunite and peridotite and pyroxenite with layer of chromite. The
ultramaphic cumulates directly in contact with metasediments and gneisses of Indo-Pakistan plate
(Khan et al. 1995). This complex is overlying the southern amphibole unit which is synonymous
with Bard (1993) Metanoritic (granulitic) unit. Burzil Pass-Dras ophiolitic mélange exposed east of
Nanga Parbat (Desio 1978; Honegger et al. 1982).

STRATIGRAPHY OF WESTERN INDUS SUTURE (INDO-PAK PLATE SUTURED WEST

BY BALOCHISTAN BASIN-PART OF TETHYS)

Long and 30km wide, the Indus Suture is a sinuous sigmoid belt consists of northern and
western Indus Suture. The western Indus Suture generally trends north-south represents the abducted
ophilitic complex (Bela-Muslimbagh-Zhob-Waziristan), with flysch deposition in the west
represented by Balochistan basin, and mostly marine carbonate facies in the east represented by
Sulaiman and Kirthar basins. The northern Indus Suture generally trending east –west represents the
obducted ophiolite complex (Mohmand-Dargai-Besham-Chilas).

20
Bela volcanic group is 190km long and 20km wide, extending from Ornach in the north to Windar
in the south. Volcanic rocks are subordinate in the north of Ornach and dominate in the south. It
consists of intermixed volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The volcanic rocks are mainly basalt, lava,
coarse grained agglomerate and bedded tuff. The lava flows are commonly pillowed and spilitic.
Most of the weather reddish brown or green, but the more massive types weather black and are
difficult to distinguish from intrusions (HSC, 1961). Rocks are altered and fractured filled with
epidote and carbonate. Phenocrysts of augite with rims of chlorite are common, amygdules of calcite
and microlites of feldspar are abundant. Interlayered sediments are shale, marl, limestone,
conglomerate, and radiolarian chert. This group overlies the Windar group conformably (west of
Mor range), and is overlain unconformably by the Oligocene Nal limestone (Northwest of Bela). The
age is Cretaceous (HSC, 1961).
Bela ophiolite complex consists of mainly ultrabasic, basic, and intermediate compositions. Granitic
rocks are rare. The true granite is in the form of conglomerate pebbles. The ultrabasic rocks are
altered pyroxenite, serpentinized peridotite and amorphous and sheared serpentinite. The rocks of
intermediate compositions are diorite and gabbro. The gabbro is dark green rock spotted with large
crystals of white feldspar which is kaolinized. Some types are pegmatitic and exhibit crystals upto 4
inches across of biotite and pyroxene. A small body of the granodiorite located in the west of Porali
river, 10km south of Wad. Concordant and discordant intrusions are found.
Iridescent soapstone has been reported from Nal area.
Muslimbagh ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and diorite but these seem
slightly later phase. The age is Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene (Ahmed and Abbas, 79; HSC,
1961). Kaimura et al. (1992) named its also Bagh complex after the Muslimbagh town.
Geological formations associated with igneous rocks: The geological formations (Permian-
Mesozoic) associated with igneous rocks are widely (10km) exposed in the Indus Suture zone as
pericratonic shelf carbonates, neritic shales and volcanics occasionally intruded by magmatic rocks
and tectonically emplaced ophiolites and mélanges (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2001) like Bela volcanics
(Bela volcanic group/Porali agglomerates/Porali volcanic conglomerate), Bela ophiolite, Mor
intrusives, Konar mélange, Zhob ophiolite, Zhob mélange, Bagh complex, Waziristan ophiolite
mélange, Twin sister soda dolerite and Pir Umar basalts, and Triassic Khanozai group (Gwal and
Wulgai formations, Jurassic Shirinab, Cretaceous Parh group (Sembar, Goru and Parh formations),
Fort Munro group (Mughalkot or Bibai formation), and Paleocene Thar formation, Bad Kachu
formation and Gidar Dhor group.
Waziristan ophiolite complex consists of mainly serpentinized ultrabasic rocks that include
saxoniter, dunite and pyroxenite. It also consists of dolerite, gabbro, and

STRATIGRAPHY OF KHYBER-HAZARA-KASHMIR (UPPERMOST INDUS) BASIN-

GONDWANA FRAGMENT), PAKISTAN

The Super Indus Basin is subdivided into uppermost/northernmost Indus (Khyber-Hazara-

Kashmir), upper /north Indus (Kohat and Potwar) and middle/central Indus (Sulaiman) and
lower/south Indus (Kirthar) basins.
This tectonostratigraphic basin show lower basement may belong to Indo-Pakistan shield and
upper cover. This basin is bounded by Northern Indus Suture in the north and Panjal-Khairabad

21
thrust in the south. The NW Himalayan tectonostratigraphic basin show high crystalline and
metamorphic belt in the northern half close to Indus Suture, and less metamorphic and crystalline
belt in the south, both are tentatively separated by MCT (main crystalline thrust). This area includes
the Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (Nosehri and Lipa valley areas close to MBT (main boundary thrust)
areas as southern belt (Lesser Himalaya) and Malakand-Saidu-Kaghan-Naran-Kel-Taubut) areas as
northern belt (Higher Himalaya) separated by a tentative MCT. The Higher Himalaya includes the
area north of Malakand Pass, Girarai in Swat, Besham Block, Batal and Naran (Kaghan valley) and
Luat in Neelam Valley to the MMT. The Lesser Himalaya includes the area south of Malakand Pass,
Girarai in Swat, Besham Block, Batal and Naran (Kaghan valley) and Luat in Neelam Valley to the
MBT/Panjal-Khairabad thrust fault.

Khyber Sub-basin and adjoining northern Indus suture

Spinghar (Sufaid Koh) crystalline unit extending from Parachinar to Khyber agency about
100km. Badshah et al. (2000) reported that this mountain consists of Indo-Pakistan basement
crystallines, Paleozoic metasediments and Mesozoic sediments, thrusted southward as nappe over
younger Indo-Pakistan shelf sediments. Sufaid Koh includes the Sikaram series, Spinghar quartzite,
Daradar dolomite and Spinghar crystalline unit.
Landikotal formation is originally named by Stauffer (1968) as Landikotal slates while Shah
(1969) renamed as Landikotal formation due to heterogeneous lithology like slate, phylite, limestone,
quartzite, sandstone and in places dolomite, intruded by basic dykes and sills.
Shagai formation is named after the Shagai Fort in the Khyber Pass by Stauffer (1968) for the 30m
unfossiliferous limestone (lower 15m dolomite and upper 15m brown limestone). Khan et al (1989)
included the Ali Masjid formation and Landikotal slates in this formation and show the lithology
as shale, slate, limestone and dolomite.
Darwaza Formation is named by Hussain et al. (1990) for the cream coloured limestone with
dolomite overlain by maroon argillite. Pogue et al. (1999b) inferred it as Late Proterozoic based on
Sr87 / Sr86 ratios of Inzari limestone which is lying on top of this sequence.
Hisartang Formation is named after Hisartang village by Hussain at al. (1990) for quartzite and
argillite. Late Proterozoic sequence.
Inzari Limestone is named after Inzari village by Hussain et al. (1990) for thin bedded, yellow to
greenish grey limestone.
Shahkot formation consists of limestone and phyllite of Lower Paleozoic age (Tahirkheli, 1970).
Hussain et al. (1989) declared as Precambrian.
Uch Khattak formation consists of rubbly limestone with minor shales (Tahirkheli, 1970). Hussain
et al. (1989) declared as Precambrian.
Shekhai formation consists of dolomitic limestone with quartzite and slaty shales with igneous
intrusions (Tahirkheli, 1970). Hussain et al. (1989) declared as Precambrian. Dolerite dykes and sills
are commonly found in this block.
Sobrah formation is named after Sobrah village 5km SSW of Tarbela dam by Pogue et al. (1999)
for arenaceous and dolomitic marble and calcareous and dolomitic quartzite. It is considered as
Sobrah member of Shekhai formation because of location between Manki and Tanawal formations.
Ambar formation is named after the Ambar village along Swabi Jehangira road by Pogue and
Hussain (1986) for dolomite, dolomitic limestone, quartzite and argillite.

22
Bampokha group is named by Chaudhry et al. (1992) for the Girarai and Tursak formations
exposed in the south of MCT in the Lesser Himalaya and consists of low-grade clac schist and
marble and graphitic schist. According to Chaudhry et al. (1992) this group is different from Alpurai
schist group in its tectonostratigraphic position and age.
Girarai formation is named by Chaudhry et al. (1992) for the calc schist, graphitic schist and
intercalated thin marble horizons. Its upper contact is with Tursak formation. In Mangora-Daggar
area, this formation overlies high grade metamorphic rocks of Tilgram formation with a major
MCT.
Tursak formation is named by Chaudhry et al. (1992) for the white to black marble with
subordinate calc and graphitic schist. Lower to middle Paleozoic in age.
Daradar dolomite is named by Badshah et al. (2000) for dolomite with common dolerite intrusions.
Soapstone occurs along fractures with mafic intrusions. In the western part of Spinghar at Neemtota,
it includes silver rich lead copper mineralization. It overlies Spinghar crystalline unit as Spinghar
quartzite. Silurian-Devonian age as correlated with rocks described by Khan A.B. et al. (1970).
Spinghar quartzite is named by Badshah et al. (2000) for quartzite. It is correlated with Silurian-
Devonian Spinrag quartzite of Khan A.B. et al. (1970). Its lower contact with Daradar and upper
contact with Sikaram series are tectonic.
Ali Masjid group of Khan, M.A. (1970) include the Spin Rag quartzite, Oosi Nala limestone,
Kandar phyllite, Nowshera formation, Misri Banda quartzite and Warran Ghundai formation.
Ghundai Sar formation of Khan et al. (1989) is the synonym of this group.
Khyber limestone of Stauffer (1968) is included in this group also.
Spin Rag quartzite consists of 30-36m thick quartzite. It rests over Landikotal slate along thrust
fault and overlain by Oosi Nala limestone. Its age is Middle to upper Silurian (Khan, M.A. 1970)
Owsi Nala limestone consists of limestone and shale intercalations. Mafic intrusions produced
soapstone lenses. On the basis of superposition age is Middle to upper Silurian age (Khan, M.A.
1970).
Kandar phyllite consists of phyllite, phyllitic schists interbedded with limestone and mafic sills
which have produced soapstone. Middle to upper Silurian (Khan, M.A. 1970).
Nowshera formation is named by Stauffer (1968a) for the fossiliferous limestone and dolomite. Its
synonym Jobra formation is named by DiPietro (1990) in the Swat area, 5km SE of Ilam for calc-
silicate marble and he now suggested to be a synonym of Nowshehra formation. It occurs in between
the Swat granite gneiss and Alpurai indicate a Paleozoic age Early Devonian. Its lower contact with
Kandar phylite and upper contact with Misri Banda quartzite are conformable revealing Late Silurian
to early Devonian.
Misri Banda quartzite is named after Misri Banda village by Satuffer (1968a) for quartzite,
limestone and argillite exposed in the Nowshera hills in the northern fault block of Attock-Cherat
range and in Swabi area. Early to middle Ordovician (Pogue et al. 1992). It rests unconformably on
the Cambrian? Amber formation. It rests on Nowshera formation in the Khyber area and aged as
Middle Devonian to Carboniferous (Khan, M.A. 1970).
Warran Ghundai formation consists of slates, phyllites, quartzite and dolomitic limestone and age
is inferred as Carboniferous on the basis of superposition (Khan, M.A. 1970). Lowara Mena
formation of Khan et al. (1989) is its synonym.

23
Panjpir limestone is named after the Panjpir village in Mardan district by Pogue and Hussain (1986)
for slate, phylite, limestone and quartzite. Middle Ordovician to Late Silurian by Pogue and Hussain
(1986)
Pir Sabak formation of Shah, 1977 include dolomite/limestone. Pre late Devonian age by Shah
(1977).
Zone of Crystalline nappes
Malakand
Pinjkora complex is named after the Pinjkora river by Di Pietro et al. (2001), consists of meta
sediments, granitic rocks, orthogneisses and metabasalts exposed in the core of Pinjkora anticline. It
is exposed in the Malakand-Swat area.
Swat
Manglour formation is named after the Manglaur village, 6km ENE of Mingora by Kazmi et al.
(1984c). It is exposed Afghan border to Swat and Besham areas. It consists of crystalline schists,
quartzite and marble (DiPeitro 1990).
Jobra formation is named after the Jobra village by DiPietro (1990). It is restricted to Loe Sar dome
west of Pacha. It consists of schist, quartzite and amphibolite.
Besham
Besham basement complex and cover sequence. East of Swat, near Alpurai area, the Swat nappe is
structurally underlain by the Besham nappe and furthers eastward the Hazara nappe. It is result of
thrusting of Indo-Pakistan basement. Tahirkheli (1979) named this as Besham group with Chali and
Banna formations. Some other names like Lahor granite, Thakot metamorphic rocks, Pazang
group and Karora group and formation were also used. Karora formation is named after the
Karora village near Besham by Fletcher (1986).
Kishar formation is named by Dipietro et al. (1999) for darkgrey non schistose biotite quartz
plagioclase rocks which were earlier included in the Besham group.
Amlo conglomerate is named after the Amlo village north of Besham by Baig (1990). It consists of
mainly conglomerate.
Gandaf formation is named after the Gandaf village in Tarbela Lake area by Pouge et al. (1995) and
consists of schist, slate, phyllite and marble.
Dipietro and others (1999, 2001) on the basis of igneous rocks in the vicinity of Besham arranged
under 3 groups namely Besham complex, Kotla complex and Black mountain complex.
Swat granitic gneiss is named by Martin et al. (1962) for the discontinuous bodies at Chakdara,
Dopialo, Ilam, Loe Sar, Choga. This intrudes the Proterozoic Manglaur, Gandaf and Tanawal
formations in Swat area.
Mansehra granitic gneiss is a vast pluton west of Hazara Kashmir syntaxis to Indus River (Shams
1969) but also exposed in the Khyber and Neelum Azad Kashmir. It intrudes the Proterozoic Gandaf
and Tanawal formations. In some literature its age is mentioned as Cretaceous to Early Tertiary.
Sikaram series is named after Sikaram Sar (4755m) peak of Sufaid Koh by Badshah et al. (2000) for
the EW trending argillaceous rocks like claystone and carbonaceous shales in the lower part and
slates and graphitic schists in the upper part. Badshah et al. (2000) mentioned the similarity between
this and Landikotal slates of Khyber agency.
Lwarani Mela limestone is named after the Lwarai Mela village, 4Km NE of Baraghat by
Tahirkheli et al. (1975) for the limestone with some slates.

24
Baraghat slates is named after the Baraghat village by Tahirkheli et al. (1975) for slates and
phyllites.
Barai quartzite is named after the Barai village about 2.4km NE of Baraghat village by Tahirkheli
et al. (1975) for the quartzites.
Spinkai formation is named after the Spinkai village in the upper part of Baraghat nala by
Tahirkheli et al. (1975). It is exposed in the north of Bara valley, extending eastward from Spinkai to
Mughabagh Kandao and Chora Hoda valley. It consists of limestone and shale.
Jafar Kandao formation is named after the Jafar Kandao village, 25km NE of Mardan by Pogue
and Hussain (1986) for the argillite, limestone, quartzite and conglomerate. Its lower contact with
Devonian Nowshera formation and upper contact with Malandrai greenschist member of Duma
formation. Pogue (1992a) found conodonts of Late Devonian to Middle Carboniferous age.
Duma formation is named after Duma village (on the right side of Indus gorge) 46km ENE of
Rustam by Dipietro et al. (1995). Kazmi and Abbasi (2008) have organized the following 3 members
of this formation. Karapa greenschist is named by Dipietro et al. (1999) is the lower member,
Duma marble member (Duma formation of Dipietro et al. 1999) is the middle member and
Malandrai member (greenschist, named after the Malandrai Kandao locality 12km NE of Rustam)
is upper member.
Mekhband formation is named by DiPietro and Isachsen (2001). It is exposed as allochthonous
slices on the flanks of Pinjkora anticline in Malakand area. It is similar to Marghazar formation in
Malakand areas. It conformably overlies the Proterozic Pinjkora complex and intruded by 278Ma
Chakdarra orthogneiss, showing earliest Permian or older.
Alpurai group is renamed by DiPietro (1990) after the Alpurai schist of Kazmi et al. (1984). Di
Pietro (1990) mentioned the Marghazar, Kashala, Nakanai Ghar and Saidu formations in this group.
Marghazar formation is named after the Marghazar locality near Saidu, in Swat for the biotite
schist, psammitic schist, calcite –phlogopite marble and minor garnet schist and amphibolite,
exposed in the flanks of Loe Sar dome in Swat and extends from near Manglaur southward up to
Jawar, westward up to 7km east of Chakdarra. Its age is constrained by the underlying Cambrian
Swat granite gneiss and overlying Triassic Kashala formation.
Kashala formation consists of calcareous schist and schistose marble with massive white to grey
marble of about 4000m thick, sharp contact with underlying amphibolites of Marghazar formation.
Pogue et al. (1992) reported upper Triassic (Carnian) conodonts from the marble in the mid of
formation.
Nakanai Ghar formation is named after Nikanai Ghar range in southern swat by Palmer-Rosenberg
(1985) for marble, dolomitic marble, schist and quartzite. It has faulted contact with underlying
Kashala formation and tentatively assigned a Late Triassic to Jurassic age (Pogue et al. 1962).
Saidu formation is named by Kazmi et al. (1986) for thick sequence of grey to dark grey calcareous
and pelitic schist (graphitic and chloritic) exposed in the south of MMT in the vicinity of Saidu and
elsewhere in Swat area with thrusted contact with mélanges of Indus Suture zone. About 30km south
of Saidu, the Saidu schist is replaced by Nikanai Ghar formation which overlies the Kashala
formation representing Late Triassic to Jurassic age.
Landai formation is named by DiPietro et al. (1999) for amphibolite, garnetiferous schistose marble
and white to grey marble occurs east of Indus river, SE of Besham. Sharp contact with Mansehra
granite and an unconformable or faulted contact with underlying Tanawal formation, eastward in

25
contact with Banna formation. DiPietro et al. (1999) mentioned the similarity with Kashala and
Duma formations and may be Late Paleozoic to Triassic in age.
Banna formation is named after the Banna village east of Besham by Tahirkheli (1979) for the
marble, slate, graphitic schist and chloritic schist. DiPietro et al. (1999) mentioned its exposure in a
small syncline along the east side of Indus syntaxis in Allai Kohistan. It has thrust contact with Indus
Mélange on the north, in the south the Banna thrust separate it from the underlying sillimanite
gneisses of the Hazara nappe. It is correlated with Precambrian Salkhala formation (Kazmi and
Abbasi, 2008). Treloar et al. (1989d) correlated it with Paleozoic tom Early Mesozoic Alpurai group
and DiPietro et al. (1999) correlated with Triassic or younger Saidu formation.
Magmatic rocks in the form of stocks or batholiths of Carboniferous to Permian are exposed
in the Khyber Hazara metamorphic belt and in the zone of crystalline nappes. Shewa-Shahbazgarhi
intrusives are in the form of acidic porphyrites/microgranites with mafic rocks exposed in the south
of Rustam near Shahbazgarhi. Ahmad et al. (1990) reported continental flood basalts along with
alkaline and peralkaline acidic rocks emplaced during continental rifting. Khan et al. (1990) and
Pogue et al. (1992) reported igneous rocks intercalated with Carboniferous sediments of Jafar
Kandao formation.
Ambela granitic complex consists of granites, alkaline granites, syenites, ijolite and carbonatite
intruded by dolerite and lamprophyre dykes (Rafiq and Jan 1988,89) with Rb-Sr isochron ages of
297-315 Ma for alkaline rocks near Koga(LeBas et al. 1987) and 280Ma U-Pb zircon age for the
synite (Smith et al. 1994).
Tarbela alkaline complex consists of gabbros, dolerites, albitites, granites and carbonatites exposed
in the form of small elongated body near Tarbela Dam (Jan et al. 1981a) and aged as 350 Ma K-Ar
date on hornblende from albitite which is close in age to Ambela granitic complex. Swat flaser
granitic gneisses consists of porphyroblastic granite gneiss, massive biotite granite gneiss,
tourmaline garnet granite gneiss, rapakivi type biotites and sphene bearing granites (Humayun 1985;
Chaudhrey et al. 1992) and referred by DiPietro et al. (2001) as Chakdara, Dopialo Sar and Ilam
granitic gneisses with 265Ma zircon Pb/U age for the gneisses while Sith et al. (1994) reported
271Ma Pb/U (zircon) age for the granitic rocks of Malakand area.
Mafic intrusions occurs as sills and dykes with rarely plugs or irregular bodies in Khyber Agency
(Shah et al. 1980), Cherat-Attock ranges (Karim and Sufyan 1986) and Hazara (Calkins et al. 1975).
At places they show lamprophyres, norites and gabbros. They intrude late Paleozoic or earlier rocks
but not in Mesozoic or later rocks (Kazmi and Jan, 1997, showing late carboniferous to early
Triassic. Baig (1990) has reported Ar/Ar plateau dates of 284-262Ma for mafic dykes intruding the
Mansehra granite.
Carbonatite in Peshawar Plain Alkaline Igneous Province: Carbonatite in Peshawar Plain
Alkaline Igneous Province is 150 km from Tarbela in the east up to Loe-Shilman near Pakistan-
Afghanistan boarder in the west consists mainly of granites, syenites, gabbros, ijolites and
carbonatite. The name of the carbonatites are Loe-Shilman, Sillai-Patti, Jawar, Jambil, Koga and
Tarbela. The age determined by many radiometric methods founds to be Oligocene about 30-35Ma
suggests alkaline magmatic episode (Khattak, et al. 2004).

