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Development and properties of light-transmitting concrete (LTC) – A review

Shing Mei Chiew, Izni Syahrizal Ibrahim, Mohd Azreen Mohd Ariffin, Han Seung Lee,
Jitendra Kumar Singh

PII: S0959-6526(20)34824-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124780
Reference: JCLP 124780

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 23 June 2020

Revised Date: 18 October 2020
Accepted Date: 19 October 2020

Please cite this article as: Chiew SM, Ibrahim IS, Mohd Ariffin MA, Lee HS, Singh JK, Development
and properties of light-transmitting concrete (LTC) – A review, Journal of Cleaner Production, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124780.

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Title: Development and properties of light-transmitting concrete
(LTC) – A review
Shing Mei Chiew a, Izni Syahrizal Ibrahim a*, Mohd Azreen Mohd Ariffin a, Han Seung Lee
b
, Jitendra Kumar Singh b
a
Forensic Engineering Centre (FEC), Institute of Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction (ISIIC), School of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Innovative Durable Building and Infrastructure Research Center, Hanyang University, Ansan, Korea
* Corresponding author email address: iznisyahrizal@utm.my

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Development and properties of light-transmitting concrete (LTC)
– A review
Shing Mei Chiew a, Izni Syahrizal Ibrahim a*, Mohd Azreen Mohd Ariffin a, Han Seung Lee
b
, Jitendra Kumar Singh b
a
Forensic Engineering Centre (FEC), Institute of Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction (ISIIC), School of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Innovative Durable Building and Infrastructure Research Center, Hanyang University, Ansan, Korea
* Corresponding author email address: iznisyahrizal@utm.my

Abstract
The consumptions of artificial light especially in urban area leads to carbon footprints and global
warming. The introduction of light-transmitting concrete (LTC) enables light to be transmitted
through opaque concrete and reduces building energy consumptions. The aesthetic value and the light

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transmittance properties of LTC attracted the attention among researchers on the investigations and
development of this type of concrete. However, the application of LTC in construction industry is still

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immature due to several reasons including intensive labour cost and complexity of the manufacturing
process, insufficient reliable data on the mechanical properties and durability, as well as the lack of
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design modelling. This paper reviewed the types of LTC as well as the research findings regarding the
mechanical properties, durability, microstructure analysis as well as the light transmittance properties.
This paper also critically discussed the assessment, design modelling, theoretical studies and cost
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analysis of LTC based on various parameters. LTC was proven to reduce the total energy
consumptions of a building significantly. More investigations are required to examine the light
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transmitting properties and durability of LTC especially when exposed to the various environmental
conditions.
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Keywords: Light-transmitting concrete; Translucent; Durability; Energy consumptions; Light

transmittance properties
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1. Introduction
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Concrete is the most commonly used construction material in construction industry due to its strength,
durability and economy. The advancement of concrete application makes it popular to be
implemented in many construction structures such as high-rise buildings, tunnels, bridges, and
pavements, especially in urban area. This increases the demand of artificial lighting to maintain the
brightness and visibility for indoor activities (Han et al., 2017). Approximately 19% of global energy
consumption is contributed by artificial lighting (Shitote et al., 2018). In China, 13% of the
architectural energy is provided for lighting (Dutta et al., 2018). In order to reduce energy
consumptions from the use of artificial light, different approaches had been carried out including the
development of new innovative construction materials such as Light Transmitting Concrete (LTC)
which can transmit light.
LTC or also known as translucent concrete was invented and produced by Aron Losonczi, a
Hungarian architect in 2001 (Goho, 2005; Timina et al., 2019; Zielińska and Ciesielski, 2017). LTC
enables light to be transmitted through the concrete, improves visibility and reduces light energy
demand of the building (Patel and Goyal, 2018). Apart from its implementation in architectural
features and building materials, LTC is also used in wide variety of applications such as in pavements,
road markings, sidewalks, speed humps, staircase and tunnels (Juan and Zhi, 2013; Peña-García et al.,
2016; Saleem and Blaisi, 2019; Saleem et al., 2017). Besides that, LTC has the potential to be used as
load-bearing or non-bearing wall partitions to allow daylight into the interior rooms, which enhances
the illuminance level in the interior environment (Roye, 2013). Past research works had proven that
LTC can transmit light and able to reduce the light energy consumption up to 50% (Ahuja and
Mosalam, 2017), without compromising its compressive strength. However, LTC is still not widely
accepted and used in the construction industry as a green construction material. This may due to some
of the reasons as follows:
1. Intensive labour cost and complexity of manufacturing process.
2. Lack of reliable data on mechanical properties and durability of LTC to be tested for its
service life.
3. The design of such LTC need to be further investigated and developed.
The subject of LTC attracts great interest among the researchers of innovative concrete technology. A
number of researches had been carried out to investigate the properties of LTC. Furthermore, the
translucent materials used in LTC varies (will be discussed in Section 2) in the previous studies,
which directly influence the properties of LTC. There are different focuses on parameters and
assessment of LTC in the existing literature, based on the type of LTC and its applications.