26
Revised Stratigraphy of Hazara Sub-basin

The uppermost Indus basin is the lateral extension of Upper Indus basin in the downward
slopes. In the upper Indus basin the alternating terrestrial and marine conditions were dominant while
in the uppermost Indus basin the marine conditions were common. For example the in the case of
terrestrial Datta Formation is terrestrial in upper Indus and marine in uppermost Indus. The
comprehensive and revised stratigraphic setup of Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (uppermost Indus) basin
represents Precambrian Hazara Formation, Tanawal Quartzite; Cambrian Abbottabad and Hazira
formations; Triassic Chalk Jabbi; Jurassic Datta and Samanasuk formations; Cretaceous Chichali and
Kawagarh formations in southern part while in northern part the Panjal Formation including
volcanics; Infra Tertiary boundary represented as Indus Formation (bauxite and laterite); Latest
Cretaceous to Late Paleocene Hangu (Patala is a synonym and lateral facies of Hangu Formation)
and Lockhart formations; Eocene Nammal, Sakesar, Chorgali and Kuldana formations; Miocene-
Pliocene Murree formation; Pleistocene-Holocene Soan Group represents Lei Formation (mainly
conglomerate-coarse clastic facies; previous lower Soan) and Holocene Soan Formation (clay,
sandstone and subordinate conglomerate-relatively fine clastic facies; previous upper Soan). The
Patala Formation is the lateral facies of Hangu Formation within the same basin, same stratigraphic
horizon, same lithologies and same depositional environments. So Hangu Formation name is
considered as first name and Patala will be junior synonym. Further its age is Latest Cretaceous to
Early Paleocene because it is well correlated with the Vitakri coal of Kingri area of Sulaiman basin.
In this way the Hangu Group consists of Latest Cretaceous to Early Paleocene Hangu formation and
middle to Late Paleocene Lockhart Limestone. Further there are problems in correlating Murree,
Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri, Dhok Pathan especially in Azad Kashmir and northern Potwar. So Murree
Formation is the senior synonym of Kamlial. So revised sequence is Murree formation and Soan
Formation in the Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir and in the Potwar the Murree, Chinji, Nagri and Dhok
Pathan will be considered under Potwar Group. The Pleistocene Coarse clastic (Lei conglomerate
and then Holocene mixed fine and coarse clastic may be Soan Formation can be grouped as
Lei/Mirpur/Soan Group.
Hazara Formation is named by Calkins et al. (1969) for the slate, phyllite, shale, limestone and
graphitic layers. It is widely exposed east to west. Its synonyms are Salkhala Formation, Attock
slates, Dhakhner, Shekhai formation and Manki formations,etc. Its age is Late Precambrian based on
correlation with Dogra slates. Salkhala Formation was first named as Salkhala series by Wadia (in
Pascoe, 1953) for a sequence of schist, phylite, quartzite and carbonaceous material after the
Salkhala village on Kishanganga River, Kashmir. Offield and Abdullah in Calkins eta l. (1969)
adopted as Salkhala Formation. Gandaf and Kundal are its units. Hazara group is named by Latif
(1970). Langrial limestone and Miranjani limestone are also named.
Tanawal (Tanol) Formation was first named as Tanol group after the Tanol village by Wynne
(1879) in the north and east of Tarbela. Calkins et al. (1975) adapted the new spelling by Survey of
Pakistan for the same village as Tanawal. It consists of quartzite and schists. It is intruded by
Cambrian Mansehra granite (Pogue et al. 1999a) and so this formation is considered as Late
Proterozoic.
Abbottabad Formation: Abbotabad group is named initially as formations by Marks and Ali (1962)
and elevated as group by Gardezi and Ghazanfar (1965). This group is well exposed from Tarbela to
Kashmir. The Tanaki (conglomerate), Sangargali (sandstone and shale), Mahamdagali (sandstone

27
and dolomite) and Mirpur (sandstone, shale and dolomite) members (Latif, 1970) are elevated as
formations under the Abbotabad group by the suggestions of Butt (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008). Its
synonym Sirban formation is named after Sirban Hill near Abbotabad and Kakul formation after
Kakul area near Abbottabad by Latif (1970) for the dolomite, sandstone, shale, limestone, quartzite,
chert and phosphate beds. According to present author the best applied name is Abbottabad
Formation due to its wide lateral and vertical exposures.
Hazira Formation was named after Hazira village by Gardezi and Ghazanfar (1965) for the shale,
siltstone and quartzite. It overlies Abbotabad formation and underlies Mesozoic arenite (may be Data
for correlation). Hazira Formation shows glauconitic facies near base. Gardezi and Ghazanfar (1965)
named Hematitic formation (Galdanian formation). Hyolithids, Cambrian age.
Chak Jabbi Limestone: Some evidence of Chak Jabbi limestone may be found in Southern Hazara.
Age Triassic.
Indus Formation is named by Malkani and Zafar (2015). Some boundaries like Jurassic-Cretaceous
boundary in the northern Kirthar named as Dilband Formation, the Cretaceous –Tertiary boundary
along with Latest Cretaceous continental strata named as Vitakri formation in middle Indus basin.
Like these in upper Indus and uppermost Indus basins the infra Tertiary boundary is named as Indus
formation because it is well exposed in the Indus basin. It consists of lateritic and bauxitic beds. Its
upper contact is with the Hangu Formation/Patala Formation and lower contacts vary for different
older ages (please see further detail in Kohat-Potwar basin).
Shinawari Formation: The marine shale and some sandstone are found in southern Hazara. Age
Middle Jurassic.
Samanasuk Formation: The name Samanasuk Limestone was derived from Samana Range by
Davies (1930). It consists of mainly limestone with minor shale. Age Middle Jurassic.
Chichali Formation was named after the Chichali Pass in Surghar Range by Danilchik (1961). It
consists of dark greenish grey glauconitic sandstone and glauconitic shale in the lower part. It is
correlated with Spiti shale of Hazara area. Its age is Early Cretaceous.
Kawagarh Formation was named as Kawagarh marl was named after the Kawagarh hills north of
Kala Chitta Range by Day (in unpublished Attock Oil Company’ report-1945) and later Kawagarh
Formation was amended due to different lithological extension by Fatmi (1977). It consists of marl
and limestone and shale. Its age is Late Cretaceous.
Panjal Group was named by Chaudhry et al. (1986) for the lower agglomerate slate as Chushal
Formation and Panjal Formation for the upper volcanosedimentary unit of Calkin et al. (1969).
Panjal group is exposed in the northern and eastern margins of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis wedged in
between Murree and Panjal faults. It is further exposed in the Nosehri area of lower Neelum and
Lamnian area of upper Jhelum and some kms east of Forward Kahota, Azad Kashmir. Panjal
formation seems to be coeval to Parh group especially Mughalkot/Bibai Formation of western
Sulaiman basin because both formations have a lot of volcanics.
Hangu Group consists of Hangu and Lockhart formations of Latest Cretaceous to Paleocene.
Hangu Formation was named as Hangu shale and Hangu sandstone after the section south of Fort
Lockhart in Samana Range of Kohat area by Davies (1930a) and later Hangu Formation was
amended by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of sandstone with grey shale and coal probably latest
Cretaceous age deduced from the correlation with Vitakri formation of Sulaiman basin. The Patala
Formation is being considered as synonym of Hangu Formation because of lateral extension of

28
Hangu Formation and mostly same lithology and almost same horizon. Age Latest Cretaceous to
Early Paleocene.
Patala Formation was named as Patala shale after the Patala nala in Salt Range by Davies and
Pinfold (1937) and later Patala Formation was amended by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of
shale, marl, limestone and sandstone of Latest Cretaceous to Late Paleocene. Now it is being
considered as junior synonym of Hangu formation because it is the lateral facies of Hangu and also
in one basin only one name is suitable.
Lockhart Limestone was named after Fort Lockhart in Samana Range by Davies (1930a). It
consists of rubbly limestone of Middle-Late Paleocene age.
Nammal Group consists of Nammal and Sakesar formations.
Nammal Formation was named as Nammal limestone and shale of Gee (in Fermor, 1935) was
named after the Nammal gorge in western Salt Range. It consists of shale, marl and limestone of
Early Eocene.
Sakesar Formation was named after the Sakesar peak in the Salt Range by Gee (in Fermor, 1935).
It consists of dominant limestone with subordinate marl of Early Eocene age. Its synonym Margala
Hill limestone is named by Latif (1970a) for dominantly limestone with subordinate marl and shale
of Early Eocene age. Margala Hill limestone is being considered as synonym of Sakesar
formation/limestone due to its lateral facies and same basin and also same age.
Kuldana Group is being named here for the Chorgali and Kuldana formations.
Chorgali Formation was named after the Chorgali pass in Khaire Murat range as Chorgali beds by
Pascoe (1920) and as formation by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of shale and limestone of Early
Eocene age. It is exposed in the eastern Salt range, Kala-Chitta range, Khaire Murat range, and in
Hazara area. Its lower contact with Sakesar limestone is conformable and upper contact with
Kuldana in the Murree, Hazara and Kohat areas is conformable while its upper contact in some part
of Salt Range with Murree formation is disconfirmable.
Kuldana Formation was named after the Kuldana village north of Murree Hill station in Hazara
area as Kuldana beds by Wynne (1874), Lower Cherat series of Eames (1952) and Mami Khel clay
of Meissner et al. (1968). It consists of shale and marl with minor sandstone, limestone,
conglomerate and bleached dolomite. Its lower contact in the Hazara, Kala-Chita and Potwar area
with Chorgali formation, in Kohat area with Jatta gypsum, and the upper contact in western part of
Kohat-Potwar basin with Kohat formation and eastern part of Kohat-Potwar basin with Murree
formation.
Murree Formation: Among Potwar Group only Murree Formation is exposed in Hazara area. Mari
group of Wynne (1874), Murree beds of Lydekker (1876) and Murree series of Pilgrim (1910) has
been accepted by SCP as Murree Formation (Cheema et al, 1977). It consists of monotonous
sequence of dark red and purple clay and purple grey to greenish grey sandstone of fluvial origin. Its
age seems to be Miocene. It is correlated with Vihowa Group of Sulaiman basin and Potwar Group
of Kohat-Potwar basin.

Upper Naran (Hazara) and Upper Neelam (Azad Kashmir) areas

Sharda group is described by Chaudhry et al. (1986) for the gneisses, marble, granites and
amphibolites. It is exposed from Kunhar valley NE of Batal to Babusar pass. It is exposed between
the MMT and north dipping Batal thrust (Treloar et al. 1989b). This group is similar to Alpurai

29
group in Swat. This group consists of Basal di Khari granite gneiss (Cambrian and older), Naran
formation, Dadar granite migmatite complex and Burawai formation. Naran formation is named
after Naran village in Kaghan valley by Greco et al. (1989, 1993) for the metapelitic-metagreywake
gneisses. Burawai formation is named after the Burawai village in Kaghan valley by Chaudhry and
Ghazanfar (1987) for the schists, marbles and paragneisses of Paleomesozoic age.
Kaghan group is described by Ghazanfar et al. (1985) for the metapellites, schists, quartzites,
marbles, metaconglomerates, pegmatite and amphibolites up to garnet grade. It is exposed between
Mahandri and Batal. Chaudhry et al. (1986) divided it into following 3 formations. Rajawal
formation consists of Batal quartzites, Paludaran graphitic schist and Rajwal quartzites, quartz mica
schist, gneisses, pegmatites, aplites and granite gneiss.
Kaghan pelites consist of greenish grey garnetiferous schist, quartz mica schist, graphite schist,
marble and gypsum.
Mahandri formation consists of Kamalban quartz mica schist, quartzite, calc schist and marble.
Jared quartzite is named after the Jared village near Mahandri by Chaudhry et al. (1986) for the
earlier Jured series of Wadia (1930).

Nanga-Parbat-Harmosh Massif (Gilgit-Baltistan Province)

Iskere gneiss is named after the Iskere village. It is biotite gneiss with subordinate biotite schist,
amphibolite and calc-silicate gneiss with a minimum thickness of 8km. It is thrusted on older
Shingus gneiss and overlain by Harmosh schist. Its U-Pb isochron age is about 1850Ma (Early
Proterozoic).
Harmosh formation named after the Harmosh Range and consists of amphibolite,-grade biotite
schist and gneiss, marble, calc-silicate gneiss and amphibolite. The age is Late Proterozoic (Madin
et al. 1989).
Shingus gneiss is named after Shingus village in the Indus gorge and consists of amphibolite-grade
biotite gneiss, amphibolite, calc-silicate gneiss, biotite schist and marble (Madin et al. 1989). .
2600-2200 Ma Proterozoic

Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, Kaghan Nappe and Nosehri area of lower Neelum and Lamnian
area of upper Jhelum, Azad Kashmir

Panjal Group is being named by Chaudhry et al. (1986) after the Panjal. This group consists of
thick sequence of Chushal and Panjal formations.
Chushal Formation (Chushal agglomeratic slate) is named by Chaudhry et al. (1986) after the
metavolcanics and sediments of Panjal system of Lydekker (1878), Panjal volcanic series of Wadia
(1931), lower agglomerate slate and upper volcanosedimentary unit of Calkin et al. (1969). Chaudhry
et al. (1986) named the lower agglomerate slate as Chushal formation and Panjal Formation for the
upper volcanosedimentary unit of Calkin et al. (1969). Panjal group is exposed in the northern and
eastern margins of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis wedged in between Murree and Panjal faults. It is
further exposed in the Nosehri area of lower Neelum and Lamnian area of upper Jhelum and some
kms east of Forward Kahota, Azad Kashmir
Panjal intrusives consists of dolerite dykes intrude the pretrappean sequences in the NW Himalayas.
Pascoe (1959) mentioned the genetic connection between the dolerite dykes and Panjal formation
(trap). The laccolithic bosses of coarse gabbro and norite have intruded in the Chushal agglomerate

30
slate in the Panjal range. Near Hurapor the sills in Agglomerate slates have been traced into lavas of
the Panjal trap. These dolerite dykes intrude the Hazara, Tanawal and some other Proterozoic
sequences in the Khyber-Hazara metamorphic belt.
Surgun group is named after Surgan village in the Neelam valley of Azad Kashmir by Malik et al.
(1996) for thick cover metasediments like mica schists, paragneisses, marble, quartzites and
metaconglomerates unconformably overlying the Precambrian basement and Pre Himalayan cover
sequence. This group is divided into units A,B and C age range from Late Proterozoic to Mesozoic.
Unit A resembles to Tanawal formation (Malik et al. (1996).

Upper Neelam valley (Azad Kashmir)

Ghazanfar and Chaudhry (1986) extended their map of Kaghan to cover the Neelam valley also.
They identified the Sharda group in the north of MCT, and Neelam valley group (further
subdivided in to Tithwal formation and Kundalshahi formation) in the south of MCT. Naril group is
named after the Naril village north of Kel by Malik et al. (1996) for the granulitic gneisses.
Kundalshahi group (Salkhala Formation) is named after Kundalshahi village in Neelam valley by
Malik et al. (1996) which was originally proposed as Kundalshahi formation by which is the by
Ghazanfar and Chaudhry (1986).

STRATIGRAPHY OF INDO-PAKISTAN SHIELD (A BASEMENT ROCK OF

PRECAMBRIAN AGE)

The Archean rocks are confined only in the Indian Peninsular Shield, however the
Proterozoic rocks are exposed in the Kirana, Nagar Parker and NW Himalayan (separately
described), Pakistan as part of Indo-Pakistan shield basement.
Nagerparker area; Nagerparker Igneous complex is named by Jan et al. (1997) for acidic and
basic igneous rocks. Kazmi and Khan (1973) named as Nagar Igneous Complex, Nagar Parker
granite by Shah (1077) and Nagar Parker Massif by Muslim and Akhtar (1995). According to Jan et
al. (1997) reported six major magmatic episodes of intrusive and extrusive activities like
amphibolites and related dykes, riebeckite-aegirine grey granite, biotite-hornblende pink granite, acid
dykes, rhyolite plugs and basic dykes. These rocks may be the extension of Proterozoic granitoids of
the Indian Rajasthan.
Kirana area; Kirana complex is named after the Kirana hills. It is exposed near the towns of
Sargodha, Chiniot, Shahkot and Shangla hills. Hachi group is named by Shah (2009) after the Hachi
volcanic (Alam, 1987) after the Hachi hill north of Sikhanwali Railway Station. In general this group
consists of quartzite, slates, phyllite, tuffs and lava flows.
Kirana group is introduced by Kazmi (1964) for which Rb/Sr date of 870 Ma has been obtained by
Davies and Crawford (1971). Alam et al. (1992) divided the Kirana complex into Kirana and
Sharban groups.
Taguwali formation is named after the Taguwali village by Alam et al. (1992) and it consists of
cross bedded quartzites, phyllite and slates in the lower part, slates in the middle part and phyllites
and slates in the upper part.

31
Asianwala quartzite is named after Asianwala canal rest house by Alam et al. (1992). It consists of
quartzite with subordinate intercalations of slate. It has gradational contact with the underlying
Taguwali formation. No fossils are reported.
Sharban group is named by Alam et al. (1992). Hadda quartzite is named after Hadda canal rest
house and it consists of quartzites, slates, conglomerates and lava flows. Sharban formation is
named after Sharaban hill about 18km SE of Sargodha and it consists of dominant conglomerates
with minor lenses of fine grained quartzite.

STRATIGRAPHY OF KOHAT-POTWAR (UPPER INDUS) BASIN (GONDWANA

FRAGMENT), PAKISTAN

Kohat-Potwar (upper Indus) basin shows the following different updated lithological units.

Salt Range Formation: It was named after the Salt Range (Asrarullah, 1967). It consists of Sahwal
Marl Member, Bandar Kas Gypsum Member and Billianwala Salt Member. Its age is Early
Cambrian to Late Precambrian (Gee, 1945) deduced from the overlying Khewra and Kussak
formations.
Khewra group consists of Khewra, Kussak, Jutana and Baghanwala formations.
Khewra Sandstone: Khewra group was named after the Khewra Gorge near Khewra town
(Noetling, 1894) and Khewra Sandstone was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan
(Shah, 1977). It consists of purple sandstone. Schindewolf and Seilacher (1955) mentioned some tace
fossils interpreted as trilobite trails (not any particular age). Its age is Early Cambrian (Gee, 1945)
deduced from the overlying Khewra and Kussak formations.
Kussak Formation; Kussak group was named after the Kussak Fort in eastern Salt Range (Noetling,
1894) and Kussak Formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 1977).
It consists of glauconitic and micaceous sandstone and siltstone interbedded with dolomite. The
formation is fossiliferous. Schindewolf and Seilacher (1955) mentioned Early Cambrian age while
Teichert (1964) mentioned early Middle Cambrian on the correlation of Redlichta Noetling of this
formation with the Australia in beds of early Middle Cambrian age.
Jutana Formation: Jutana stage was named after the Jutana village in the eastern Salt Range
(Noetling, 1894) and Jutana Formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan
(Shah, 1977). It consists of dolomite. It is fossiliferous. Schindewolf and Seilacher (1955; in Teichert
1964) mentioned some fossils of late Early Cambrian to early Middle Cambrian age.
Baghanwala Formation: Baghanwala group was named after the Baghanwakla village in the
eastern Salt Range (Noetling, 1894) and Baghanwala Formation was formalized by Stratigraphic
Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 1977). It consists of red shale alternated with flaggy sandstone. It
contains trace fossils. The age is early Middle Cambrian deduced from underlying Jutana formation
(Shah, 1977).
Khisor Formation: Khisor gypsiferous beds were named after the Khisor Range (Hussain, 1960)
and Khisor formation was formalized by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 1977). It
consists of thick gypsum in the base and shale in the upper part. On correlation with Baghanwala
Formation it is considered as early Middle Cambrian age (Shah, 1977).
Nilawahan Group consists of following 4 formations. Tobra Formation: It was named after the
Tobra village in the eastern Salt Range (Shah, 1977) for the Talchir boulder bed of Gee (in Pascoe,

32
1959). It consists of Tillitic facies in eastern Salt Range, fresh water facies of siltstone and shale with
pollen and spore flora, and a complex facies of diamictite, sandstone and boulder beds increase in
westernsalt range and Khisor range. Its age is Early Permian deduced by Balme (in Teichert 1967).
Dandot Formation: Dandot group was named after the Dandot village in the eastern Salt Range
(Noetling, 1901) and Dandot Formation was formalized by Stratigraphic committee of Pakistan
(Shah, 1977). It consists of speckled sandstone with some shale. Its age is Early Permian (Shah,
1977).
Warcha Sandstone: Warcha group was named after the Warcha gorge in the Salt Range by
Noetling (1901) and Warcha Formation was named by Hussain (1967). It consists of speckled
sandstone with some shale. Its age is Early Permian (Shah, 1977).
Sardhi Formation: It was named after the Sardhi gorge in the eastern Salt Range by Gee (written
communication, 1964). It consists of greenish grey clay with some sandstone, siltstone and
limestone. The age is Early Permian (Hussain, 1967; Shah, 1977).
Zaluch Group of Teichert (1966) after the Zaluch nala includes the Amb, Wargal and Chidru
formations of Permian age. Amb Formation: Amb sandstone beds was named after the Amb village
in the central Salt Range (Waagen, 1891) and Amb Formation was named by Tiechert (1966). Age
Late Permian.
Wargal Limestone: Wargal group was named after the Wargal Village in the central Salt Range
(Noetling, 1894) and Wargal Limestone was introduced by Teichert (1966).It consists of mainly
limestone. Age Late Permian.
Chidru Formation: The name Chidru beds was named after the Chidru Nala by Waagen (1891) and
Chidru Formation was named by Dunbar (1932). It consists of shale, quartzose sandstone with minor
limestone. Age Late Permian.
Musakhel group was named by Shah (2009) after the Nammmal gorge near the Musakhel. It
consists of Mianwali, Tredian and Kingriali formations of Triassic age.
Mianwali Formation: The name Mianwali Series was used by Gee (in Pascoe, 1959) and Mianwali
Formation by Kummel (1966). It consists of marl, limestone, sandstone, siltstone and dolomite. Age
Early Triassic.
Tredian Formation: The name Tredian Formation was named after the Tredian hills in Mianwali
district by Gee (in Kummel, 1966) to replace his earlier name Kingriali sandstone. It consists of
sandstone of terrestrial environments. Age Middle Triassic.
Kingriali Formation: The name Kingriali dolomite was named after the Kingriali peak in Khisor
Range by Gee (1945) and later amended as Kingriali Formation. It consists of dolomite, limestone,
dolomitic limestone, marl, sandstone and shale. Age Late Triassic.
Chak Jabbi Limestone: The name Chak Jabbi Limestone was proposed by Fatmi (1972). It consists
of lithographic limestone. Age is Triassic.
Surghar Group was named by Shah (1980) after Surghar range for 5 formations but here 3
formations of Jurassic are incorporated in this group and other 2 formations of Cretaceous are
assembled in other group. Now this group comprises of Datta, Shinawari and Samanasuk formations
of Jurassic age.
Datta Formation: The name Data Formation was named after Data Nala in Surghar range by
Danilchik (1961). It consists of mostly terrestrial deposits like sandstone, shale, ferruginous glass
sand and fire clay. The fire clay occurs in the lower part. Age Early Jurassic.

33
Shinawari Formation: The name Shinawari Formation was named after Shinawari village in
Samana range of Kohat district by Fatmi (1977). It consists of alternation of marl, shale and
limestone. Age Middle Jurassic.
Samanasuk Formation: The name Samanasuk Limestone was derived from Samana Range by
Davies (1930). It consists of mainly limestone with minor shale. Age Middle Jurassic.
Chichali Group is being named now after the Chichali area for Chichali and Lumshiwal formations.
Chichali Formation was named after the Chichali Pass in Surghar Range by Danilchik (1961). It
consists of dark greenish grey glauconitic sandstone and glauconitic shale in the lower part. It is
correlated with Spiti shale of Hazara area. Its age is Early Cretaceous.
Lumshiwal Formation was named as Lumshiwal sandstone after the Lumshiwal nala in the Surghar
Range by Gee (1945) and later Lumshiwal Formation was amended due to different lithology by
Fatmi (1977). It consists of cross bedded sandstone and shale of continental origin. Its age is Late
Cretaceous.
Kawagarh Formation was named as Kawagarh marl was named after the Kawagarh hills north of
Kala Chitta Range by Day (in unpublished Attock Oil Company’ report-1945) and later Kawagarh
Formation was amended due to different lithological extension by Fatmi (1977). It consists of marl
and limestone and shale. It is lateral extension of Lumshiwal Formation. Its age is Late Cretaceous.
Indus Formation is named by Malkani and Zafar (2015). Some disconfirmable boundaries like
Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in the northern Kirthar named as Dilband Formation, the Cretaceous-
Tertiary boundary along with Latest Cretaceous continental strata named as Vitakri Formation in
middle Indus basin. Like these in upper Indus and uppermost Indus basins the infra Tertiary
boundary is named as Indus Formation because it is well exposed in the Indus basin. Its type locality
is Narali area (eastern limb) of Tatta Pani Anticlinorium (43K/2), District Kotli, Azad Kashmir. It
consists of lateritic and bauxitic beds along with pisolitic beds (Fig.7). Its upper contact is with the
Hangu Formation (synonym Patala formation) and lower contact with different older strata. In the
type locality its lower contact is with the Samanasuk Limestone (previously named Abbottabad
Formation for all the limestone from Cambrian to Jurassic). But here in Kotli and Muzaffarabad
Azad Kashmir, the Abbottabad limestone and dolomite may be in the core/lower part and followed
by Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone in the upper part.
Hangu Group is being named here for Hangu and Lockhart formations of Latest Cretaceous to
Paleocene.
Hangu Formation was named as Hangu shale and Hangu sandstone after the section south of Fort
Lockhart in Samana Range of Kohat area by Davies (1930a) and later Hangu Formation was
amended by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of sandstone with grey shale and coal probably latest
Cretaceous age deduced from the correlation with Vitakri formation of Sulaiman basin. The Patala
Formation is being considered as synonym of Hangu Formation because of lateral extension of
Hangu Formation and mostly same lithology and almost same horizon. Age Latest Cretaceous to
Paleocene. Patala Formation was named as Patala shale after the Patala nala in Salt Range by Davies
and Pinfold (1937) and later Patala Formation was amended by Cheema et al. (1977). Now it is
being considered as junior synonym of Hangu Formation because it is the lateral facies of Hangu and
also in one basin only one name is suitable and justified.
Lockhart Limestone was named after Fort Lockhart in Samana Range by Davies (1930a). It
consists of rubbly limestone of Early Paleocene age.
Nammal Group consists of Nammal and Sakesar formations.

34
Nammal Formation was named as Nammal limestone and shale of Gee (in Fermor, 1935) was
named after the Nammal gorge in western Salt Range. It consists of shale, marl and limestone of
Early Eocene.
Sakesar Formation was named after the Sakesar peak in the Salt Range by Gee (in Fermor, 1935).
It consists of dominant limestone with subordinate marl of Early Eocene age. Margala Hill limestone
is named by Latif (1970a) for dominantly limestone with subordinate marl and shale of Early Eocene
age. Margala Hill limestone is being considered as synonym of Sakesar formation/limestone due to
its lateral facies and same basin and also same age.
Panoba Group is being named here for the Panoba, Shekhan, Bahadurkhel salt and Jatta gypsum. It
is equalent to Chamalang/Ghazij group.
Panoba Formation was named after Panoba village by Eames (1952) and it consists of greenish
grey shale with occasional beds of sandstone and limestone of Early Eocene age. Here it is
considered as Panoba Formation.
Shekhan Formation was named after Shekhan Nala as Shekhan limestone by Davies (1926b) and as
formation by Cheema eta l. (1977). Gurgori formation in the Hangu area shows its relation to Toi
Formation of Sulaiman range,so it is a synonym of Shekhan Formation. It consists of limestone,
shale and sandstone of Early Eocene age.
Bahadurkhel Salt was named after Bahadurkhel salt Quarry by Meissner et al. (1968) for the Kohat
saline series of Gee (1945). It consists of white salt and the upper salt is grey to black due to
bituminous coating with fetid odour. It is Early Eocene.
Jatta Gypsum was named after Jatta Gypsum Quarry by Meissner et al. (1968) for the upper part of
Kohat series by Gee (1945). It consists of gypsum and some clay partings. It is Early Eocene age.
Kuldana Group is being named here for the Chorgali and Kuldana formations.
Chorgali Formation was named after the Chorgali pass in Khaire Murat range as Chorgali beds by
Pascoe (1920) and as formation by Cheema et al. (1977). It consists of shale and limestone of Early
Eocene age. It is exposed in the eastern Salt range, Kala-Chitta range, Khaire Murat range, and in
Hazara area. Its lower contact with Sakesar limestone is conformable and upper contact with
Kuldana in the Murree, Hazara and Kohat areas is conformable while its upper contact in some part
of Salt Range with Murree formation is disconfirmable.
Kuldana Formation was named after the Kuldana village north of Murree Hill station in Hazara
area as Kuldana beds by Wynne (1874), Lower Cherat series of Eames (1952) and Mami Khel clay
of Meissner et al. (1968). It consists of shale and marl with minor sandstone, limestone,
conglomerate and bleached dolomite. Its lower contact in the Hazara, Kala-Chita and Potwar area
with Chorgali formation, in Kohat area with Jatta gypsum, and the upper contact in western part of
Kohat-Potwar basin with Kohat formation and eastern part of Kohat-Potwar basin with Murree
formation.
Kohat formation was named as Kohat shales by Eames (1952). It includes Kaladhand (limestone
with some shale) and Sadkhel (shale with subordinate limestone) members. The lower contact with
Kuldana and upper contact with Kahan group is conformable. It is late Early to Middle Eocene.
Among Kahan Group, the Habib Rahi Formation (correlated with Kohat Formation) and Domanda
Formation (previous Sirki member) are also exposed in Kohat area (for detail pl. see in Sulaiman
basin).

35
Potwar Group; Siwalik group was named by Meddlicot (1868) from the Siwalik and Simla hills of
India. But now it is being named as Potwar Group which include the Murree, Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri
and Dhok Pathan formations.
Murree Formation: Mari group of Wynne (1874), Murree beds of Lydekker (1876) and Murree
series of Pilgrim (1910) has been accepted by SCP as Murree Formation (Cheema et al, 1977). It
consists of monotonous sequence of dark red and purple clay and purple grey to greenish grey
sandstone of fluvial origin. Its age seems to be Miocene. It is correlated with Vihowa group of
Sulaiman basin.
Kamlial Formation; Kamlial beds were named by Pinfold (1918). It consists of dark brick red and
purple grey sandstone, and purple and yellow shale and conglomerate of middle to early late
Miocene.
Chinji Formation; It is named after the Chinji zone of Pilgrim (1913) by the SCP (Cheema et al.
1977). It consists of red shale and grey to brownish grey sandstone late Miocene.
Nagri Formation; It is named after Nagri village by Lewis (1937). It consists of greenish grey
sandstone and chocolate brown shale, and conglomerate late Miocene to Early Pliocene.
Dhok Pathan Formation is named after the Dhok Pathan village by Pilgrim (1913). It consists of
monotonous cyclic alternations of grey, greenish grey and brown sandstone, and chocolate color and
rusty orange and grey to greenish grey shale, and conglomerate lenses and beds. The conglomerate is
being thick and dominant in the upper part of late Pliocene.
Soan Formation was named by Cheema et al. (1977) for the upper Siwalik of Meddlicott (1864). It
consists of massive conglomerate with subordinate varicoloured sandstone, siltstone and clay of
Early Pleistocene.

Revised stratigraphy of upper Indus basin (Kohat-Potwar basin), Pakistan

This basin is previously well studied however some revision is preferred like the Patala
Formation is the lateral facies of Hangu Formation within the same basin, same stratigraphic horizon,
same lithologies and same depositional environments. So Hangu Formation name is considered as
first name and Patala will be junior synonym. Further its age is Latest Cretaceous to Early Paleocene
because it is well correlated with the Vitakri coal of Kingri area of Sulaiman basin. In this way the
Hangu Group consists of Latest Cretaceous to Early Paleocene Hangu Formation and middle to Late
Paleocene Lockhart Limestone. The Indus Formation is named for infra Tertiary boundary
disconformity in the Kohat-Potwar and Uppermost Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basins. Its type locality
is selected Narali area (eastern limb; 43K/2) of Tatta Pani anticlinorium, Kotli district, Azad
Kashmir. Further there are problems in correlating Murree, Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri, Dhok Pathan
especially in Hazara, Azad Kashmir and northern Potwar. By our recent our study shows the Murree
Formation as the senior synonym of Kamlial. Further the revised sequence is Murree formation and
Soan Formation in the Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir and in the Potwar the Murree/Chinji, Nagri and
Dhok Pathan will be considered under Potwar Group. The Pleistocene coarse clastic Lei
(/Mirpur/Kakra) Conglomerate and then Holocene mixed fine and coarse clastic of Soan Formation
can be grouped as Soan Group.

36
INTERFINGURING OF STRATIGRAPHY OF SULAIMAN (MIDDLE INDUS) AND
KOHAT-POTWAR (UPPER INDUS) BASIN

From Sargodha high-Pezu-Parachinar there is a line of Interfingering of Stratigraphy of

Sulaiman (middle Indus) and Kohat-Potwar (upper Indus) basin. The marine and non-marine rocks
are also contacted in this line as land-ocean linkages. The northern part of Spinghar area show Indo-
Pak basement rocks (it may be youger) and southern part (Parachinar area) represents Jurassic
Chiltan/Samanasuk limestone; Cretaceous Sembar Shale, Fort Munro Limestone; the Vitakri
Formation representing Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary are widely exposed in Sulaiman and Kohat-
Potwar basins; Paleocene Sangiali Group like Rakhi Gaj Sandstone and Dungan Limestone; Eocene
Ghazij shale and sandstone (Ahmad 1957; Asrarullah and Ahmad 1984). The Parachinar area
represents connections of Jurassic Chiltan Limestone of Sulaiman basin and Samanasuk Limestone
of Kohat-Potwar basin The Parachinar area represents connections of Jurassic Chiltan Limestone of
Sulaiman basin and Samanasuk Limestone of Kohat-Potwar basin The Parachinar area represents
connections of Jurassic Chiltan Limestone of Sulaiman basin and Samanasuk Limestone of Kohat-
Potwar basin; the Cretaceous Sembar Shale and Fort Munro Limestone of Sulaiman basin
interfingered with the Chichali Shale and Kawagarh Limestone of Kohat-Potwar basin; the
Paleocene Sangiali Group like Rakhi Gaj Sandstone and Dungan Limestone interfingered with
Hangu (synonym Patala) sandstone, shale and coal, and Lockhart Limestone; the Eocene Chamalang
(Ghazij) shale and sandstone interfingered with the Nammal/Panoba shale and Shekhan (Gurgori)
sandstone of Kohat-Potwar basin. In this way Vihowa group is interfingered with the Potwar group.

STRATIGRAPHY OF SULAIMAN (MIDDLE INDUS) BASIN (GONDWANA FRAGMENT),

PAKISTAN

Malkani (2012h) reported the revised stratigraphy of Sulaiman basin. Sulaiman (Middle
Indus) Basin consists of more than 15km thick exposed Mesozoic to recent succession. Triassic
Khanozai Group represents Gwal (shale, thin bedded limestone) and Wulgai (shale with medium
bedded limestone), Jurassic Sulaiman Group represents Spingwar (shale, marl and limestone),
Loralai (limestone with minor shale), and Chiltan (limestone) formations, Early Cretaceous Parh
Group represents Sembar (shale with a sandstone body; now sandstone is a Mekhtar formation),
Goru (shale and marl), and Parh (limestone) formations, and Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group
represents Mughal Kot (shale/mudstone, sandstone, marl and limestone), Fort Munro (limestone),
Pab (sandstone with subordinate shale) and Vitakri (red muds and greyish white sandstone)
formations. The Paleocene Sangiali Group represents Sangiali (limestone, glauconitic sandstone and
shale), Rakhi Gaj (Girdu member, glauconitic and hematitic sandstone; Bawata member, alternation
of shale and sandstone), and Dungan (limestone and shale) formations; Early Eocene Chamalang
(Ghazij) Group represents Shaheed Ghat (shale), Toi (sandstone, shale, rubbly limestone and coal),
Kingri (red shale/mud, grey and white sandstone), Drug (rubbly limestone, marl and shale), and
Baska (gypsum beds and shale) formations, and Late Eocene Kahan group represents Habib Rahi
(limestone, marl and shale), Domanda (shale with one bed of gypsum), Pir Koh (limestone, marl and
shale) and Drazinda (shale with subordinate marl) formations, Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group
represents Chitarwata (grey ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate and mud), Vihowa (red ferruginous
shale/mud, sandstone and conglomerate), Litra (greenish grey sandstone with subordinate

37
conglomerate and mud), and Chaudhwan (mud, conglomerate and sandstone) formations, and
Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Dada (well developed conglomerate with
subordinate mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar Formation (poorly mud, sandstone and poorly
developed conglomerate, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) concealed at places
especially in the valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial
deposits (Malkani 2012h).
Khanozai Group: It represents Gwal (shale, thin bedded limestone) and Wulgai (shale with medium
bedded limestone) formations (Anwar, et al., 1993) of Triassic age exposed mostly in the western
Indus suture. Gwal formation is a senior synonym of Raghzai formation named by Khan (1999) in
Waziristan area. Wulgai Formation is a senior synonym of Kishai formation named by Khan (1999)
in Waziristan area.
Sulaiman Group: The term “Sulaiman limestone” was first used by Pinfold (1939), “Sulaiman
Limestone Group” is used by the Geological Survey of Pakistan, and the term Sulaiman Group for
the Spingwar, Loralai and Chiltan (Takatu) formations were used by Malkani (2009a). But here the
Dilband (Mazar Drik) formations although thin but are incorporated in this group.
Spingwar Formation was named initially by Williams (1959) as member after Spingwar at the
north of Zamari Tangi, about 35 km northwest of Loralai. Stratigraphic committee (Shah, 2009)
upgraded it to the formation level due to wide and thick exposures and clear cut differences among
the under and overlying strata. Spingwar Formation is senior synonym of Zebe formation named by
Khan (1999) in Waziristan area, and Sarobi formation of Ahmed et al. (2000). It consists of grey to
greenish grey shale, grey to whitish grey marl and limestone with some igneous sills especially in the
vicinity of Axial Belt. It’s Upper Triassic to Early Jurassic age is based fossils like ammonites,
brachiopods, bivalves, crinoids, corals and shell fragments (Williams, 1959; Anwar, et al, 1991).
Loralai Formation was initially named by Williams (1959) as member after Zamari Tangi in
Loralai District. Malkani et al (1996; Geological map of 39F/7) used first the term Loralai
Formation. Stratigraphic Committee (Shah, 2009) formalized Loralai Formation. Loralai formation is
a senior synonym of Alexandra formation named by Khan (1999) in Waziristan area, and Isha
formation of Ahmed et al. (2000). It represents mainly thin to medium bedded grey limestone with
some grey shale and marl. It is mostly peak forming especially in the vicinity of Loralai, Mekhtar,
Gadebar, Tor Thana, Anambar, etc. In these areas, the Chiltan Limestone is not developed, so here
the age of Loralai Formation is extended to an upper level of deposition of Chiltan Limestone in
Takht-e- Sulaiman, Ziarat and Takatu areas. Its age ranges from Late Liassic to Bajocian (Early-
Middle Jurassic).
Chiltan (Takatu) Limestone name was introduced by Hunting Survey Corporation (1961) after the
Chiltan Range southwest of Quetta. Its synonym is Takatu named by Williams (1959) after Data
Manda Nala (3km south of Bostan village) in Takatu Range in the Northeast of Quetta. This term
Chiltan Limestone is well known in all geoscientists. It is also valid in most of the Kirthar, Sulaiman
and Western Indus Suture (Axial belt) areas. Its synonym is Isha formation of Ahmed et al. (2000) in
Kurram agency area (Waziristan area). It consists of massive thick bedded limestone which forms
prominent ranges and high peaks in the surrounding of Quetta, Ziarat and then in the Takht Sulaiman
area, however in the vicinity of Loralai, the peak forming equilent is Loralai Formation.
Dilband Formation which is about 20m thick in the type area (northern Kirthar range) was named
by Abbas et al. (1998) and designated three members like lower Jarositic clay member (light grey to
brown), middle ironstone member (reddish), and upper green glauconitic shale member. Recently

38
Malkani (2003c) has found dinosaurs (Brohisaurus kirthari) fossils from Sun Chaku (Karkh area)
and Charoh (Zidi area) localities of Khuzdar district (Kirthar range) from the Dilband formation
(transition beds of Sembar and Dilband Formation). Its stratigraphic position tells the age range from
Middle Jurassic to Late Jurassic. The Aghbargai Zhiara limestone named by Hirayama et al. (1992)
in Ghunda Manra area south of Bagh is correlated with Chiltan/Loralai limestone. The Dilband
Formation (synonym Mazar Drik Formation) is less than 30 m and exposed also in the Loralai, Duki
and Gadebar areas of sulaiman basin. It is considered a member of Takatu Formation by Shah (2009)
but in most of these areas the Takatu limestone is missing and occupied by Loralai Formation.
Further it includes mostly the transitional and disconfirmable horizons representing Jurassic
Cretaceous (J-K) boundary. This J-K boundary exposed in Duki, Loralai, Daman Ghar and Gadebar
areas is represented by light brown shale alternated with light grey fresh colour and light brown
weathered colour limestone may belong to Dilband Formation.