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Hence, the current study is aimed to provide a comprehensive review on LTC which has the potential

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to be used in structural buildings and infrastructures. LTC is classified based on the types of
translucent materials used. Variables and parameters considered in the existing literature are assessed
and evaluated to provide an overview on the properties of LTC. The reliability of data provided is also
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carefully discussed. At the end of this review, critical discussion is succinctly presented to provide
understanding and knowledge regarding recent research on LTC, as well as to address the gaps in
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literature for potential investigation in the future.
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2. Types of translucent materials used in LTC

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There are several types of translucent materials used to manufacture LTC which the mostly used
materials are glass aggregates (or waste glass), polymer resin and optical fibre. The purpose of the
LTC invention is to transmit light through the opaque and dull concrete as well as to reduce light
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energy consumption. Hence, materials with high translucency or high light transmittance are
mandatory to manufacture LTC in order to meet this requirement and fulfil its value. However,
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different types of translucent materials have their own degree of translucency, properties, strength,
and thermal conductivity which will directly influence the overall performance of LTC. This section
discusses the translucent materials used in LTC to provide the reader a clearer image and
understanding on the types of LTC.
2.1 Waste glass
Coarse waste glass is normally mixed with self-compacting cementitious material to produce LTC.
Light can pass through LTC contained translucent waste glass with the condition of both end of waste
glass should be at the surface of the concrete panel. Since waste glass is discontinuous, the thickness
of LTC panels with waste glass is limited to ensure efficient light transmission. Another issue
encountered with the application of waste glass in LTC is alkali-silica reaction (ASR). ASR is a
detrimental reaction within concrete where the alkaline pore solution of concrete reacts with
metastable silica from aggregates to form ASR gel which expands and creates cracks within concrete
(Rajabipour et al., 2015). To minimise or prevent the formation of ASR gel in LTC, mineral
admixtures such as metakaolin, ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume or fly ash
are considered in the mix design (Carles-Gibergues et al., 2008).
Spiesz et al. (2016) developed a translucent and air purifying concrete with coarse waste glass and
found that the efficiency of light translucency of LTC depended on both the thickness of LTC panels
and the maximum size of coarse waste glass. They also concluded that the inclusion of fly ash
performed better in suppress ASR compared with GGBS. The inclusion of waste glass not only
provides light transmission through the concrete, but also the performance of photocatalytic
degradation of air pollutants with the inclusion of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) was more significant than
control specimen without waste glass. Pagliolico et al. (2015) simulated a model which determine the
percentage of energy demand of LTC panels with different percentage of translucency. The results
were compared with building without LTC panels. For the experimental sample, they used non-alkali-
reactive coarse waste glass to minimise the ASR reaction. They also added steel fibre to the mix
design to reinforce the concrete panel. The researchers concluded that the light energy demand can
decrease up to 20.6% with LTC panels of 11% light translucency. This indicated that LTC panel with
coarse waste glass inclusion is suitable to be used in internal walls of building to reduce light energy
consumptions.
Manuello et al. (2011) performed an acoustic emission (AE) monitoring on the bending of LTC
panels with glass inclusions. Mechanical tests and numerical study were carried out instead of light
transmittance test. The results revealed that LTC with glass inclusion showed more ductile behaviour

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with the aid of steel fibre compared with LTC without steel fibre. de Rosso and de Melo (2020)
developed LTC with waste glass for double layer concrete block with efficient photocatalytic