Parh Group: The term Parh was first used by Blanford (1879) for rocks of Parh Range. Parh Group
represents Sembar, Mekhtar, Goru and Parh formations.
The term Sembar Formation was proposed by (Williams (1959) after Sembar Pass. It is senior
synonym of Zargar Khel formation named by Khan (1999) and Ahmad et al. (2000) in Waziristan
area, and Chashmai Kharsai formation of Waziristan. It represents three members in the Mekhtar and
Murgha Kibzai area of Sulaiman Foldbelt like Sembar lower and upper shale members and middle
member is named as Mekhtar member/Mekhtar sandstone member (Malkani 2010b,2011a). The
age varies from latest Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. This sandstone is oil producing/reservoir rocks in
kirthar basin commonly called Goru Sandstone. Actually it is a member of Sembar Formation,
however it may be considered new Formation as Mekhtar Sandstone. Hirayama et al. (1992) named
the Pasta Manda formation with basal conglomerate and Waltaoi formation of Cretaceous age in
Ghunda Manra area south of Bagh. Warraich et al. (1995) divided the Sembar formation into two
member like Pasta Manda turbidite member (limestone, shale and conglomerate; same unit as Pasta
Manda formation of Hirayama et al.(1992) and Sharan shale member.
Mekhtar Formation (or Mekhtar Sandstone) is being upgraded here as formation due to its wide
occurrence and lateral extension in the Eastern Sulaiman and also Easten Kirthar basins. Malkani
(2010b) established three members of Sembar formation. But here the Middle Sandstone and upper
shale and marl are considered as Mekhtar Formation. Its type locality is near the Mekhtar town just
south of Mekhtar on ChamalangMekhtar road (39F/7). The age is Early Cretaceous. This sandstone
is oil producing/reservoir rocks in Kirthar basin commonly called Goru Sandstone. Actually it is a
Mekhtar Formation. It mostly consists of sandstone (Pab like) with some shale and marl. The lower
contact with Sembar is gradational and sharp marked on Sandstone facies variation from Shale facies
of Sembar. The upper contact with Goru Formation is transitional.
Goru Formation was introduced by Williams (1959) after Goru village on the Nar River in the
southern Kirthar Range. It is senior synonym of Sinai formation named by Khan (1999) and Ahmad
et al. (2000), and Marsikhel formation. It consists of alternations of about 3 thick marl units and two
shale units. According to stratigraphic position, its age can be considered as Early Cretaceous.
Parh Limestone consists of mainly limestone with minor shale and marly beds. It is senior synonym
of Mami Rogha formation named by Khan (1999) and Ahmad et al. (2000) in Waziristan area and
Zerghar formation. It is senior synonym of Makai limestone named by Badshah et al. (2000) in
Waziristan area. The age of the Parh limestone is middle Cretaceous in the Sulaiman and Kirthar

39
foldbelts, however it is maintained from middle Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous in the Axial Belt
areas where only the Vitakri formation (last formation) of the Fort Munro Group is developed as
laterite with some ferruginous clays and also lower and middle Sangiali group is not developed. For
example the Vitakri Formation K-T boundary is contacted by Parh and Dungan formation
Fort Munro Group: The term Fort Munro Group was first time used by Malkani (2009f) for
Mughal Kot, Fort Munro, Pab and Vitakri formations. Its type section is Rakhi Gaj and Girdu are in
Toposheet 39 K/1.
Mughal Kot Formation was named by Williams (1959) after the Mughal Kot (Mughalkot) post. It
has variable lithology like marly mudstone in the Rakhi Gaj area and its vicinity, alternation of shale,
lenticular sandstone and limestone in the Tor Thana and Murgha Kibzai area, and alternations of
shale with subordinate sandstone is common in all other areas of eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt. In the
western Sulaiman like the vicinity of Loralai, the Fort Munro Group is represented by about 100m
shale further reducing to axial belt, in the Ziarat laterite area, it is not developed. In the western
vicinity of Ziarat, it is represented by shale and volcanics (Bibai Formation), and in the eastern
vicinity of Quetta like Hana Lake and Sor Range areas it is represented by limestone with negligible
shale. According to its stratigraphic position in the Sulaiman and Kirthar foldbelts where Pab
Formation is developed, its age is Early to Late Campanion.
The name Fort Munro Limestone was introduced by Williams (1959) for the upper dominantly
limestone unit of the Mughal Kot Formation and he designated the type section in the western flank
of the Fort Munro anticline along the Fort Munro-Dera Ghazi Khan road. Fatmi (1977) assigned it a
separate formation status because of its distinct lithology and regional extent. It consists of grey to
brown and thin to thick bedded limestone with minor greenish grey shale. According to Williams
(1959), HSC (1961) and Marks (1962, its age may be late companion to Early Maastrichtian.
Pab Formation was initially named as Pab Sandstone introduced by Vredenburg (1907) after Pab
Range. Malkani (2006d) divided the Pab Formation into three members like lower Dhaola member
(white quartzose sandstone with minor to moderate black weathering) represents the environments of
proximal delta, near the coastline and consistent in the eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt, the middle Kali
member (shale and black weathering sandstone) represent middle and distal deltaic environments and
mostly exposed in the western part of Sulaiman Foldbelt, and upper Vitakri member. The Dhaola and
Kali members are not consistent every where in the Sulaiman basin. In the Dhaola and Chamalang
sections, both Dhaola and Kali member are existed well. Recently, dinosaurs and crocodiles are
found from Vitakri Formation (Previously upper member of Pab formation, for detail see in Vitakri
Formation) According to dinosaur fossils and stratigraphic position, the age is considered as Middle
to Late Maastrichtian. Pab sandstone is metamorphosed into quartzite in the northeastern part of
Sulaiman Basin (D.G.Khan, D.I.Khan and Waziristan areas).
Vitakri Formation was upgraded from member (Malkani 2006d) to formation status by Malkani
(2009a) due to its distinct lithology, depositional environments, lateral extension and clear lower and
upper contacts. Vitakri Formation (15-35m, extended mostly in the eastern Sulaiman Fold and Thrust
Belt) consist of alternated two units of red mud/clay (2-15m each unit) of over bank flood plain
deposits and two quartzose sandstone units (2-15meach unit) with black weathering of meandering
river system (Malkani 2006d, Dhanotr 2015a,b,c). Lower red mud horizon is based on Kali member
or Dhaola member and capped by middle sandstone horizon of Vitakri Formation. The upper red
mud horizon is based on middle sandstone horizon and capped by a resistant sandstone horizon. Its
coeval strata (coal, carbonaceous shale and sandstone) represent the lacustrine and deltaic

40
environment, and laterite represent the erosional disconformity. The sandstone is white to grey, thin
to thick bedded and fine to coarse grained, quartzose, mostly weathered as dark grey to black. The
shale is red, maroon, and greenish grey and calcareous to noncalcareous. The red muds of this
disconformity and just below this are the host of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs in Pakistan. Vitakri
Formation is regional extension in eastern Sulaiman Foldbelt and also Ziarat laterite is a part of
Vitakri Formation. Vitakri Formation was the Park for the latest Cretaceous dinosaurs and crocodiles
of Pakistan. Its lower and upper contact with Pab and Sangiali formations is disconfirmable.
According to dinosaur fossils (pl see detail in paleobiogeography section) and stratigraphic position,
the age is considered as latest Maastrichtian or latest Cretaceous.
Sangiali Group: Malkani (2009a) introduced Sangiali Group after Sangiali village near Vitakri in
Barkhan district for Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and Dungan formations. Hirayama et al. (1992) named
Ghunda Manra limestone of Paleocene age in Ghunda Manra village, south of Bagh.
Sangiali Formation was introduced by Malkani (2009a) for green shale and sandstone with resistant
brown limestone. The Nautiloids and bivalves are common in this formation found from the Sangiali
and Vitakri area. Eames (1952) reported Early Paleocene fossils from Rakhi Nala. So its age is
considered as Early Paleocene.
Rakhi Gaj Formation was introduced by Williams (1959) as lower Rakhi Gaj shales, while
Malkani et al. (1996, 97) adopted Rakhi Gaj formation during geological mapping of Mekhtar and its
vicinity areas. Upon the suggestions of S.M.Hussain of American Oil Company, the Stratigraphic
Committee (Shah 2009) has adopted the name Girdu Member for the Gorge beds of Eames (1952).
Malkani (2010b) is divided this formation into two members like lower Girdu member (Gorge beds)
and upper Bawata members. It is the middle formation of Sangiali Group and lower formation where
Sangiali Formation is absent. The Girdu member is about 100m thick at type area where it consists of
thick and resistant beds of sandstone with minor shale. The Bawata member consists of mainly shale
along with alternation of sandstone is about 200m thick. The Shale is common in the uppermost part.
Its age is considered as middle Paleocene due to stratigraphic positions.
Dungan Formation was introduced by Oldham (1890) as Dungan limestone after the Mehrab Tangi
gorge of Dungan hill, 8km NE of Harnai. It is a part of Sangiali group and exposed in the Kirthar
range and close to Western Indus Suture Belt. It includes the Zinda Pir limestone of Eames (1952),
upper parts of the Karkh, Gidar Dhor and Jakker groups, Dab, Bad Kachu, Rottaro and Thar
formations of HSC (1961). It consists of limestone, shale, marl and at places sandstone of Late
Paleocene age, however on WISB it represents most of the Paleocene.
Chamalang Group: The term Chamalang Group was first used by Malkani (2010a). The term
Ghazij was introduced by Oldham (1890). Williams (1959) proposed that the type section at
Spintangi and used the term Ghazij formation. It is upgraded as group by Shah, (2002). Chamalang
(Ghazij) group represents Shaheed Ghat, Toi, Kingri, Drug and Baska formations. However the Drug
and Kingri formations are not well developed in the Spintangi area/type area of Ghazij, consequently
Malkani (2010) suggested for the Chamalang Group where all the formations of Ghazij group are
well developed. The type section for Chamalang Group is the Chamalang area (Survey of Pakistan
topographic sheet no 39 F/8).
Shaheed Ghat Formation was named by Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H.
Kidwai (1965) (verbal communications with Sibghatullah Siddiqui and Jamiluddin) used the name
Shaheed Ghat Formation (after Haft Ghat) for the upper Rakhi Gaj and green nodular shales of

41
Eames (1952). It consists of mainly shale/mud with negligible silt and sandy beds. Siddiqui et al
(1965) and Hassan et al. (2001) suggested early Eocene age.
Toi Formation has been formalized after S. M. Hussain of American Oil Company’s briefing and
verbal communication before the stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Shah, 2002). Its name is
derived from the Toi River/Nala flowing near the Mughal Kot locality. It consists of sandstone,
greenish grey to grey shale and white to light brown marl/rubbly limestone along with some coal. It
has many fossiliferous sandstone/coquina beds especially in the Chamalang area. According to its
stratigraphic position, its age can be considered as middle Early Eocene.
Kingri Formation was first used by Malkani (2009f). The type of Kingri formation is the just
northwest of Kingri town. It consists of reds shale/mud with subordinate grey sandstone. The shale is
mostly red and maroon and sandy and silty and calcareous. The sandstone is grey to light brown, thin
to thick bedded. Gingerich, et al (2001) has also found a unique mammalian fauna from the
Kingri/Toi formation of Gandhera (Kingri) area. According to its stratigraphic position, its age can
be considered as middle Early Eocene.
Drug Formation was named by Sibghatullah Siddiqui, Jamiluddin, I.H. Qureshi and A.H. Kidwai
(1965) (verbal communications with Sibghatullah Siddiqui and Jamiluddin), and Iqbal (1969) used
the name Drug Formation for rubbly limestone of Eames (1952). The Shah (2002, 2009) mentioned
the wrong order or position of Ghazij group formations like Toi and Drug formations. The actual
position of Toi Formation is below the Drug Formation while Shah (2002, 2009) mentioned every
where the Toi formation is above the Drug formation. It consists of limestone, marl and shale.
Siddiqui et al (1965) and its stratigraphic position tells its age as late Early Eocene.
Baska Formation was initially named as Baska shale after Baska village by Hemphill and Kidwai
(1973) to replace the descriptive term “shale with alabaster” of Eames (1952). It consists of gypsum,
shale, limestone, marl and rare siltstone. It has many fossiliferous rubbly limestone beds especially in
the Chamalang and Mughal Kot sections. According to its stratigraphic position, its age can be
considered as latest Early Eocene.
Kahan Group: The term Kahan group was first introduced by Khan (2009) in his Geological map of
39 G (10 sheet). The type section was designated by Malkani (2010g) near the village of Kahan.
Kahan group consists of Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda formations.
Habib Rahi Formation was initially named as Habib Rahi limestone by Tainsh et al. (1959). The
reference section (lat. 390 37’ 50’’N; long. 700 14’E) was mentioned by Hemphill and Kidwai
(1973). But the grid of type locality (lat. 29 0 06’ 10’’N; long. 690 02’ 30’E) located in the Vicinity of
Dera Bugti town in the southern limb of Pir Koh anticline is first time reported by Malkani (2010g).
It consists of limestone, shale and marl. The age of Habib Rahi Formation is Early Middle Eocene.
Domanda Formation was initially named as Drazinda shale by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) after
Domanda Post and adjacent to the Zhob-D.I.Khan road. It consists of mainly shale/mud with one bed
of gypsum. The shale is chocolate, khaki and calcareous. Massive gypsum with one bed (1-2m thick)
has white to light grey colour. Its age is middle Eocene.
Pirkoh Formation was initially named as Pir Koh limestone member by Hemphill and Kidwai
(1973) after the Pirkoh anticline. It consists of limestone, marl and shale. Middle to late Middle
Eocene age is assigned to this formation.
Drazinda Formation was initially used as Drazinda shale by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) after
Drazinda village. It consists of mainly chocolate shale/muds, and marl. Latif (1964), Samanta (1973)
and Afzal et al. (1997) mentioned the age range from late Middle to Late Eocene.

42
Oligocene-Pliocene
Vihowa Group: The term “Vihowa Group” is first used by Malkani (2009f) after Vihowa rud.
Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa group represents Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations.
The Indus Suture belt and its vicinity areas are elevated on a great tectonic event occurred at the
collision of Indo-Pak subcontinent and Asia. The mollasse facies started and different river systems
may have deposited this group and also its equilent strata.
Chitarwata Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) after Chitarwata Post for
sandstone, shale and conglomerate. According to stratigraphic position, its age may range from
Oligocene.
Vihowa Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) after Vihowa Rud. It consists of
red maroon shale, brown to grey sandstone and conglomerate. Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) reported
mammalian bone fragments near Baddha village. La Touché (1893) also reported bones and teeth
between Parwara and Landai villages in a somewhat pebbly band near the base of this formation.
Raza et al. (2002) estimated the onset of Vihowa Formation at Burdigalion time (~18Ma) and they
confirmed the latest early Miocene to Middle Miocene on the basis of Eotrgus noyei, Listriodon sp.,
Giraffokeryx sp. and Hyoboops sp.
Litra Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) after Litra Nala. It consists of
sandstone with subordinate shale and conglomerate. Raza et al. (2002) mentioned three toed horse
Hipparion at about 10.7 Ma from the lower 400m of Litra Formation, which show the co-occurrence
of common Chinji type suid Listriodon that becomes extinct at 10.3 Ma in Potwar. They placed the
lower age of Litra formation at 11 Ma based on Hipparaion in the lower part of this formation. They
also estimated the age of Litra Formation from 11 to 6 Ma i.e. Late Miocene.
Chaudhwan Formation was first used by Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) after Chaudhwan Zam. It
consists of alternated mudstone/shale, sandstone and conglomerate. According to stratigraphic
position, its age may be Pliocene.
Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Pleistocene Dada (mainly conglomerate)
and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays, silt, sandstone and conglomerate) formations (Malkani 2012h).
Dada Formation name is derived from Dada River south of Spintangi Railway station (HSC, 1961).
It consists of conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. At places it also includes the white
and red muds especially in the valley areas. According to stratigraphic position, its age may be
Pleistocene.
Sakhi Sarwar Formation is being named by Malkani (2012h) for the varicoloured clays, sandstone,
siltstone and conglomerate of Holocene age.
Subrecent and Recent surficial deposits show the alluvial, colluvial and aeolian deposits.

STRATIGRAPHY OF KIRTHAR (LOWER INDUS) BASIN (GONDWANA FRAGMENT),

PAKISTAN

Kirthar basin shows mostly the same lithological units like Sulaiman basin during Mesozoic
and Quaternary but vary in Tertiary strata. Malkani (2012h) reported the revised stratigraphy of
Sulaiman basin. Kirthar (Lower Indus) basin shows mostly the same lithological units like Sulaiman
basin during Mesozoic and Quaternary but vary in Tertiary strata such as; Paleocene Ranikot Group
represents Khadro (sandstone, shale, limestone and volcanics), Bara (sandstone with minor
limestone, coal and volcanics) and Lakhra (limestone and shale) formations; Early Eocene Laki

43
Group represents Sohnari (lateritic clay and shale, yellow arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and
lignite seams) and Laki (shale, limestone, sandstone, lateritic clay and coal) formations and Late
Eocene Kirthar Group represents Kirthar (limestone, marl and shale) and Gorag (resistant and peak
forming limestone with negligible shale and marl) formations; Oligocene Gaj Group represents Nari
(sandstone, shale, limestone) and Gaj (shale with subordinate sandstone and limestone) formations
and Miocene-Pliocene Vihowa Group (Manchar group) which are concealed in the valleys and plain
areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits (Malkani 2012h).
Sulaiman Group: The term “Ferozabad group” was named after the Ferozabad village 13km west of
Khuzdar by Fatmi et al. (1990) for Kharrari formation (Triassic to Early Jurassic),
Malikhore/Spingwar formation (Early Jurassic) and Anjira/Loralai formation. It is correlated with
Sulaiman Group of Malkani (2010b) in Sulaiman basin. But here the Dilband Formation although
thin but are incorporated in this group.
Parh Group: The term Parh was first used by Blanford (1879) for rocks of Parh Range. Parh Group
represents Sembar, Mekhtar (sandstone), Goru and Parh formations. The remains of body fossils
from the Late Jurassic Sembar Formation of Kirthar basin represent Brohisaurus kirthari (Malkani,
2003c), possibly a titanosauriform or early titanosaurian sauropod.
Fort Munro Group: The term Fort Munro Group was first time used by Malkani (2009f) for
Mughal Kot, Fort Munro, Pab and Vitakri formations. Its type section is Rakhi Gaj and Girdu area in
Toposheet 39 K/1.
Ranikot Group: The Sangiali Group is here replaced by Ranikot group including the Khadro, Bara
and Lakhra formations.
Khadro Formation was named after Khadro nala (type section Bara nai) by Williams (1959). It
includes the Cardita beaumonti beds of Blanford (1878), Venericardia shales of Eames (1952), basal
parts of Karkh, Gidar Dhor and Jakker groups, Bad Kachu and Thar formations of HSC (1961). It
consists of sandstone, shale, limestone and volcanics of Early Paleocene age. The igneous rocks like
Decan trap basalts are found in the Early Paleocene Khadro formation in the Kirthar basin exposed in
the Kirthar foldbelt and also encountered in the subsurface drill hole in the Kirthar monocline
(Malkani, 2011).
Bara Formation was named by Ahmad and Ghani (Written communication in 1971 to Cheema et al.
1977) after Bara Nai of Laki Range. It includes the lower Ranikot sandstone of Vredenburg (1906)
and lower Ranikot of later workers, Ranikot formation of Williams (1959), Lower Ranikot
formation, lower parts of the Karkh, Gidar Dhor and Jakker groups, Bad Kachu, Rottaro and Thar
formations of HSC (1961). It consists of sandstone with minor limestone, coal and volcanic debris of
Middle Paleocene age. Lakhra Formation was named by Ahmad and Ghani (Written
communication in 1971 to Cheema et al. 1977) after Lakhra of Laki Range. It includes the upper
Ranikot sandstone of Vredenburg (1906) and upper Ranikot of lator workers, upper Ranikot
formation of HSC (1961). It consists of dominant sandstone with minor shale and volcanic debries of
Middle Paleocene age. For Dungan Formation pl. see in Sulaiman basin.
Laki Group: The term Laki group was proposed by HSC (1961) for the Laki Series of Noetling
(1903) and lower part of Kirthar Series of Blanford (1876). Laki group includes Sohnari (now
upgraded as formation) and Laki formations. It also includes the Tiyon formation of HSC (1961).
Nuttal subdivided Laki series in to basal Laki laterite (8m), Meting limestone (45m), Meting shale
(30m) and Laki limestone (70-200m). Cheema et al. (1977) proposed two members like Sonhari

44
member (=basal Laki laterite) represents laterite, and Meting limestone and shale member (= Chat
member of Nagappa 1959) which include the upper 3 units of Nuttal (1925). Its age is Early Eocene.
Sohnari Formation was named by Outerbridge et al (1989) for the basal Laki laterite (8m) of Nuttal
(1925) and after the Sonhari member of HSC (1961). Here it is being accepted as formation because
other laterites are also named as Dilband formation (J/K boundary) of Abbas et al (1998), Vitakri
formation (latest Cretaceous to K/T boundary) of Malkani (2009f). It mostly consists of lateritic clay
and shale, yellow arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and lignite seams of Paleocene/Eocene
boundary age.
Laki Formation was named by Cheema et al. (1977), which is derived from Laki Series of Noetling
(1903). It is now being divided into two members. The lower Chat limestone member (include
basal dominant limestone unit of Chat member of Nagappa 1959) consists of mainly limestone with
minor shale intercalations, and upper Meting shale member (following Meting shale named after
Meting village 30km SW of Kotri by Nuttal 1925, and Meting shale member of Brouwers and Fatmi
(1993) consists of terrestrial or estuarine reddish brown lateritic clays, gypseous shales, reddish
brown soft sandy limestone, sandy claystone and calcareous sandstone.

Kirthar group was initially introduced as Kirthar Series by Blanford (1876) after the Kirthar Range
to describe Eocene strata between his Ranikot group and Nari in western Sind while Noetling (1905)
separated the lower part as Laki series and retained the name Kirthar for the upper part only. The
term Kithara group is being used here for the Kirthar and Gorag formations. Kirthar group in Kirthar
Basin is correlated with Kahan group (Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda formations) of
Sulaiman Basin. Its age is Middle Eocene.
Kirthar Formation is named by Cheema et al. (1977) and now it comprises of mixed lithology like
shale, marl, limestone of lower Kirthar member of Brahui limestone (HSC, 1961). Age Middle
Eocene.
Gorag Formation is originally named as Gorag member of Brahui limestone by HSC (1961) after
Gorag peak in south of Gaj river in Kirthar range and it consists of resistant and peak forming
limestone with negligible shale and marl. This formation also include the Laki limestone member
(following Laki limestone named after Laki Range and Laki village by Nuttal 1925, and Laki
limestone member of Brouwers and Fatmi 1993) which is 200-300m thick exposed as prominent
scarp on western flank of Laki Range, hills south of Hyderabad and near Thano Bula Khan. There is
confusion in the Laki limestone member and Kirthar limestone in the Laki range, Hyderabad and
Thano Bula Khan Areas. But now this confusion is being removed by naming the Gorag formation
instead of Laki Limestone member. Age Middle Eocene.
Gaj group: To remove missing link the Gaj group is here being established after the Gaj River in
Kirthar Range for the Nari and Gaj formations.
Nari Formation was named by Williams (1959) for the Nari Series by Blanford (1876) after the
Nari river. It consists of marine brown sandstone, red, brown and yellow shale, and brown limestone.
It is equalent to Chitarwata formation of Sulaiman Basin. Its age is Oligocene.
Gaj Formation was named by Williams (1959) for the Gaj Series by Blanford (1876) after the Gaj
river. It consists of estuarine to terrestrial deposits dominantly varicoloured shale with subordinate
sandstone and limestone. It mostly resembles with Nari formation however the contact is being
marked at the end of massive sandstone and at the start of dominant shale lithology. Its age is Early
Miocene.

45
Vihowa Group: The term “Vihowa Group” is first used by Malkani (2009a) after Vihowa rud. The
term Manchar is derived from Manchar series of Blanford (1876) after the Manchar lake a few kms
west of Sehwan. Manchar group is mostly equalent to Vihowa group. Oligocene-Pliocene Vihowa
group represents Chitarwata, Vihowa, Litra and Chaudhwan formations. This division can be applied
in the Kirthar province because the source and deposition nature is same (for detail pl. see the
Vihowa group).

Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Pleistocene Dada (mainly conglomerate)

and Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (clays, silt, sandstone and conglomerate) formations (Malkani 2012h).
Dada Formation name is derived from Dada River south of Spintangi Railway station (HSC, 1961).
It consists of conglomerate with subordinate shale and sandstone. At places it also includes the white
and red muds especially in the valley areas. According to stratigraphic position, its age may be
Pleistocene.
Sakhi Sarwar Formation is being named by Malkani (2012h) for the varicoloured clays, sandstone,
siltstone and conglomerate of Holocene age.
Subrecent and Recent surficial deposits show the alluvial, colluvial and aeolian deposits.

STRATIGRAPHY OF INDUS OFFSHORE (GONDWANA FRAGMENT)

The offshore areas are significant for petroleum exploration. The Makran offshore areas
located in the west of Indus Suture line and show the Balochistan basin stratigraphy and further the
trench is also located in the near offshore area. The Indus offshore area located in the east of Indus
Suture line and shows the Kirthar basin stratigraphy.

MESOZOIC GREENHOUSE WORLD OF PAKISTAN: PALEOENVIRONMENTAL AND SEA

LEVEL CHANGES -LAND-OCEAN LINKAGES

Greenhouse (warm) climates and icehouse (cold) climates show alternation in the Pre-
Mesozoic rocks of Pakistan, however the dominant climate in the Paleozoic was the Greenhouse
climate or warm climate. Only a few tillite/till evidences are found in the Cambrian of Potwar
(Upper Indus) Basin which shows Icehouse climate or cold climate. However in the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic both are represented by Greenhouse (warm) climate in Pakistan and there are no evidences
of Icehouse climate. The Mesozoic Strata of Pakistan have diverse paleoenvironments like deep
marine to neritic/shallow marine, tidal, deltaic, sabkha type supratidal evaporitic,
terrestrial/continental, lacustrine, colluvial and eolian. The Tethys sea level curves of Sulaiman
(Middle Indus) and Kohat-Potwar basins show considerable drop due to first collision of Indo-Pak
with Afghan block of Asia. It further regressed and permanently closed from most part of Pakistan
during Early Oligocene. Due to recent geological and paleontological exploration, Pakistan appeared
first time in the world dinosaur map. The Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystem represents body fossils of
titanosauriforms, titanosaurian sauropod and abelisaurian and noasaurian theropod dinosaurs,
pterosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles; and footprints and trackways of titanosauriforms, titanosaurian
sauropods and theropod dinosaurs, and a wood fossil of large gymnosperm. The Mesozoic Marine
Ecosystem of Pakistan represents many invertebrates and some fish body cross section (Malkani

46
2015L). Pakistan has widespread exposures of Mesozoic strata. The Balochistan basin only show
Cretaceous exposures as oldest rocks, the Kohistan magmatic arc represents the Cretaceous rocks,
Hindukush-Karakoram also include Mesozoic, while the Indus basin which is a part of Gondwana
represents significant Mesozoic marine and also terrestrial deposits (Malkani 2015L).

Depositional environments and Sea level changes of Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata of Kohat-
Potwar (Upper Indus) Basin

The Kohat-Potwar basin (located in the northern part of Indus basin) consists of exposed
Precambrian to Recent sedimentary rocks. The Triassic Mianwali (marine shale, limestone and
sandstone), Tredian (terrestrial sandstone) and Kingriali (marine dolomite and limestone with minor
shale) formations, Jurassic Datta (fluvial sandstone with minor shale), Shinawari (marine shale,
limestone and sandstone) and Samana Suk (marine limestone with subordinate shale) formations,
Cretaceous Chichali (marine glauconitic sandstone and shale), Lumshiwal (coastal marine white
sandstone and shale) and Kawagarh (marine limestone, marl and shale) formations, Latest
Cretaceous-Early Paleocene Hangu (continental to deltaic; laterite sandstone, shale and coal),
Lockhart (marine limestone with minor shale) and Patala (deltaic shale with marl and coal)
formations, Eocene Nammal (marine marl with subordinate shale), Sakesar (marine limestone with
subordinate shale and marl), Panoba (deltaic, marine shale), Shekhan (marine, deltaic limestone and
shale), Bahadurkhel (continental with marine linkage, evaporitic, halite salt), Jatta (continental with
marine linkage, evaporitic, gypsum with minor clay), Margala Hill (marine limestone with
subordinate shale and marl), Chorgali (marine limestone and shale), Kuldana (marine shale with
minor sandstone and limestone), Habib Rahi (marine limestone with marl and shale) and Kohat
(marine shale, limestone and marl) formations. At the Late Eocene/Earliest Oligocene the Tethys Sea
permanently closed from the area now called Himalaya and Upper Indus/Kohat-Potwar and middle
Indus/Sulaiman basins and molasse Terrestrial environment especially fluvial environment started.
The trend of rivers toward south is compensated with Paleo Indus River, while the trend of flow
toward east was the birth of Ganges. In this way Himalaya is originated by the Late Eocene/Earliest
Oligocene. The strata deposited by the continental environments are Miocene Murree (sandstone,
conglomerate and shale) and Kamlial (shale with subordinate sandstone and conglomerate)
formations/Chinji (red clays, sandstone and conglomerate) Formation, and Nagri (sandstone with
minor shale and conglomerate) formations, Pliocene Dhok Pathan (clays with subordinate sandstone
and conglomerate) Formation, Pleistocene Soan (clays, conglomerate and sandstone) Formation,
Subrecent and Recent surficial (alluvium, colluvium and eolian) deposits (Fig.1). The Early
Cretaceous Chichali formation represents marine glauconitic muds and sands, the Late Cretaceous
Lumshiwal Formation represents marginal marine and continental quartzose sandstone with
subordinate shale and its equalent in the further northwest the Kawagarh limestone is totally marine.
The upper contact of Lumshiwal and Kawagarh formations with the overlying Latest Cretaceous-
Early Paleocene Hangu Formation is disconfirmable. The Latest Cretaceous-Early Paleocene Hangu
Formation consists of terrestrial and deltaic deposits and it consists of basal lateritic bed followed by
sandstone, coal and some shale. The dinosaur bearing Vitakri Formation in the Middle Indus is the
coeval of Indus Formation (previously lowest part of Hangu/Patala) in the Upper Indus (Malkani
2010a,b). The Hangu Formation followed by a transgressive Lockhart Formation in the northwest
and Patala Formation in the southeast. In the Eastern part of upper Indus basin the Infra Tertiary

47
boundary is represented by laterite and bauxite between the varying Tertiary rocks (marine, deltaic
and continental), with also varying older rocks such as Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic
(marine and terrestrials) units.

Depositional environments and Sea level changes during Mesozoic and Cenozoic of Sulaiman
(Middle Indus) Basin

The Sulaiman basin show exposed rocks from Triassic to Recent. The Triassic Khanozai group
(marine Wulgai and Gwal formations) includes the minor exposures in the contact of Sulaiman and
Indus Suture. The Indus Suture is the western and northwestern boundary of Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent with Tethys and Asia (Eurasia, Laurasia). The Jurassic Sulaiman Group includes
Spingwar, Loralai/Anjira, and Chiltan/Zidi formation show marine shelf deposits and Dilband
formation (J/K disconfirmable boundary). The Early Cretaceous Parh group consists of continental to
marine ironstone and red shale of Sembar, Goru, Mekhtar and Parh formations show marine shelf,
slope and also platform open sea deposits. The Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Group show uplift of the
Indo-Pakistan shield and ultimate sea regression represented by marine and sea shore clastic Mughal
Kot (mudstone), carbonate Fort Munro (limestone) and clastic Pab (sandstone with shale) formation,
and continental Vitakri formation (latest Cretaceous and K/T boundary). The clastic source was in
the east (Indo-Pakistan shield). During Late Cretaceous there is no or negligible deposition in the
Western Indus Suture zone indicates geanticline and high land, showing contact with Laurasia,
which is further strengthen by the Cretaceous Chagai and Raskoh magmatism. Further volcanics of
Indus Suture enters in the Early Cretaceous Parh group and Late Cretaceous Mughalkot/Bibai
formation also indicating collision. The Paleocene Sangiali group show marine clastic shale and
sandstone, and carbonate limestone of Sangiali Formation, marine clastic sandstone and shale of
Rakhi Gaj Formation, and marine carbonate Dungan limestone. The Early Eocene Chamalang
(Ghazij) Group show marine shelf shale with some clastic marine sandstone of Shaheed Ghat
Formation, deltaic sandstone, shale and marl of Toi Formation, continental fluvial sandstone and red
mudstone of Kingri Formation, continental shale and sabkha type supratidal evaporitic gypsum of
Baska Formation, and marine marl, shale and limestone of Drug Formation. The Late Eocene Kahan
Group show marine shale, marl and limestone of Habib Rahi, Domanda, Pirkoh and Drazinda
formations. The Oligocene to Pliocene Vihowa Group shows molase type (source from
North/Himalaya) clastic mudstone, siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate of Chitarwata, Vihowa,
Litra and Chaudhwan formations. The Pleistocene Dada Formation show fluvial conglomerate,
sandstone and mudstone. The Subrecent and Recent are represented by fluvial surficial deposits.
Triassic to Paleocene is mostly represented by marine strata except the J/K and K/T boundaries
which represent disconformities. The J/K disconformity show major sea regression and uplift of the
area forming Jacobabad-Dilband (Kalat District) highlands with southeast-northwest general trend,
which is the boarder line of middle and lower Indus basin. After this J/K boundary the sea again
transgressed and covered this highland. At K/T boundary the sea was regressed from the Fort Munro
(D.G.Khan)-Vitakri (Barkhan)-Ziarat east west belt and formed the highland with terrestrial
environments (Vitakri formation and Ziarat laterite). Fort Munro-Vitakri region represent the Late
Cretaceous Park of Pakistan which has preserved the latest Cretaceous dinosaurs from Pakistan.
These J/K and K/T disconformities suggest for high lands in the northwestern part of Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent, otherwise marine environments were dominant.

48
 At Latest Cretaceous Indo-Pak plate collided with Afghan block of Asia, as a result Vitakri-
Ziarat Land Bridge occurred and terrestrial environments appeared. Until now latest Cretaceous
dinosaurs (and other archosaurs) are reported from the Vitakri Formation of in the middle Indus
basin. Vitakri Formation represents fluvial meandering river and over bank system. It consists of red,
green muds with alternated subordinate whitish grey to white, poorly sorted, trough cross and
planner cross stratified, muddy matrix to quartzose sandstone and minor lag conglomerate (graded
bedded). This is the classic fining upward sequence of a meandering river system. The coarse strata,
like sandstone are deposited as lateral accretion by meandering river. The fine strata, like red muds
are deposited as flood plain vertical accretion process. The sandstone on the top of Vitakri formation
is thin to thick bedded, slightly calcareous to non calcareous, poorly sorted and have ferruginous
nodules and rusty brown weathering on bivalve fossils. The Vitakri Formation thickness varies from
15 to 35 m is increasing toward WSW and decreasing ENE directions. The four main facies of
Latest Cretaceous strata of Vitakri Formation and coeval upper part of Pab Formation identified in
the middle Indus basin are; Facies F1 (trough cross and planner laminated/bedded sandstone), Facies
F2 (massive reddish brown to red muds), Facies F3 (carbonaceous shale) and Facies F4
(tabular/planner and trough cross bedded sandstone interlayered with the subordinate greenish grey
and minor reddish brown muds). These facies formed by a range of sand transporting mechanisms
that includes meandering river and overbank flood flows, oxbow and crevasse splays lakes, storm
and river flood generated flows, and high and low energy tractional flows. Three facies associations
identified are meandering river and overbank flood association well exposed in the central part,
oxbow lake and Crevasse splays lacustrine association found in the northern part, and alluvial delta
fan beach association (mostly submarine and rarely sub aerial) located in the southern part of middle
Indus basin. Facies association patterns demonstrate the existence of three depositional systems.
Sand bodies with subordinate muds formed in westward prograding mostly submarine and partly
subaerial dominate north and south systems, while the central system like meandering river and
associated flood bank, oxbow and crevasse splays lacustrine and lagoonal environments deposited
the sandstone, reddish brown muds, coal, carbonaceous shale and green muds in the central part of
middle Indus basin (Malkani 2006c). Quartzose nature of sandstone and paleoflow suggest supply
from eastward high lands of Indo-Pak Shield. Sediment gravity flow generally evolved from east-
west. The lateral extension (70km E-W, and 40 km N-S) of Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation has
been observed in four major anticlinoria’s like Vitakri-Mari Bohri, Dhaola-Andari, Pikal-Siah Koh
and Fort Munro. The K-T boundary in the western side of central part of middle Indus basin is
represented by Latest Cretaceous laterite (2-5m) of Vitakri Formation, while eastern part is terrestrial
Vitakri Formation (15-35m: meandering rivers sands (each unit 2-15m alternated with red muds of
flood plain 2-15m each unit). At early Paleocene the transgression of sea emerged, which deposited
the carbonate shallow marine limestone and shale (fossil bearing like bivalves, nautiloids and
gastropods) of Sangiali Formation, which is followed by the deltaic siliciclastic Rakhi Gaj Formation
and coral reef deposits of Dungan Limestone. At Late Paleocene the Tethys Sea gradually regressed
and marine to deltaic, terrestrial and evaporitic paleoenvironments remained dominant. From
Oligocene to recent terrestrial environments remained dominant (Malkani 200d) (Fig.2,3,4).

49
Depositional environments and Sea level changes during Mesozoic and Cenozoic of Kirthar
(Lower Indus) Basin

The Kirthar basin (Fig.1) shows mostly the same lithological units like the Sulaiman basin
during Mesozoic and but vary in Cenozoic strata such as; Paleocene Ranikot Group represents
Khadro (marine sandstone, shale, limestone and volcanics), Bara (marine, deltaic sandstone with
minor limestone, coal and volcanics) and Lakhra (marine limestone and shale) formations; Eocene
Laki Group represents Sohnari (continental and lateritic clay) and Laki (=Tiyon; deltaic shale,
limestone, sandstone and coal) and Kirthar Group represents Kirthar (marine shale and shale) and
Gorag (marine resistant limestone with some shale) formations and Oligocene Gaj Group represents
Nari (marine sandstone, shale, limestone) and Gaj (marine shale with subordinate sandstone and
limestone) formations. At the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene the Tethys Sea permanently closed
from the area now called Lower Indus/Kirthar Basin and molasse Terrestrial environment especially
fluvial environment started (Fig.1). The strata deposited by the continental environments are
Miocene-Pliocene Manchar/Vihowa (sandstone, conglomerate and mud of Vihowa, Litra and
Chaudhwan formations) group, Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group (conglomerate, sandstone
and mud of Dada and Sakhi Sarwar formations), subrecent and recent deposits.

50
GEOHERITAGE AND PALEOBIOHERITAGE OF PAKISTAN; MUSEUMS, NATIONAL
AND GLOBAL GEOPARKS-A MEDIA FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION

Pakistan is lucky to include vast spatially and temporally and well exposed Geodiverse
heritage like Gondwanan, Laurasian and Tethyan blocks, also three major tectonic elements like
Convergence of Asian continental plate and Indo-Pakistan continental plate, convergence and
subduction of Arabian sea plate in Balochistan basin a part of Tethys, subduction of Tethys in
Kohistan, Chaman-Nal Transform fault boundary and major divergent zone located off shore in the
sea. Pakistan is also lucky to include vast spatially and temporally diverse igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks, minerals, gemstones, coal, radioactive minerals and petroleum; and biodiverse
heritage include flora (fossil woods) and fauna (invertebrates and vertebrates). Some most important
vertebrate from Pakistan are titanosaurian sauropod and theropod dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles,
walking whale, basal whale (Basilosauridae-king of basal whale), baluchithere-the largest land
mammals, large proboscideans, etc. All these diverse minerals, rocks and bioheritage are hosted by
the Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta and Pakistan Museum of Natural history,
Islamabad, etc. But in Pakistan National geoparks are rare while there is no any global Geoparks. It
is also suggested to increase the National geoparks installations and also some global Geoparks like
Vitakri dome (graveyards of dinosaurs just below the K/T boundary), Fort Munro-D.G.Khan section,
etc which are laboratory for researcher, entertainment and knowledge for public. It is no doubt, the
museums, National and global Geoparks are source of informations on past life, history, minerals,
rocks, nature, etc for visitors like researcher, scientists, students, children, public/peoples, etc. All the
diverse geoheritage demands for protection as large museums, national and global Geoparks, which
is an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan and also source of informations for
visitors.

51
 The geological museums helps scientists, public, even a lay-man to study and know the
history of earth, evolution and past history of paleobiota, past history of large and small animals,
type of rocks, the extinction of dinosaurs, belemnites, ammonites, study of fossils,
paleoenvironments, mountain building process/plate movements, fossilization process, exposure to
scientists and public by geodynamic and tectonic uplift, minerals, sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic rocks, etc. Museums preserve and promote the natural and cultural heritage of
scientists and humanity for the benefit of scientists/researcher, public society and their developments.
To preserve the geoheritage and bioheritage, the museums, national and global geoparks are
considered best. Pakistan has best nature’s classrooms like the Museum of Geological Survey of
Pakistan (GSP Museum; Fig.1), Quetta, and Pakistan Museum of Natural History (Fig.1), Islamabad,
and many sections and mountain ranges like Vitakri Dome, Fort Munro-D.G. Khan sections,
Mughalkot section, Nammal gorge, Khewra, Malakhel, Khisor, Vihowa-Chitarwata, Taunsa-Gulki
(Sanghar), Zinda Pir, Kaha Harrand, Mula Zahri, Gaj-Nari, Porali, Kech, Shagala, Zhob, Gomal,
many places in northern areas, etc. Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Sariab Road, Quetta
has five remarkable galleries like vertebrates (unique skulls of advanced titanosaurs, snouts of
mesoeucrocodiles, etc), invertebrates, minerals, marbles/construction materials and gemstones
(Fig.1). Further the soft copies of published material on dinosaurs, whale, baluchithere, etc (Malkani
2003,2006,2008,2009,2010a,b,c; 2011,2013,2014a,b,c; Malkani et al. 2013, etc) is also available in
our museums. Our museums hosting significant past and recent discoveries for correlation,
phylogeny, and other research topics. Museum of Vitakri Dome in Pakistan is a richest graveyard of
Titanosauria (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) in Asia. D.G. Khan-Fort Munro section is a unique laboratory
and museum of geology, paleontology, stratigraphy, minerals, gypsum, uranium, clays, quartzite,
sandstone, marbles, etc.
Pakistan has wonderfully exposed diverse tectonic elements like convergent collision of
Indo-Pakistan with Asia (continent-continent collision), Chaman-Uthal regional transform fault and
active subduction like convergent of Arabian sea plate with Balochistan basin of Tethys sea plate,
different types of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, sedimentary rocks with book type
many sedimentary and tectonic structures, diverse topography like sea coast in the south, plain areas
in the central east, some world class peaks more than 29000 feet above sea level such as K2, Nanga
Parbat, broad peak (Falchan Kangri)and Tirich Mir, many Muztagh (group of maintains) from east to
west in Karakoram are Batura, Hispar, Panmah, Baltaro, Siachen, Rimo and Saser, many glaciers
(more than 1km deep) like Siachen (74km) Baltaro (62km), Batura (58km), Godwin Austin, Biafo,
Chogolisa, Gondokhoro, Hispar (53km), Yazgil etc. many mountainous peaks surrounded by
pleasant and heaven valleys in the north and west, many localities of Paleozoic to recent flora and
invertebrates, Mesozoic and Cenozoic vertebrates, rich mineral, gemstone, petroleum and other
natural resources, variable four season (summer, autumn, winter and spring), severe summer in plain
while pleasant in mountainous areas, pleasant winter in plain and severe in mountainous areas; many
glacier bearing mountains, remnant of older Sharda University in Neelam valley, Azad Kashmir
(Fig.7 including many plates), Benjusa Lake in Azad Kashmir(Fig.7) and many rivers like Indus,
Jhelum, Zhob, Kech, etc offer unmatched opportunities for research, exploration and development.
The Pakistan represents both Gondwanan as well as Laurasian geo-heritage. The Karakoram basin
belongs to Laurasian and Tethyan, Balochistan basin to Tethyan, and Indus Basin to Gondwanan
fragments. Further Pakistan is now a part of Peninsula but in the past (Jurassic) it was a part of
Gondwanalands. Pakistan has well exposed marine as well as terrestrial strata (with different

52
extinction boundaries) deposited on the northwestern slope of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent now
known as Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir (uppermost/northernmost Indus), Kohat and Potwar
(upper/northern Indus) basin while western slope known as Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and Kirthar
(Lower/southern Indus) basins. The Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin and Kohat and Potwar basin
represent variable marine to continental Precambrian to recent rocks, while the Sulaiman and Kirthar
basins show variable marine to terrestrial Triassic to Recent rocks.
The flora like algae, pollen, spores and wood fossils from Paleozoic to Cenozoic of Pakistan
have been reported. Dinosaurs eat tall conifers (Baradarakht goeswangai), which may be the reason
of neck elongation besides the ferns, angiosperms, gymnosperm, etc which may be the origin of
Latest Cretaceous Kingri coal of Vitakri Formation (Malkani 2014c). The invertebrates like
Protozoa, Foraminifera (started from Cretaceous-Goru Formation like Globigerina, Rotaliapora,
Globotruncana, and onward Cainozoic-Nummulites, Alveolina, Assilina, etc), Coelenterata
(Anthozoa-corals, sea anemones, stony and horny corals; Hydrozoa-Jellyfish); Stromatoporoidea,
Scaphopoda, Bryozoa, Brachiopoda (Productus, fusilinids, etc), Echinodermata (Crinoids, etc),
Conodonts, Mollusca, Cephalopoda (Ammonites and belemnites became extinct at Cretaceous-
Tertiary boundary while nautiloids survived during extinction), Gastropoda, Pelecypoda/Bivalves
and Arthropoda (many insect, etc, Trilobites-Proetus chitralensis-Early Devonian of Chitral-Extinct)
have been reported from Pakistan so far. The Pakiring kharzani (the sub ring type bivalve/pelecypod
Mollusca) is found from the Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary laterite/thin rust (3km north of
Kharzan town) on the last bed of Pab sandstone in the Kharzan area of Khuzdar district, Balochistan,
Pakistan. The Pakiwheel vitakri-the stocky type nautiloids and Pakiwheel karkhi-the slender type
nautiloids are found just after the K-T boundary in Sangiali Formation close to east of Vitakri town,
Barkhan District and close to Karkh town, Khuzdar District, Balochistan respectively. The Mulastar
zahri-a star fish is found from the Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Shaheed Ghat Formation, Kharzan
area of Khuzdar district, Balochistan, Pakistan (Malkani 2014c).
The vertebrate paleontological evidences reported from Pakistan are fishes, reptiles
and mammals so far. India was the only source of information on Mesozoic vertebrates until 2000.
Since 2000 Pakistan is appeared first time in the world map (dinosaur wise). Pakistan yielded the
taxa of largest land animals like sauropods. The Kirthar (lower Indus) basin yielded Brohisaurus
kirthari Malkani 2003a titanosauriforms/early titanosaurian sauropod. About 3000 fossils collected
from more than 30 localities in fluvial two red mud horizons alternated by two sandstone horizons of
Vitakri Formation include Khetranisaurus barkhani, Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi, and Pakisaurus
balochistani of herbivorous Pakisauridae (slender) and Marisaurus jeffi, Maojandino alami and
Balochisaurus malkani of herbivorous Balochisauridae (stocky), Gspsaurus pakistani and
Saraikimasoom vitakri of Gspsauridae, and Nicksaurus razashahi of Saltasauridae titanosaurian
sauropods, large bodied Vitakridrinda sulaimani of abelisaurian, and Vitakrisaurus saraiki of
Vitakrisauridae noasaurian theropods, and Sulaimanisuchus kinwai of Sulaimanisuchidae,
Pabwehshi pakistanensis and Induszalim bala of Induszalimidae Mesoeucrocodiles, and
Khuzdarcroco zahri mesocrocodiles, and Saraikisaurus minhui of Saraikisauridae pterosaurs. A herd
of more wide gauge titanosaurian sauropods (Malakhelisaurus mianwali) confronted by a running
narrow gauge theropod (Samanadrinda surghari), and an isolated tracks of a couple of small
theropods (Himalayadrinda potwari) reported from the Middle Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone of
Baroch ichno type, Malakhel area, Mianwali District, Punjab, Pakistan (Malkani 2003a,b,c, 2004a,b,
2006a,b,c,d, 2007a,b,c,d,e, 2008a,b,c,d,e,f, 2009a,b,c,d,e,f, 2010a,b,c,d,e,f, 2011a,b,c, 2012b,c,d,e,f,