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properties. They concluded that 46.2% inclusion of waste glass provides greater light transmittance
properties and 17.9% of pollutant degradation without compromising its compressive strength.
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The past research work on LTC with waste glass inclusion is very scarce although it has the potential
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to transmit light and reduce energy demand of up to 20%. This could be due to the fact that the
maximum size of glass particles determines the thickness of LTC panels, which limits the design and
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application of this type of LTC. The high density of glass also makes it the suboptimal choice for the
researchers or designers in manufacturing LTC. Moreover, the risk of ASR which can deteriorate
concrete in long term is also one of the factors which hinders this type of LTC being further
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researched and used in the construction field.

2.2 Resin
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Polymer resin is a translucent material which is introduced to LTC since 2011 (Mainini et al., 2012).
Different polymer resin such as polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) resin, polyester resin, and epoxy
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resin was used in the investigation of mechanical properties and light transmission of LTC. Compared
with glass and optical fibre, polymer resin is the best options in terms of labour cost and material
weight. In terms of light translucency, it is comparable with optical fibre and glass (Juan and Zhi,
2019), however, the translucency will decrease if the angular incident light source is high (Mainini et
al., 2012). The mechanical properties such as compressive strength of LTC strongly depended on the
method of casting as this determines the adhesion and bonding between the resin-to-matrix interface.
Juan and Zhi (2019) fabricated polyester resin light guide body within silicone mould. The polyester
resin light guide was then put into the casting mould before placing into the self-compacting mortar.
The researchers found that the length of the polyester resin and its area ratio influenced the LTC light
transmittance. Hence, they suggested that, only 60% of light can be passed through the concrete if the
thickness of the concrete panel exceeded 100 mm. Besides that, they also concluded that the thermal
conductivity of LTC is lower than that of normal concrete. Another experimental work done by the
same researchers (Shen and Zhou, 2020b) used PMMA resin to fabricate LTC and revealed that the
consumption of artificial light energy is possible to be reduced from 72% to 41% due to its excellent
light transmittance properties.
Pilipenko et al. (2018) used two other different methods to fabricate LTC with the inclusion of epoxy
resin or acrylic resin. The researchers casted the LTC layer-by-layer with fresh concrete and liquid
resin. However, the mechanical strength of the hardened mixture was not satisfactory as the concrete
failed with cracks initiated at resin-concrete interfacial zone. The light transmittance ability was also
destructed because of the concrete layers between each other. Hence, in the second approach, the
researchers used separating element to fabricate LTC. Concrete was first casted into the mould with
separate elements before they were taken out once the concrete hardened. The liquid polymer resin
was then placed into the space after the separating elements were taken out. The hardened LTC had
strong resin-to-matrix interfacial zone, but the light transmittance properties may be affected during
casting.
Mainini et al. (2012) used PMMA resin in the precast transparent concrete panel for facades. Steel
fibres and polypropylene fibres were also being added into the concrete to provide toughness and
reduce crack risk at an early age. The parameters considered in the experiment included angular light
transmittance and resin orientation. The researchers concluded that the light transmittance of LTC
panels with PMMA resin insertions decreased with the increment of incident light angle. The
percentage of angular light transmittance was slightly higher with horizontal resin arrangement
compared with vertical ones within the LTC.

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Overall, mechanical strength of LTC with the insertion of polymer resin can be altered by different
method of casting. Prefabricated polymer resin light guide or separate elements used during casting

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can provide better adhesion at the fibre-matrix interfacial zone compared with that by casting layer-
by-layer. Although the performance of light transmittance through polymer resin is as good as that of
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optical fibre, the percentage of light can be transmitted are limited to the thickness of concrete panel
and the angular light of incident. From the existing literature, physical properties tests and durability
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tests of LTC based on various types of polymer resin used are required for further investigation. There
is also lack of microstructure analysis on LTC with polymer resin in the literature.
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2.3 Optical fibre