53
2013a,b,c,d,e,f,g, 2014a,b,c,d,e, 2015a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,I,j,k,l; Malkani et al. 2015; Wilson et al. 2001,
2005).
Very Recently the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of westernmost Sulaiman basin
yielded the trackway of Pashtosaurus zhobi Malkani 2014a terminal titanosaurian sauropods.
Pashtosaurus zhobi footprints from the Sor Muzghai-an ichno type site Qila Saif Ullah district, Zhob
division (western sulaiman basin) reveals some new and interesting morphologies of this group
which are also supported by bone fossils found in the same horizon and same basin. The footprints
and track forming animals were wide gauge locomotors-titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs named as
Pashtosaurus zhobi Malkani 2014a. Pashtosaurus zhobi were living during the Terminal Cretaceous
67 Million years ago. These became extinct at 66 million years ago. Pashtosaurus zhobi estimated
weight may be round about 50 tons. The total height of Pashtosaurus zhobi was on standing rearing
back about 35-40 feet. Its length of leg is about 10 feet. Its neck (long and thick neck) may be 15-20
feet long and back 10-15 feet long and tail 10-15 feet long (short and stocky tail may have distal
most thick trispinous ball). In this way total length of this animal was about 40-50 feet. Due to its
heavy weight and slippery nature of sand, these animals became slipped i.e. its legs slipped
especially the hind limb legs because the impression of toe reveals this information.This footprints
reveals unique information like this titanosaur was tridactyles but every digit was very stocky and
very widely spaced because its prints show upto 1 meters length and width also same. Titanosaurs
are commonly considered as 5 digits animals, so from these footprints its pes show very thick tri
digits very widely spaced/oriented with tri claws. But its manus was relatively less in size reaching
close to ½ meter or one half meter in width (transverse) and slightly less than 1/2m in length
(anteroposterior) and have no any claw in these manus, this character fix this animal to the titanosaur
group. All above mentioned description is Malkani-first author’s interpretation; it may became
correct now or later in the world geobioscientific community. The first author is very thankful to Mr.
Nick for his kind cooperations to preserve this extinct, amazing and amusing animal’s footprints for
local and world geobioscintific community because these tracks (providing unique features) are just
close to road and have danger of destroying these host beds for construction purposes. Thanks to
nature which preserve these footprints for about 67 million years but now we also strongly wish to
remain safe these footprints for researchers, visitors, etc (Malkani in process).
The possible fishes (Karkhimachli sangiali) found from Paleocene Sangiali group (including
marine Sangiali, Rakhi Gaj and Dungan formations). The Quettacyonidae (Bolanicyon Shahani) is
found in the Early Eocene Toi Formation of southwestern Mach area. Pakistan yielded the
archaeocete like walking whales and their descendants, Basilosauridae-the king of basal whale, and
baluchithere-the largest land mammals. The baluchithere reported from the Dera Bugti areas of
Sulaiman basin and also recently from Early Eocene Shagala formation of Shagala area
(Pakitherium shagalai Malkani et al. 2013) of northern Balochistan basin and from Oligocene
Chitarwata Formation of Taunsa-Gulki section (Buzdartherium gulkirao Malkani 2014c-honouring
the host buzdar tribe and Rao Ayub-very fond of fossils). The Gulki area is hosted by Buzdar tribe
(Taunsa) in north eastern Sulaiman foldbelt. Further a jaw of Asifcroco retrai Malkani 2015d-an
Oligocene crocodile is found from Taunsa-Gulki section of D. G. Khan District. The recent
discoveries of Sulaimanitherium dhanotri Malkani et al. 2013-Basilosauridae (the king of basal
whale) found from the Middle Eocene Drazinda shale of Sulaiman basin (Zamri area, Musakhel
district, Balochistan). When baluchithere became extinct, the proboscideans evolved as largest land
mammals. The Gomphotherium buzdari Malkani 2014c-a big proboscidean (Mammalia) remains are

54
recently collected from Miocene Litra Formation of Vihowa group in the just north of Mahoi, Zinda
Pir anticline of Taunsa area, located in the easternmost extremity of Sulaiman fold and thrust belt
(Malkani 2015a). Pakistan has a unique blend of Tertiary mammals of Asian affinity like
rhinocerotoids and antharacotherids with few proboscideans, carnivores, chalicotheres, deinotheres,
bovids, suids, Creodonta, ruminantia, amynodontiae, and crocodilians and Tertiary whales. All these
geodiverse and biodiverse heritage of Pakistan demands for protection as national and global
Geoparks which is an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan (Malkani 2015i).
Pakistan is also lucky to include vast spatially and temporally diverse rocks, minerals, gemstones,
coal, marble, radioactive minerals, petroleum, etc. There is no any Global geoparks, I strongly
suggest to establish at least one or two Global Geoparks especially in Vitakri Dome which is a
graveyard of dinosaurs aged as just below the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, and Fort Munro
section-an excellent geological museum for marine and continental strata ranging in age from
Cretaceous to Recent. It is no doubt, the museums, National and Global Geoparks are source of
informations on past life, history, minerals, rocks, nature, etc for visitors like researcher, scientists,
students, children, public/peoples, etc. All the diverse geoheritage and paleobioheritage demands for
protection as large museums, national and global Geoparks, which are source of informations for
visitors/researcher and also an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan.

CLOSURE OF TETHYS FROM PAKISTAN; GEOBIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF INDO-PAK

PENINSULA (SOUTH ASIA)

The closure of Tethys (Fig.1) from Pakistan and adjoining Afghanistan started at the end of
Cretaceous and consequently the origin of Paleo Indus River (flows from north to south) and uplift of
Hindukush started. During Early Eocene at the time of deposition of terrestrial Kingri Formation
(overbank red muds alternated with meandering river channel sandstones) of Chamalang (=Ghazij)
Group, the Tethys significantly retreated further back/southward. During Late Eocene the Tethys
retreated further back in Pakistan and Afghanistan but also retreated from India and adjoining areas
where Paleo Ganges River and Paleo Brahmaputra River systems (flows from west to east), and
Karakoram, Kohistan, Ladakh, Himalaya and Tibet ranges originated. During Miocene-Pliocene it
retreated further south just close to present position. India was the only source of information for
Indo-Pak Peninsula on dinosaurs until 2000. Since 2000 Pakistan appeared first time in the world
dinosaur map. The dominant vertebrates are titanosaurian sauropods, theropods and
mesoeucrocodiles with some pterosaur evidences. The titanosaurian sauropods, abelisaurian and
noasaurian theropods show relative close resemblance to Gondwanalands than Laurasia may be due
to close early seed dispersal at the Earliest Cretaceous. Indo-Pak subcontinent is now a Peninsula but
in the past (Jurassic) it was a part of Gondwanalands, in the Cretaceous (135 to 67Ma) it remained on
northward journey mostly as a big island/subcontinent, experienced many joining and departures,
and in the Latest Cretaceous (67Ma) its northwestern part collided first time with Afghan block of
Asia and closure of Tethys started.
The Indo-Pakistan Plate has a unified geological history from the time of its separation with
Madagascar to its collision with Asia some 40 million years later and is best understood as an
integrated geodynamic system of the Subcontinent. This planetary event has far reaching biotic
consequences: a common inherited biota when the subcontinent was attached to Madagascar and was
part of Gondwanaland, the Tertiary Type Sections which are mostly in Pakistan, the Indo-Pakistani

55
origin of whales and their consequent spread throughout the globe, the withdrawal of the Neotethys,
the India-Asia collision process and the development of Neogene foreland sediments. However,
political boundaries have made the task of an integrated study difficult if not impossible. This paper
is a small attempt to re-emphasize and perhaps to lament the fact of this “artificial isolation” and how
a small beginning is being made by giving a unified perspective in looking at Jurassic and
Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from India (Malkani and Sahni 2015; Sahni 2001) and Pakistan to
underline the common geological heritage. The Indus Basin of Pakistan represents a large part of the
western margin of the Indian Plate. As a case in point: the terrestrial vertebrate bearing Maastrichtian
Vitakri Formation of Balochistan, Pakistan are distal fluvio-deltaic and continental deposits that are
sediment-sourced from the erosion of the Indo-Pakistan shield, Deccan Volcanics and co-eval beds.
These beds have produced the mesoeucrocodiles and sauropod and abelisaurian dinosaurs (Fig.1,2,3)
with distinct Gondwana affinity and are in common with those known from India. The Jurassic
dinosaurs of Pakistan are currently represented by some spectacular trackways and a few dinosaurs.
Pterosaurs have also been reported from the Cretaceous of Pakistan and India and need to be better
studied. More data is needed from Pakistan from the smaller-sized vertebrates comprising, frogs,
snakes, lizards, turtles and mammals to make an accurate assessment of the palaeo-biogeographic
affinities. During the initial drift stage, biotic relationships were with faunas of Madagascar, South
America and Africa. During the Palaeocene and Lower Eocene, there are definite indications of
linkages to northern Africa and Europe. By the Middle Eocene, Central Asia faunas were the main
immigrants to the Indian Plate (Malkani and Sahni 2015).
The Indo-Pak subcontinental plate collided with Afghan block of Asia at Latest Cretaceous
(70-67Ma). As a result the Vitakri-Ziarat Land Bridge appeared which bifurcated the Tethys Sea in
Pakistan. After the end of the Cretaceous, both the Balochistan and Indus basins connected with each
other and represented same stratigraphy during Cenozoic era. The Cenozoic of Balochistan
especially Kakar-Khorasan range on the west of Western Indus suture and Sulaiman (Middle Indus)
basin in the east of Western Indus Suture. During Early Paleocene the sea transgressed on this bridge
and Paleocene Dungan Limestone was deposited in the Indus and Balochistan basins especially near
the western Indus Suture. During Late Paleocene the regression of sea started and the Paleo Indus
River system (generally flows from north to south) originated from the Western Indus Suture which
deposited the Late Paleocene to Early Eocene Shaheed Ghat Formation (distal delta mainly shale
with some sand lenses) of Chamalang (=Ghazij) Group in Indus Basin and Murgha Faqirzai shale of
Balochistan Basin. The Late Paleocene to Early Eocene Chamalang Group consists of Shaheed Ghat,
Toi, Kingri, Drug and Baska formations. At the deposition of deltaic Toi (sandstone, shale, coquina
beds, rubbly marl and coal) in Indus Basin and Mina Formation (sandstone alternated with green
muds) in Balochistan Basin, the Tethys sea line further treated southward / back. After the deposition
of Toi and Mina Formations, the terrestrial Kingri (sandstone alternated red and maroon muds)
Formation in Sulaiman and Shagala (sandstone alternated red and maroon muds; fossils of land
baluchithere-Pakitherium) Formation in northern Balochistan Basin (Fig.1), while in southern
Balochistan the deposition of Mina/Panjgur Formation were continue. After the deposition of
terrestrial Kingri and Shagala formations, a transgression of sea occurred which deposited the marine
Drug and evaporitic Baska, marine Middle Eocene Kahan Group (Habib Rahi marl and limestone,
Domanda shale, Pirkoh marl and limestone and Drazinda shale) in Sulaiman basin while in southern
Balochistan the deposition of Mina/Panjgur Formation were continue. At Late Eocene a major
collision of Indo-Pak Subcontinent with Asia occurred. This geoevents is responsible for the birth of

56
Paleo Ganges and Paleo Brahmaputra River systems generally flows from west to east (Fig.1B) and
further evolution of Paleo Indus River System. As a result the Tethys sea retreated further southward
just close to northern margin of Kirthar/Lower Indus Basin. On the upper terrestrial areas the Siwalik
group in India, and Murree and Kamlial formations in Potwar and Chitarwata Formation in Sulaiman
deposited but their coeval Nari and Gaj formations deposited under Tethys. During Miocene and
Pliocene Tethys sea retreated further back/south (Fig.1) and consequently Manchar group deposited
as terrestrial. During Pleistocene-Holocene Sea further retreated south as shown on map of Pakistan
(Fig.1B).
The four major bioevents related to major tectonic events resulted in the shape of extinctions
of terrestrial vertebrates found in Pakistan. The first major bioevent occurred at the Permo-Triassic
boundary from where the land vertebrates like the dinosaurs-largest land animals along with
mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaur-the flying reptiles initiated and ruled the Mesozoic of Pakistan. The
second bioevent occurred at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary where these dinosaurs,
mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaur became extinct and the mammals (also birds) became dominant.
After the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary disaster the Baluchithere-largest land mammals ruled the
land in Bugti hills of Balochistan, Buzdar and Qaisrani hills of Punjab (eastern Sulaiman/middle
Indus foldbelt) and Shagala hills of Balochistan (Kakar-Khorasan/Katawaz/northern Balochistan
basin) while Basilosauridae-the king of basal whale (fossils found from Sulaiman basin) ruled the
eastern Tethys sea. The third bioevent occurred at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary from where the
Baluchithere became extinct. After this third bioevents the rhinocerotoids, anthracotherids,
proboscideans, carnivores, chalicotheres, deinotheres, bovids, suids, Creodonta, ruminantia,
amynodontiae, and crocodilians were found in the Indus basin of Pakistan. The fourth bioevent
occurred on the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary from where the man civilization seems to be
evolved (Malkani 2013f). Kohistan magmatic arc accreted to Asia at 100Ma. Jurassic and Cretaceous
rocks overlie the Proterozoic rocks in Cherat-Attock-Hazara while Carboniferous or Permian rocks
overlie Proterozoic strata in Swat areas. Renewed tectonism commenced during the Late Cretaceous
with initial motion along the Cherat and Hissartang faults in the Attock-Cherat range. Widespread
compressional tectonics related to the obduction of Kohistan island arc may have began as early as
62Ma and was underway by 50Ma. The south verging thrusts with migrated deformation front
started from north during Paleocene and continued so far from Karakoram, Kohistan, Northern Indus
Suture, northwest Himalaya (Khyber-Hazara) and Kohat-Potwar belts/blocks (Husain 2004).
Paleobiogeography can be deduced from geological and paleontological data. Some time the
geological data is sufficient, some time paleotological data is added. However the geological data by
their very nature hold priority over paleontological data or vice versa. Chaudhrey et al. (1994)
interpretation like timing of uplift at K-T boundary in Pakistan gives same clues as present author.
However the ideas of Ali and Krause (2011) are relatively close to the present study. Ali and Krause
(2011) mentioned throughout the Late Cretaceous there was no intervening, continuous causeway
through Antarctica, and associated land bridges between South America to the west and Indo-
Madagascar to the east; and mid to large sized obligate terrestrial forms gained broad distribution
across Gondwanan Land masses prior to fragmentation and were isolated on Indo-Madagascar before
the end of the Early Cretaceous, but the present study show isolation of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent
from Madagascar at J-K boundary time. Searle et al. (1988) mentioned the terminal collision of Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent and Asia is deduced from the ending of marine sedimentation and beginning
of continental molasse sedimentation in the Indus Suture Zone, ending of Andean type calc-alkaline

57
magmatism along the Trans-Himalaya (Kohistan-Ladakh-Ganges) batholith, and the initiation of
major collision related thrust systems in the Himalayan Ranges. Most researcher fever initiation
around 50-55 Ma (Hodges 2000, Molnar and Tapponnier 1975, Patriat and Achache 1984, Searle et
al. 1987). Although Ding et al (2005), Yin (2006) and Yin and Harrison (2000) prefer an even earlier
time ~70 Ma which are close to present investigation. The models for tectonic and climatic evolution
associated with the Himalaya-Tibetian orogenic system in which timing of initiation T 0 boundary
condition of 50-55 Ma is assumed (e.g. Beaumont et al. 2001, 2004; Jamieson et al. 2004) but the
present research show T0 at 75-70 Ma of western margin of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. The rate of
Indo-Pakistan’s northward progression toward Asia was ~6.6cm/yr between 120 and 73 Ma,
increasing to ~21.1cm/yr between 73 and 57 Ma. At 57 + 3 Ma, there was then an abrupt and
massive slowdown to 9.5cm/yr untills 20-30 Ma, when there was a further major slowdown (Acton
1999). The change of rate at 73 Ma indicate first collision in western part and increasing rate may be
due to rapid anticlockwise rotation of subcontinent at pivot point (Zhob and Afghan block).
Aitchison et al. (2007) mentioned the reasons of collision evidence before 35 Ma like Neotethys was
a large ocean in which intraoceanic island arcs, plateaus, seamounts and other bathymetrically
positive features exist which have created the 55 Ma event but not actual collision of Indo-Pakistan
and Asia. Neotethys was obviously more complex than originally envisaged as an other intraoceanic
island arc system, remnants of which are represented by the Kohistan-Dras arc, collided to the north
with Eurasia well before the ocean closed (Aitchison et al. 2007). The creation of Kohistan-Laddakh
magmatic arc at Cretaceous shows the collision of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent with Asia.
Detritial sedimentary records along convergent plate margins are widely regarded as key
repositories, for precisely containing the timing of both major and minor tectonic events (Lundberg
and Dorsey 1990) and here Early Eocene Chamalang group molasse are studied. The investigation
permit the discrimination of various conglomerate units attributable to different tectonic events
(Davis et al. 2004) and Marap conglomerate and upper Toi formation conglomerate also show the
uplift of Western Indus suture near the Kalat area just south of Zhob area which is uplifted first and
then Kalat and its western vicinity areas. Fluvial sedimentation in the Himalayan foreland did not
begin until the Oligocene (Najman et al. 2004). The Indo-Pakistan and Asia collision is of global
significance and widely regarded as being implicated in the late Cenozoic initiation of global climate
change. It has been argued that the shift in ocean geochemistry (e.g., Sigma & 18 O and Sr isotope
records) implicated in global climate change can be connected with Indo-Pakistan and Asia collision
(Raymo and Ruddiman 1992, Ruddiman and Kutzbach 1989). Ophiolitic obduction in Pakistan along
Western and Northern Indus Suture were take place in late Paleocene (Sarwar 1992, Beck et al.
1995) or at Latest Cretaceous. Aitchison et al. (2007) pointed about the imprecise nature of age
determination, so here in the present study the age is confirmed and correct, e.g., Gingerich et al.
(2001) discovered the walking whale in the transition strata of Habib Rahi limestone and Domanda
shale and aged about 47 Ma (Berggren et al., 1995; Hardenbol et al. 1998). In this way the
Chamalang/Ghazij group ranges from 55-48 Ma. Hong and Lee (2012) reported cold during Early
and Late Cretaceous based on low atmospheric CO2 and hot middle Cretaceous based on high
atmospheric CO2 which is related to major geoevents. The oldest sediments that contain detritus from
both sides of Western Indus Suture are Early Eocene to recent. The marine and terrestrial molasse
strata just east of Western Indus Suture provide an important constraint on the initiation of collision
at 67 Ma. The third orogeny occurred at the Eocene-Oligocene (35-33 Ma) boundary which is
responsible for the rising of northern part of Pakistan (Himalaya) which was the clastic source of

58
Potwar group (Siwalik group) in Kohat and Potwar basin, Vihowa group in Sulaiman and Kirthar
basins. The third orogeny occurred after the 20 million years of second orogeny. In this way the
second orogeny also needs 20 million years (75-55 Ma) for rising of Hinterland (Zhob-Afghan
block) to supply the clastic materials. During early Eocene East and southeastern part of Sulaiman
foldbelt remained under sea, where marine Shaheed Ghat (shale) and Drug formation (rubbly
limestone, marl and shale) was deposited, which were followed by wide spread platform type
evaporitic deposits (Baska gypsum), in turn followed by marine Kahan group (Habib Rahi,
Domanda, Pir Koh and Drazinda formations). In the Oligocene the Tethys Sea was permanently
regressed from the upper and middle Indus basins, however southward of Jacobabad high the sea
remained in the Oligocene and regressed in the Miocene and later further southward. The fourth
main orogeny occurred at the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary resulted the further folding and
faulting. The fifth and so far last main orogeny occurred at the boundary of Pleistocene and
Holocene resulted the folding and faulting.
The long journey in long period of Indo-Pakistan has affected its biota, paleoclimates, etc. So
far Pakistan has produced a few fossils of Late Jurassic titanosauriforms/early titanosaur
Brohisaurus kirthari Malkani 2003a and about 3000 fossils (some articulated, some associated and
some isolated) of cranial, vertebral and appendicular elements of latest Cretaceous dinosaurs and
crocodiles, collected from fluvial two red mud horizons (alternated by sandstone horizons; Malkani
2006d) of Vitakri Formation. This include Khetranisaurus Malkani 2006a referred some vertebrae
by Malkani (2009a), Sulaimanisaurus Malkani 2006a referred femur by Malkani and Anwar (2000)
and some vertebrae Malkani (2009a) and Pakisaurus Malkani 2006a referred crania, postcrania and
osteoderms by Malkani (2010a,c;2006c;2003b;2015a) of herbivorous Pakisauridae Malkani 2006a
(slender titanosaurians) and Marisaurus Malkani 2006a referred crania, postcrania and osteoderms
by Malkani (2003a,b; 2006c; 2008a,b; 2010c; Wilson et al. 2005 ), Maojandino alami Malkani
2015b and Balochisaurus malkani Malkani 2006a referred crania, postcrania and osteoderms by
Malkani (2003b; 2006c; 2009; 2010c;2015a,b) of herbivorous Balochisauridae Malkani 2006a
(stocky titanosaurians), Nicksaurus razashahi Malkani 2015b of Saltasauridae and Gspsaurus
pakistani Malkani 2014a and Saraikimasoom vitakri of Gspsauridae sauropods, and noasaurian
Vitakrisaurus Malkani 2010b with some detail by Malkani (2011b,2014b,2015a) of Vitakrisauridae
Malkani 2010b and abelisaurian Vitakridrinda Malkani 2006a referred and detail description of
holotypic materials by Malkani (2006a, 2014b,2015a) theropod dinosaurs, and Pabwehshi Wilson et
al. 2001 referred some materials by Malkani (2007d) and Induszalim bala Malkani 2014b of
Induszalimidae, and Sulaimanisuchus kinwai Malkani 2010b of carnivorous Sulaimanisuchidae
Malkani 2010b mesoeucrocodiles were documented so far. Further the trackways from the Middle
Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone of Kohat and Potwar basin represent a group of wide gauge
Malakhelisaurus mianwali Malkani 2007a titanosauriforms/early titanosaurian sauropods and a
narrow gauge running Samanadrinda surgahri Malkani 2007a theropod based on only ichnotypes
(Malkani, 2007a, 2008a; 2011c). Further recently the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation of
westernmost Sulaiman basin yielded the trackway of Pashtosaurus zhobi Malkani 2014a terminal
titanosaurian sauropods.
Dinosaurs from Pakistan are reported upto K-Pg (Cretaceous-Paleogene) boundary. But after
this K-Pg boundary no any fossil of dinosaur is reported from any parts of Pakistan (and also among
world), showing mass extinction of dinosaurs at K-Pg boundary (2010a,e). A major extinction of
archaic birds at K-Pg boundary provided an ecological release, permitting the radiation of modern

59
birds in the Paleogene (Longrich, et al. 2011). The Oligocene Chitarwata Formation is the host of
continental largest land mammals Balochitherium, Bugtitherium, etc. The Vihowa and Litra
formations are also rich in continental vertebrates. The fossil record (e.g., Thewissen et al. 2001,
Karanth 2006) and present day amphibian catalogue (e.g., Daniels 1992, Bossuyt and Milinkovitch
2001, Biju and Bossuyt 2003) which informs us that Indo-Pakistan had also developed endemic
forms prior to its glancing contact (~57Ma) followed by hard collision (~35Ma) with Asia (Ali and
Aitchison 2008). Some opinions show the contact of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and Madagascar
during the Late Cretaceous but the latest Cretaceous fauna of Pakistan do not show such highest
degree of resemblance with Madagascar and South America as it should be if connected (Malkani
2007b, 2011a). The trispinous distal most caudal centra and moderately inclined skull of Pakistani
titanosaurs show so far endemic characters. The dinosaurs and crocodiles in Gondwanalands got
broad distribution prior to fragmentation. The record of Late Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from
Gondwana is spotty at best and therefore difficult to analyze and interpreted in a biogeographic
context (Krause et al. 2006), however in the present study it is strengthened by lithostratigraphy,
geological history and tectonics data.
The Gondwanan and Laurasian vertebrates show Pangean heritage, but after separation
during Jurassic both show fauna with distinct Characters. In this way Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent
show Gondwana heritage but after long migration and isolation from 160 Ma to 70 Ma, the
continental vertebrates acquired distinct characters. The configuration of Gondwana changed
dramatically during the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous as it broke apart into isolated landmasses. The
dispersion of these landmasses undoubtedly had profound consequences for the geographic
distribution and subsequent evolutionary trajectories of the resident terrestrial vertebrates’ fauna.
Further Gondwana terrestrial fossil record on crocodyliforms, non avian dinosaurs and mammals are
better than for most other vertebrate clades (Krausse et al., 2006).
The latest Cretaceous fauna of Pakistan do not show such highest degree of resemblance with
Madagascar and South America as it should be if connected. Generally there is a community
development in the world, at places some group is well developed and at places some other groups
are developed. The dominance of some group in southern landmasses and some other groups in
Laurasian landmasses are one of the tools for paleobiogeographic connections. In a number of
ecosystems, noasaurid abelisauroids were small bodied counterparts to their large bodied cousins, the
abelisaurids, in a manner parallel to small bodied maniraptorian coelurosaurs and large bodied
tyranosaurids in many Late Cretaceous Laurasian ecosystems (Krause et al., 2006). The record of
Late Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from Gondwana is spotty at best and therefore difficult to
analyze and interpreted in a biogeographic context (Krause et al. 2006), however in the present study
it is strengthened by stratigraphy, geological history and tectonics data. The anteriorly orientation of
antorbital fenistra, Chin in the anterior dentary rami, number of teeth, less dorsal slope/inclination of
skull and wheel like armor bones of Rapetosaurus, and broad distal caudal vertebrae of Malagasy
Texon B of Madagascar are different from Balochisauridae and Pakisauridae titanosaurian
sauropods. The Pakistani titanosaurs also show affinity with Nemegtosaurus, Quaesitosaurus and
Alamosaurus etc of Laurasia. So far the trispinous distal caudal centrum and anteroposterior
moderate/medium inclination of dorsal skull of latest Cretaceous Gspsauridae show endemic
characters.
The latest Cretaceous Pakistani fauna is slightly less provincial than previously associated
Gondwana landmasses, while it is relatively more provincial than Laurasia and other regions of

60
Gondwana. In this way the orogeny/tectonics, stratigraphy and fauna of Pakistan show isolation of
Indo-Pakistan as island during Cretaceous. Indo-Pakistan shows association with Madagascar and
South America (via Antarctica) before Early Cretaceous, and early seed radiation and common
heredity show relatively high degree of similarity between Latest Cretaceous fauna of Indo-Pakistan,
Madagascar and South America. In this way titanosaurians show cosmopolitan due to common seed
radiation and heredity due to united continents as Pangea (Late Triassic; 220 Ma) and also at the
breakup of Pangea (Middle Jurassic; 170 Ma). In general the Mesozoic vertebrates show relative
close affinity to Gondwana than Laurasia. The Cenozoic vertebrates show Eurasian affinity and
migrated from Indo-Pak subcontinent to Eurasia to or vice versa via Paleo Indus River systems along
Western Indus Suture, after the first collision of Indo-Pak subcontinent with Asia occurred at the
terminal Cretaceous. The baluchitheres and some other fauna may have Indo-Pakistan origin.
With the fragmentation of Gondwana, which is generally agreed to have commenced in
earnest in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic (Lawver et al., 1992; Torsvik et al., 2001; de Wit 2003;
Wells, 2003)? Madagascar, as part of “East Gondwana” (also including the Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent, Antarctica, and Australia), began to separate from “West Gondwana” (South America
and Africa)(Krause et al., 2006). Initial rifting between the Indo-Pakistan-Madagascar block and
Africa began during the Permo-Triassic, and seafloor spreading between the conjugate-rifted margin
of southern Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania (Western Somali Basin) and northern Madagascar
commenced by the late Middle Jurassic (Lawver et al., 1992; Wells, 2003). By the Late Jurassic
(approximately 160 Ma; Fig.1h), in a narrow seaway separated the east coast of Africa from
Madagascar and the rest of the East Gondwana block (Krause, et al., 2006). When major faults or
rifts occurred, these have many subsidiary faults or rifts. In this way the rifting between east and
west Gondwana created both rift on the west and also in the east of Madagascar. Consequently
Madagascar is separated from Africa and also Indo-Pakistan subcontinent during Early Cretaceous.
Indo-Pakistan started northward journey during Early Cretaceous and migrated rapidly covering
more than 6000km in about 60 million years, and contacted with Laurasia at Late Cretaceous about
67 Ma. From 67 to 55 Ma, the area of Hinterland in the north and northwest of Sulaiman basin,
began to rise first and provided the clastic of Chamalang group (Shaheed Ghat, Toi and Kingri
formations) in the central, north and west of Sulaiman basin and northern Kirthar basin, and clastic
materials of Murgha Faqirzai shale, Mina shale and sandstone and Shagala continental sandstone and
red muds of Northern Balochistan basin. In the east and southeast of Sulaiman basin remained under
sea and marine Drug formation was deposited, which were followed by wide evaporitic deposits
(Baska gypsum).

61
 Beginning of Paleo Indus River system
and closure of Tethys
Vitakri-Ziarat Sea line at Late
land bridge Paleocene
A
Sea line at Early
Eocene
Neotethys
Marine Sea line at Late
environments Indo-Pakistan Early Eocene B
shield Tethys Sea
line/coast line at
Continental/
Late Oligocene
Terrestrial
environments
Tethys Sea line at
Late Pliocene

Zhob Zhob . Afghan

Afghan block
block Laurasia
Laurasia
Afghan
Tethys Block Indo-Pakistan Sub
55 Ma
55 Ma
Indo-Pakistan Sub

Loralai Vitakri D. G.Khan

Ziarat high Indo-Pakistan Sub.
Sub.
Quetta Indo-Pakistan
Quetta
Northern
Northern
Hemisphere
Hemisphere
Jacobabad Equator
Equator

Khuzdar
Khuzdar
Jacobabad high

Southern
Southern
Karachi Hemisphere
Hemisphere
C D
E
E
Indo-Pakistan Sub.
Indo-Pakistan Sub.

Madagascar
Madagascar
135 Ma
135 Ma

Figure 1. A, Latest Cretaceous Sea Level, depositional model and bifurcation of Tethys sea and origin of Vitakri-Ziarat Land
Bridge in Pakistan: B, Late Paleocene to Late Pliocene sea line or coast line of Tethys, closure of Neotethys from Pakistan and
adjoining Afghanistan and birth of Paleo Indus, Paleo Ganges and Paleo Brahmaputra River Systems: C, Paleo-Vitakri River
systems flows from East to west (Indo-Pak shield to Tethys) during Late Cretaceous. Black thick line shows sea level: D,
Paleo-Indus River systems flows generally from north to south. Black broken line shows Western Indus Suture (Northern Indus
and western Indus Suture are the northwestern and western boundary of Indo-Pak subcontinent): E, Geological Evolution Indo-
Paki Subcontinent. Arrows show direction of continental clastic movements and river systems.

62
Age Kirthar (Lower Indus) Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Kohat-Potwar (Upper Indus)
Recent A l l u v i u m, e o l i a n and c o l l u v i u m
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar (sst,cl) Sakhi Sarwar (sst, cl, cong) Soan (cl, sst, cong).
Pleistocene Dada (cong, sst, cl). Dada (cong, sst, cl). Lei (cong, sst, cl).
--------------------------------disconformity--------------------------------------------------------------
Pliocene Chaudhwan (sst,cong,cl) Chaudhwan(sst,cong, cl) Dhok Pathan (sst, cong, cl).
Miocene Litra (sst) Litra (sst) Nagri (sst)
Vihowa (red cl, sst) Vihowa (red cl, sst) Chinji/Murree/Kamlial (red cl, sst)
Chitarwata (sst, cl, cong)
OLIGOCENE Nari & Gaj (sh,lst)
-----disconformity----- ----disconformity-------------------
Gorag (lst) Drazinda (lst)
Pir Koh (lst, sh) Kohat(lst, sh) Kuldana(sh,lst,sst)
Domanda (sh) Chorgali(sh,lst)
Kirthar (lst, sh) Habib Rahi (lst, sh) Habib Rahi (lst, sh) Sakesar/Margala
Eocene Baska (gypsum)
Jatta (gypsum)
(lst, shale)
Laki (sh, sst, lst) Drug (lst)
Sohnari (laterite, cl) Kingri (red cl, sst) Bahadurkhel (salt)

Toi (sst, cl) Toi (sst, cl, coal) Shekhan (cl, sst)
Saheed Ghat shale Shaheed Ghat shale Panoba (sh) Nammal (shale)
Lakhra (lst) Dungan (lst)
Paleocene Bara (sst, sh) Rakhi Gaj (sst, sh) L o c k h a r t (lst)
Khadro (sst, lst) Sangiali (lst, sst) Hangu/Patala (shale, coal, sst)
Latest Cretaceous -------disconformity-----------------------Vitakri (red cl, sst) -------- Indus (laterite, bauxite) -----disconformity-------------

Pab (sst) Pab (sst) Kawagarh (lst)

Fort Munro (lst)
Cretaceous Mughal Kot (sh,sst) Mughal Kot (sh, sst) L u m s h i w a l (sst)
Parh Limestone Parh Limestone
Goru (marl, sh) Goru (marl, sh)
Sembar (sh) Sembar shale C h i c h a l i (green sst, sh)
Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary-------------Dilband Iron Formation------

Zidi Limestone Chiltan Limestone S a m a n a s u k Limestone

Jurssic Anjira (sh, lst) Loralai Limestone S h i n a w a r i (sh, lst)
Spingwar (lst, sh) Spingwar (sh, lst). Datta (sst)
---------------------------------------disconformity---------------------------------------------------------
Wulgai (sh) Wulgai (sh) K i n g r i a l i (lst)
Triassic Gwal (sh, lst) Gwal (sh, lst) Tredian (sst)
M i a n w a l i (sst, sh)
Figure 2. Mesozoic and Cenozoic stratigraphy and Marine to Non-marine Correlation of Kirthar (Lower Indus),
Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and Kohat-Potwar (Upper Indus) Basin, Pakistan. Abbreviations; cl-clay, cong-
conglomerate, lst-limestone, sh-shale, sst-sandstone.
Marine Mesozoic Marine Cenozoic Non-marine Mesozoic
and Cenozoic

63
Age Kirthar (Lower Indus) Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Kohat-Potwar (Upper Indus)
Recent Alluvium,eolian,Colluv. Alluvium A l l u v i um
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Sakhi Sarwar Soan
Pleistocene Dada Dada L e i
-----------disconformity--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pliocene Chaudhwan Chaudhwan Dhok Pathan
Litra Litra N a g r i
Miocene Vihowa Vihowa Chinji/Murree/Kamlial
-----disconformity------
Oligocene Nari & Gaj Chitarwata
------------------------------disconformity--------------
Drazinda Kohat /
Kuldana
Gorag Pir Koh Choregali
Domanda Sakesar/
Eocene Kirthar Habib Rahi Habib Rahi Margala
Baska Jatta
Drug Bahadurkhel
Kingri
Laki/Toi Toi Shekhan

Sohnari/Shaheed Ghat Shaheed Ghat Panoba/ Nammal

Lakhra/Dungan Dungan
Paleocene Bara Rakhi Gaj Lockhart
Khadro Sangiali Hangu/Patala
……disconformable Boundary...--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vitakri Vitakri Indus Formation
Pab Pab Kawagarh

Cretaceous Fort Munro Fort Munro

Mughal Kot Mughal Kot L u mshiwal
Parh Parh
Goru Goru
Sembar Sembar C h i c h ali
---------------------------------------------------------------------------disconformity------
Chiltan Chiltan Samanasuk
Jurassic Anjira Loralai Shinawari
Spingwar. Spingwar. D a t t a
------------disconformity-----------------------------------------------------------------
Triassic Wulgai Wulgai/Zhob Ki n g r i ali
Tredian/ Chalk Jabi
Gwal Gwal Mi anwali
Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Conglomerate Shale Marl Gypsum/salt Alluvium

Sauropod dinosaur Theropod dinosaur Crocodile Pterosaur-flying reptile

Figure 3. Lithostratigraphic Correlation of Kirthar (Lower Indus), Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and
Kohat-Potwar (Upper Indus) Basin of Pakistan.

64
Age Middle Indus Basin Sea level Rising Upper Indus Basin Sea level Rising
Chronostratigraphy Chronostratigraphy
Recent Alluvium,eolian,Colluv. Alluvium
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Soan
Pleistocene Dada Tethys Lei
……………… Sea
closed Tethys
Pliocene Chaudhwan Dhok Pathan Sea
permane
Litra Nagri closed
ntly
Miocene Vihowa Chinji/ Murree/Kamlial permane
Oligocene Chitarwata Kohat/ ntly
Drazinda Kuldana .
Pir Koh Choregali
Domanda Sakesar/Margala
Eocene Habib Rahi HabibRahi
Baska Jatta
Drug Bahadurkhel
Kingri Shekhan
Toi
Shaheed Ghat
Panoba/Nammal
Dungan Patala
Paleocene Rakhi Gaj Lockhart
Sangiali Hangu

……Disconformable Boundary...
Vitakri Indus
Pab Kawagarh

Cretaceous Fort Munro .

Mughal Kot Lumshiwal
Parh .
Goru
Sembar Chichali
-------- Dilband . Samanasuk
Chiltan . Shinawari
Jurassic Loralai . Datta
Spingwar. Kingriali
Triassic Gawal Trediani
Wulgai Mianwali

Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Conglomerate Shale Marl Gypsum/salt Alluvium

Figure 4. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sea level Curves of Sulaiman (Middle Indus) and Kohat-
Potwar (Upper Indus) Basin of Pakistan.

65
Age Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Balochistan (Middle Indus) Karakoram Basin
Recentnostratigraphy Chronostratigraphy
Alluvium,eolian,Colluv. Alluvium
Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Sakhi Sarwar
Pleistocene Dada Bostan/Dada
Pliocene Chaudhwan Chaudhwan
Litra Litra
Miocene Vihowa Vihowa
Oligocene Chitarwata Chitarwata
Drazinda
Pir Koh
Domanda Shagala Not deposited
Eocene Habib Rahi
Baska
Drug Mina
Kingri
Toi Murgha-
Shaheed Ghat Faqirzai
Dungan
Paleocene Rakhi Gaj Nisai
Sangiali

Vitakri Darband
Pab Jabrai Reshun/Tupop
Cretaceous Fort Munro Akhtar Nika
Mughal Kot Reshit
Parh Sinjrani
Goru Chagai
Sembar Yashkuk
Chiltan
Jurassic Loralai Astighar
Spingwar.
Triassic Gawal
Wulgai Aghil

Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Conglomerate Shale Marl Gypsum Alluvium Igneous

Sauropod dinosaur Theropod dinosaur Crocodile Pterosaur-flying reptile

Figure 5. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Lithostratigraphic Correlation of Sulaiman (Middle Indus-

a part of Gondwana) Basin, Balochistan Basin (a part of Tethys) and Karakoram (Pamir)
Basin (a part of Laurasia) of Pakistan.

66
 Mesozoic Terrestrial strata
Hindu Kush-Karakoram basins

Kohistan-Laddak magmatic arc

Khyber-Hazara-Kashmir basin

Kohat-Potwar basin

Sulaiman basin

Kakar-Khurasan (North Balochistan)

Chagai-Raskoh arc

Continental/ Terrestrial
Hamun-e- (Indo-Pakistan shield)
Mashkel

Wazhdad
arc

Makran
basin

Figure 6. Basin architectures/configurations and Sea level in Triassic, Jurassic and

Cretaceous of Pakistan. Generalized Sea level during Early Triassic to Early Jurassic is
shown as full line and in Middle Jurassic to Late Cretaceous is shown as broken line.

67
Figure 7. Row 1, 1st photo from right to left shows different strata like Nammal shale and marl, Sakesar limestone, Chorgali green shale
and Kuldana red shale and uppermost Murree sandstone , 2nd photo s Indus Formation (bauxite and laterite) and 3rd photo shows pisolites of
Indus Formation, eastern limb of Tatta Pani anticlinorium (Kotli district); 4th photo shows Indus Formation (laterite) and 5th photo shows
nodular Sakesar Limestone, Muzaffarabad. Row 2, 1st photo shows Tanawal quartzite of Kaghan area; 2nd photo shows beautiful parallel
structures on boulder in Nausehri area of lower Neelum, 3rd photo shows Benjusa lake near Rawlakot, 4th photo shows a mosque tower in a
Palandri/ Sadnoti district, 5th Mangla Dam, 6th and 7th water fall in northern areas of Pakistan and 8th photo Holocene Soan (Sakhi Sarwar
Fm). Row 3, 1st photo Neelam hydel project, 2nd Chikar model of earthquake ruined some clusters of houses; 3rd photo Sharda valley, 4th,
5thand 6th photo remnants of old Sharda University, Neelam valley, Azad Kashmir. Row 4, 1st photo shows Muzaffarabad-Balakot-Tatta
Pani active thrust, 2nd Murree Formation and 3rd and 4th photos show Samanasuk Limestone of Lamnian (Reshian valley) and 5th photo
shows dinosaur in national park of Mir Pur (Azad Kashmir). Row 5, 1st photo shows Toi Formation of Chamalang coalfields in Balochistan
Province. 2nd photo shows Tatta Pani anticlinorium core in Goi area of Kotli district, Azad Kashmir, 2nd and 3rd photos shows Pleistocene-
Holocene Bentonite (white) bearing Quaternary Soan Formation (alluvium) in northwestern Potwar (Attock District).

68
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LeFort P., Gaetani M. 1998. Introduction to the geological map of western central Karakoram, North
Pakistan Hindu Raj, Ghamubar and Darkot areas 1:250,000 scale. Geologica 3(1), 1-68.

LeFort P., Pechner A., 2001. An introduction to the geological map of the area between Hunza and
Baltistan, Karakoram-Kohistan-Ladakh-Himalaya region, northern Pakistan 1:150,000 scale.
Geologica 6), 1-40.

LeFort P., Tongiorgi M., Gaetani M. 1994. Discovery of a crystalline basement and Early Ordovician
marine transgression in the Karakoram mountain range, Pakistan. Geology 22, 941-944.

Lydekker R. 1878. Notes on the geology of Kashmir, Kishtwar and Pangi. GSI Rec. ii, 30-63.

Madin I.P., Lawrence R.D., Rehman S. 1989. The north western Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Massif:
evidence for crustal uplift at the northwestern corner of the Indian craton. In; Malinconico and Lillie
eds.) Tectonics of the western Himalaya. Geological Amer. Spec. Pap. 232, 169-182.

Malkani M.S. 2000. Preliminary report on gypsum deposits of Sulaiman Range, Pak. GSP, IR (706):
1-11.

75
Malkani M.S. 2002. First note on the occurrence of Fluorite in Mula area, Khuzdar District,
Balochistan, Pakistan, GSP IR (766): 1-11.

Malkani M.S. 2003a. First Jurassic dinosaur fossils found from Kirthar range, Khuzdar District,
Balochistan, Pakistan. Geol. Bul.Univ.Peshawar 36, 73-83.

Malkani M.S. 2003b. Pakistani Titanosauria; are armoured dinosaurs?. Geol. Bul. Univ. Peshawar
36, 85-91.

Malkani M.S. 2003c. Discovery of Partial Skull and Dentary of Titanosauria (Sauropod dinosaur)
from the Late Cretaceous Pab Formation of Vitakri area, Barkhan distt, Balochistan, Pakistan. Geol.
Bul.Univ.Peshawar 36, 65-71.

Malkani M.S. 2003d. Geological map of Karkh quadrangle 35M/2, Khuzdar and Larkana districts,
Balochistan and Sindh provinces, Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Geological Map.

Malkani M.S. 2004a. Saurischian dinosaurs from Late Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume of
Fifth Pakistan Geological Congress, Islamabad, Pak, 71-73.

Malkani M.S. 2004b. First diagnostic fossils of Late Cretaceous Crocodyliform

(Mesueucrocoreptilia) from Pakistan. In abstract volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological Congress,
Islamabad, Pakistan, 68-70.

Malkani M.S. 2004c. Stratigraphy and Economic potential of Sulaiman, Kirthar and Makran-Siahan
Ranges, Pakistan. In abstract volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological Congress, Islamabad, Pakistan,
63-66.

Malkani M.S. 2004d. Coal resources of Chamalang, Bahney Wali and Nosham-Bahlol areas of
Kohlu, Barkhan, Loralai and Musa Khel districts, Balochistan, Pakistan. In abstract volume National
Conference on Economic and Environmental sustainability of Mineral resources of Pakistan,
Baragali, Pakistan, 44-45.

Malkani M.S. 2004e. Mineral potential of Siahan and north Makran ranges, Balochistan, Pakistan. In
abstract volume National Conference on Economic and Environmental sustainability of Mineral
resources of Pakistan, Baragali, Pakistan, 46-47.

Malkani M.S. 2004f. Discovery of Fluorite deposits from Mula-Zahri Range, Khuzdar District,
Balochistan, Pakistan. In abstract volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological Congress, Islamabad,
Pakistan, 20-22.

Malkani M.S. 2006a. Biodiversity of saurischian dinosaurs from the latest Cretaceous Park of
Pakistan. Journal of Applied and Emerging Sciences, 1(3), 108-140.

Malkani M.S. 2006b. Cervicodorsal, Dorsal and Sacral vertebrae of Titanosauria (Sauropod
Dinosaurs) discovered from the Latest Cretaceous Dinosaur beds/Vitakri Member of Pab Formation,
Sulaiman Foldbelt, Pakistan. Jour.Appl. Emer.Sci. 1(3), 188-196.

Malkani M.S. 2006c. Lithofacies and Lateral extension of Latest Cretaceous Dinosaur beds from
Sulaiman foldbelt, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series) 38 (1), 1-32.

76
Malkani M.S. 2006d. First Rostrum of Carnivorous Vitakridrinda (Abelisaurids Theropod dinosaur)
found from the latest Cretaceous Dinosaur beds (Vitakri) Member of Pab Formation, Alam Kali
Kakor Locality of Vitakri area, Barkhan Distt, Bal., Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal
(Science Series) 38 (2), 5-24.

Malkani M.S. 2007a. Trackways evidence of sauropod dinosaurs confronted by a theropod found
from Middle Jurassic Samana Suk Limestone of Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal
(Science Series) 39 (1), 1-14.

Malkani M.S. 2007b. Cretaceous Geology and dinosaurs from terrestrial strata of Pakistan. In
abstract volume of 2nd International Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates in Asia during the
Cretaceous: theirvariations, causes, and biotic and environmental responses, Seoul, Korea, 57-63.

Malkani M.S. 2007c. Lateral and vertical rapid variable Cretaceous depositional environments and
Terrestrial dinosaurs from Pakistan.  In abstracts volume of IGCP 555 on Joint Workshop on Rapid
Environmental/Climate Change in Cretaceous Greenhouse World: Ocean-Land Interaction and
Deep Terrestrial Scientific Drilling Project of the Cretaceous Songliao Basin, Daqing, China,
Cretaceous World-Publication, 44-47.

Malkani M.S., 2007d. First diagnostic fossils of Late Cretaceous Crocodyliform (Mesoeucrocodylia,
Reptilia) from Vitakri area, Barkhan District, Balochistan, Pakistan.  In; Ashraf, M., Hussain, S. S.,
and Akbar, H. D. eds. Contribution to Geology of Pakistan 2007, Proceedings of 5th Pakistan
Geological Congress 2004, A Publication of National Geological Society of Pakistan, Pakistan
Museum of Natural History, Islamabad, Pakistan, 241-259.

Malkani M.S. 2007e. Paleobiogeographic implications of titanosaurian sauropod and abelisaurian

theropod dinosaurs from Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Ser.) 39 (2), 33-54.

Malkani M.S. 2008a. Marisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria) remains from the latest Cretaceous
of Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series), 40 (2), 55-78.

Malkani M.S. 2008b. First articulated Atlas-axis complex of Titanosauria (Sauropoda, Dinosauria)
uncovered from the latest Cretaceous Vitakri member (Dinosaur beds) of upper Pab Formation,
Kinwa locality of Sulaiman Basin, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series) 40
(1), 55-70.

Malkani M.S. 2008c. Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystem from Pakistan. In Abstracts of the 33rd
International Geological Congress, (Theme HPF-14 Major events in the evolution of terrestrial
biota, Abstract no. 1137099), Oslo, Norway, 1.

Malkani M.S. 2008d. Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystem from Pakistan. In abstract volume of the 3rd
International Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates in Asia during the Cretaceous: their
variations, causes, and biotic and environmental responses, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 51-55.

Malkani M.S. 2008e. Titanosaur (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) osteoderms from Pakistan. . In abstract
volume of the 3rd International Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates in Asia during the
Cretaceous: their variations, causes, and biotic and environmental responses, Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia, 56-60.

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Malkani M.S. 2008f. Mesozoic Continental Vertebrate Community from Pakistan-An overview.
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology Volume 28, Supplement to Number 3, 111A.

Malkani M.S. 2009a. New Balochisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria, Sauropoda) and

Vitakridrinda (Theropoda) remains from Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science
Series), 41 (2), 65-92.

Malkani M.S. 2009b. Terrestrial vertebrates from the Mesozoic of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 8 th
International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 49-50.

Malkani M.S. 2009c. Basal (J/K) and upper (K/T) boundaries of Cretaceous System in Pakistan. In
abstract volume of 8th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth,
UK, 58-59.

Malkani M.S. 2009d. Cretaceous marine and continental fluvial deposits from Pakistan. In abstract
volume of 8th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, University of Plymouth, UK, 59.

Malkani M.S. 2009e. Dinosaur biota of the continental Mesozoic of Pakistan. In Proceedings of the
4th International Symposium of the IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their
global correlation, Kumamoto University and Mifune Dinosaur Museum, Japan, 66-67.

Malkani M.S. 2009f. Basal (J/K) and Upper (K/T) boundaries of the Cretaceous System in Pakistan.
In Proceedings of the 4th Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and
their global correlation, Kumamoto University and Mifune Dinosaur Museum, Japan, 109-110.

Malkani M.S. 2010a. New Pakisaurus (Pakisauridae, Titanosauria, Sauropoda) remains, and
Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary from Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science
Series). 42 (1), 39-64.

Malkani M.S. 2010b. Updated Stratigraphy and Mineral potential of Sulaiman (Middle Indus) basin,
Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 42 (2), 39-66.

Malkani M.S. 2010c. Osteoderms of Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae (Titanosauria, Sauropoda,

Dinosauria) in Pakistan. Journal of Earth Science, Vol. 21, Special Issue 3, 198-203; doi:
1007/s12583-010-0212-z.

Malkani M.S. 2010d. Vitakridrinda (Vitakrisauridae, Theropoda) from the Latest Cretaceous of
Pakistan. Journal of Earth Science, Vol. 21, Special Issue 3, 204-212; Digital object identifier (DOI)
10.1007/s12583-010-0213-y.

Malkani M.S. 2010e. Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaurs from the
Non Marine Mesozoic of Pakistan. In Proceedings of the 5th Symposium of IGCP 507 on
Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in .Asia and their global correlation, October 7-8, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia, extended abstract no 61, 13p.

Malkani M.S. 2010f. Lithostratigraphy and Vertebrates from the Indus Basin of Pakistan. In
Proceedings of the 5th Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their
global correlation, October 7-8, 2010, Yogyakarta, Indonesian, extended abstract no 65, 4p.

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Malkani M.S. 2010g. Dinosaurs and Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary of Pakistan-a big disaster
alerts for present disaster advances. Proceeding volume of International Conference of Disaster
Prevention Technology and Management (DPTM; Chongqing, China, October 23-25, Journal
Disaster Advances 3 (4), 567-572.

Malkani M.S. 2011a. Stratigraphy, Mineral Potential, Geological History and Paleobiogeography of
Balochistan Province, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 43 (2), 269-290.

Malkani M.S. 2011b. Vitakridrinda and Vitakrisaurus of Vitakrisauridae theropoda from Pakistan. In
Proceedings of the 6th Symposium of IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their
global correlation, August 15-16, 2011, Beijing, China, 59-66.

Malkani M.S. 2011c. Trackways: Confrontation Scenario among A Theropoda and A Herd of Wide
Gauge Titanosaurian Sauropods from Middle Jurassic of Pakistan. In Proceedings of 6th Symp. of
IGCP 507 on Paleoclimates of the Cretaceous in Asia and their global correlation, August 15-16,
Beijing, China, 67-75.

Malkani M.S. 2012a. A review of Coal and Water resources of Pakistan. Journal of “Science,
Technology and Development” 31(3), 202-218.

Malkani M.S. 2012b. Paleobiogeography and Wandering of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. In abstract

volume of 11th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem
and their Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.

Malkani M.S. 2012c. New Look of titanosaurs: Tail Special of Pakisauridae and Balochisauridae,
Titanosauria from Pakistan. In abstract volume of 11th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial
Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem and their Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju,
Korea.

Malkani M.S. 2012d. New Styles of locomotion: Less wide gauge movement in Balochisauridae and
More Wide gauge movement in Pakisauridae (Titanosauria) of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 11 th
Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem and their
Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.

Malkani M.S. 2012e. Pabwehshi and Sulaimanisuchus of Sulaimanisuchidae (Carnivorous

Mesoeucrocodylia) from the Continental Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume of 11 th
Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 2012), Biota and Ecosystem and their
Global Correltion” August 15-18, Gwanju, Korea.

Malkani M.S. 2012f. Biodiversity of Dinosaurs from the Mesozoic of Pakistan. In abstract volume of
International Conference on “Climate Change: Opportunities and Challenges” May 9-11, 2012,
Islamabad, Pakistan, 83-84.

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Malkani M.S. 2012g. Paleobiogeography and first collision of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent with Asia.
Abstract Volume and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of
Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 71- 72.

Malkani M.S. 2012h. Revised lithostratigraphy of Sulaiman and Kirthar Basins, Pakistan. Abstract
Volume and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar,
June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 72.

Malkani M.S. 2012i. Discovery of fluorite deposits from Loralai District, Balochistan, Pakistan.
Abstract Volume and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of
Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 69.

Malkani M.S. 2012j. Discovery of celestite deposits in the Sulaiman (Middle Indus) Basin,
Balochistan, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer
Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45 (2),
68-69.

Malkani M.S. 2012k. Natural Resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad
Kashmir, Pakistan. Abstract Volume and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer
Campus, University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45 (2),
70.

Malkani M.S. 2012l. A review on the mineral and coal resources of northern and southern Punjab,
Pakistan. Abstract Volume and Program, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus,
University of Peshawar, June 23-24, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, 45 (2), 67.

Malkani M.S. 2013a. New pterosaur from the latest Cretaceous Terrestrial Strata of Pakistan. In;
Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu
Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 62.

Malkani M.S. 2013b. Dinosaurs and Crocodiles from the Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystem of
Pakistan. In; Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-
5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 114.

Malkani M.S. 2013c. Geodynamics of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (South Asia). In; Abstract Book
of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center,
Ankara, Turkey, 36.

Malkani M.S. 2013d. Paleobiogeographic implications of Cretaceous dinosaurs and

mesoeucrocodiles from Pakistan. In; Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the
Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 35.

Malkani M.S. 2013e. Depositional environments of Cretaceous strata of Indus basin (Pakistan). In;
Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu
Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 66.

Malkani M.S. 2013f. Major Bioevents and extinction of land vertebrates in Pakistan; Cretaceous-
Tertiary and other boundaries. In; Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous
System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 44.

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Malkani M.S. 2013g. Latest Cretaceous land vertebrates in Pakistan; a paradise and a graveyard. In;
Abstract Book of 9th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu
Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 41.

Malkani M.S. 2013h. Natural resources of Southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA regions (Kohat
sub-basin and part of northern Sulaiman Basin and Western Indus Suture), Pakistan-A review.
Abstract Volume, Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
FATA, February 11, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, Special volume
2013, 30-31.

Malkani M.S. 2013i. Coal and petroleum resources of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA (Pakistan)-
An overview. Abstract, Sustainable utilization of Natural Resources of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
FATA. Abstract Volume, Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
and FATA, February 11, Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, Special Volume
2013, 27-29.

Malkani M.S. 2014a. Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from the Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. In
abstract volume; 2nd symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous
Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06, 2014, Tokyo, Japan, 108-111.

Malkani M.S. 2014b. Theropod dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles from the Terminal Cretaceous of
Pakistan. In abstract volume; 2nd Symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608)
“Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06, 2014, Tokyo, Japan, 169-172.

Malkani M.S. 2014c. Records of fauna and flora from Pakistan; Evolution of Indo-Pakistan
Peninsula. In abstract volume; 2nd symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608)
“Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06, 2014, Tokyo, Japan, 165-168.

Malkani M.S. 2014d. Dinosaurs from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Systems of Pakistan: their
Paleobiogeographic link. In Abstract Volume of 1st Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic
events on the continent during the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” and 4th International
Palaeontological Congress, September 28 to October 03, 2014, Mendoza, Argentina, 872.

Malkani M.S. 2014e. Terrestrial Ecosystem from the Mesozoic Geopark of Pakistan.In Abstract
Volume of 6th Symposium of UNESCO Conference on Global Geoparks, September 19-22,
Stonehammer Geopark, Saint John, Canada, 56.

Malkani M.S. 2014f. Revised Stratigraphy of Balochistan Basin, Pakistan. Abstract Volume, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan,
Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, abstract volume, 59-60.

Malkani M.S. 2014g. Mineral resources of Sindh Province, Pakistan. Abstract Volume, Earth
Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan,
Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, abstract volume, 57-58.

Malkani M.S. 2014h. Mineral and gemstone resources of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan
(Pakistan). Abstract Volume, Earth Sciences Pakistan, Baragali Summer Campus, University of
Peshawar, August 29-31, Pakistan, Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, abstract volume, 58-59.

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Malkani M.S. 2015a. Dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles, pterosaurs, new fauna and flora from Pakistan.
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information Release No. 823: i-iii,1-32 (Total 35 pages).

Malkani M.S. 2015b. Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z.,
Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and
3rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and
Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University,
Shenyang, China, 93-98.

Malkani M.S. 2015c. Theropod dinosaurs from Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds.,
abstract volume, 12 Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd
th

Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and
Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University,
Shenyang, China, 237-241.

Malkani M.S. 2015d. Terrestrial mesoeucrocodiles from the Cretaceous of Pakistan. In: Zhang Y.,
Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12 th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems MTE
12), and 3rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of
Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal
University, Shenyang, China, 242-246.

Malkani M.S. 2015e. Footprints and trackways of dinosaurs from Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent-
Recent Advances in discoveries from Pakistan. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume,
12th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd Symposium of
International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August
15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang,
China, 186-191.

Malkani M.S. 2015f. Osteoderms and dermal plates of titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs found from
Pakistan; Reported first time in Asia. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12th
Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd Symposium of International
Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015,
Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 250-254.

Malkani M.S. 2015g. Mesozoic tectonics and Sedimentary Mineral Resources of Pakistan. In: Zhang
Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12 th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems
(MTE 12), and 3rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous
Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific”, August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of
Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 261-266.

Malkani M.S. 2015h. Mesozoic Stratigraphy of Pakistan: Special emphasis on Indus Basin’s Revised
Stratigraphy. In: Zhang Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12 th Symposium on “Mesozoic
Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), and 3 rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP
608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of
Liaoning/Shenyang Normal Univ. Univ, 255-260.

Malkani M.S. 2015i. Geodiverse and biodiverse heritage of Pakistan demands for protection as
national and global Geoparks: an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan. In: Zhang
Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. eds., abstract volume, 12 th Symposium on “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems
(MTE 12) and 3rd Symposium of International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous

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Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang
Normal University, Shenyang, China, 247-249.

Malkani M.S. 2015j. Titanosaurian (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) Osteoderms: First Reports from Asia. In
abstract volume, 2nd Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic events on the continent during
the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” September 12-13, 2015, Shenyang, China,82-85.

Malkani M.S. 2015k. First Trackways of Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from Asia found from the
Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan: Recent Advances in discoveries of dinosaur trackways from South
Asia. In abstract volume of 2nd Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic events on the
Continent during Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” September 12-13, 2015, Shenyang, China,86-88.

Malkani M.S. 2015l. Mesozoic greenhouse world of Pakistan and Sea Level changes. In: Xiumian
Hu, Xi Chen, Juan Li. Eds. Abstract volume, International Workshop on Climate and Environmental
Evolution in the Mesozoic Greenhouse World and 3 rd IGCP 609 Workshop on Cretaceous Sea Level
Change, Nanjing, 5-11September, 2015, 35.

Malkani M.S., Anwar C.M. 2000. Discovery of first dinosaur fossil in Pakistan, Barkhan District,
Balochistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan Information Release, 732, 1-16.

Malkani M.S., Dhanotr M.S.I. 2007. Geological map of Philawagh quadrangle, 39G/7, Dera Bugti
District, Balochistan, Pakistan.GSP Map

Malkani M.S., Dhanotr M.S.I., Shakeel A. 2007. Geological map of Dera Bugti quadrangle, 39G/4,
Dera Bugti District, Balochistan, Pakistan. GSP Map.

Malkani M.S., Dhanotr M. S. I., Latif A., Saeed, H. M., 2013. New remains of Basilosauridae-the
giant basal whale, and baluchithere-the giant rhinoceros discovered from Balochistan Province
(Pakistan). Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 45 (A-1), 177-188.

Malkani M.S., Dhanotr M.S.I. 2014. New remains of giant Basilosauridae (Archaeoceti, Cetacea,
Mammilia) and Giant baluchithere (Rhinocerotoidea, Perissodactyla, Mammalia) found from
Pakistan. In Abstract Volume of 1st Symposium of IGCP 632 “Geologic and biotic events on the
continent during the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition” and 4th International Palaeontological Congress,
September 28 to October 03, 2014, Mendoza, Argentina, 884.

Malkani M.S., Haq M. 1998. Discovery of pegmatite and associated plug in Tor Ghundi, Shabozai
area, Loralai Distt., Balochistan. GSP, IR 668, 1-19.

Malkani M.S., Haq M. 1998. Geological map of Kohlu quadrangle, 39G/5, Kohlu and Barkhan
districts, Balochistan, Pakistan.GSP Map.

Malkani M.S., Haq M. 1999. Geological map of Rakhni quadrangle, 39F/16, Barkhan and Dera
Ghazi Khan districts, Balochistan and Punjab provinces, Pakistan. GSP Map.

Malkani M.S., Haq M., Tariq M. 1996. Geological map of Shabozai quadrangle 39 B/15, Loralai
District, Balochistan, Pakistan, GSP map.

Malkani M.S., Haq M., Hussain Z., Dhanotr M.S.I., Shah M.R. 2007. Geological map of Kingri
quadrangle, 39F/15, Musa Khel, Barkhan and Dera Ghazi Khan districts, Balochistan and Punjab

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provinces, Pakistan.

Malkani M.S., Hussain Z. 2001. Geological map of Beaker quadrangle, 39 G/10, Dera Bugti, Kohlu
and Barkhan districts, Balochistan, Pakistan. GSP map.

Malkani M.S., Hussain Z., Shah M.R., Dhanotr M.S.I. 2010a. Geological map of Chamalang
quadrangle, 39F/8, Loralai, Barkhan and Kohlu districts, Balochistan, Pakistan.

Malkani M.S., Hussain Z., Shah M.R., Dhanotr M.S.I. 2010b. Geological map of Bahlol quadrangle,
39F/12, Barkhan, Musa Khel, Loralai and Kohlu districts, Balochistan, Pakistan.

Malkani M.S., Hussain Z., Dhanotr M.S.I., Shah M.R. 2010c. Geological map of Fort Munro
quadrangle, 39G/13, Barkhan, Dera Ghazi Khan and Rajan Pur districts of Balochistan and Punjab
provinces, Pakistan. GSP map.

Malkani M.S., Hussain Z., Dhanotr M.S.I., Shah M.R. 2010d. Geological map of Sun Chaku
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