Among all the light transmitting elements, optical fibre is the most popular and commonly used in
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fabricating LTC due to its excellent light transmittance properties. Optical fibre is normally made of
two types of materials which are glass or plastic. Before LTC incorporated with optical fibre was
introduced, optical fibre had been widely used as sensors in structural health monitoring due to its
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high sensitivity, non-destructive evaluation, low cost, multiplexed capabilities and able to be
embedded in concrete internally (Merzbacher et al., 1996). Optical fibre sensors which embedded in
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concrete can be used to monitor concrete strain and detect deformation, corrosion, and vibration
(Merzbacher et al., 1999).
In 2001, Aron Losonczi embedded glass optical fibre within concrete and introduced light-
transmitting concrete (Losonczi, 2012a, b). The light is transmitted through optical fibre by the
mechanism of total internal reflection. Han et al. (2017) stated that the main reason to use optical fibre
as translucent elements in fabricating LTC was due to its excellent light transmittance properties even
with angular light incident which exceeded 60°. However, expensive cost of glass optical fibre and the
complexity of fibre installation become the main drawbacks for this type of LTC being widely used in
the construction industry. Therefore, plastic optical fibre which has lower cost and possesses
excellent chemical resistance becomes the alternative for glass optical fibre. Different approaches to
install optical fibre in LTC were also introduced by some of the previous works to minimise labour
work, such as textile-based fibre (Roye, 2013; Roye et al., 2009) which used knitting and weft yarn
(Timina et al., 2019), and stacked-row fibres (Westerhof, 2018). For the textile-based fibre, the
knitted fabric is inserted layer-by-layer during concrete casting according to the design distance (Roye
et al., 2009).
There are various parameters regarding optical fibre that can affect the performance of LTC either in
terms of light transmitting properties, mechanical properties or durability. These are mainly fibre
volumetric fraction, fibre diameter and fibre spacing. Some of the researchers (Jiménez-Muñoz and
Fernández-Martínez, 2014; Li et al., 2012a, b; Momin et al., 2014; Saleem et al., 2017; Snoeck et al.,
2020) used glass fibre instead of plastic optical fibre to investigate the effectiveness of light
transmittance properties of LTC. Most of the previous works were mainly focused on mechanical
properties and light transmittance properties of the LTC incorporated with optical fibre (Bashbash et
al., 2013; Hoyos Montilla et al., 2015; Kumar¹ and Ahlawat, 2017; Nirmal and Nehemiya, 2017; Salih
et al., 2014; Sawant et al., 2014; Shen and Zhou, 2020a; Ugale et al., 2019).
Snoeck et al. (2020) used glass fibres in manufacturing translucent self-healing cementitious materials.
They applied two different mixing procedures mainly direct-mixing method and manual insertion
method. It is found that manual insertion was not feasible for high amount of glass fibres due to the
difficulties in handling and placing. In contrast, direct-mixing method is less labour-intensive. On the
other hand, macro glass fibre contributes to strain-hardening of LTC while the translucency of the
specimen depends on the amount of glass fibre and the thickness of the specimen.
Altlomate et al. (2016) investigated the effects of fibre diameter and fibre spacing on the mechanical
properties and light transmittance of LTC. They concluded that the inclusion of the optical fibre did

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not have significant influence on the compressive strength of the concrete. They also suggested that
the incorporation of bigger fibre diameter with large fibre spacing in LTC will not affect its light

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intensity. Its light transmittance was even better than the LTC with smaller fibre diameter and
spacing. Besides that, the UPV tests conducted also showed that the LTC was in good quality and
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homogeneous mixture regardless with the incorporation of optical fibre. Henriques et al. (2018),
Taneja et al. (2018) and Huong and Kassim (2019) reported that the mechanical properties and light
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transmittance properties strongly depended on the fibre volumetric fraction. It was noted that among
these studies, Henriques et al. (2018) also conducted mechanical test on optical fibre itself, concrete
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durability test and microstructure analysis of LTC, whereas the other two studies only focused on
compressive strength test and light transmittance test.
Despite fibre diameter and fibre spacing, Li et al. (2015a) also considered the effects of curing
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condition and light wavelength on the light transmittance properties of LTC. They concluded that the
higher curing temperature contributed to fibre aging which affected the light transmittance of LTC
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negatively. Before casting, the optical fibres were immersed in silane coupling agent to modify the
surface roughness of the fibre along the fibre axis. However, through microstructure analysis, gaps
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can still be observed through the fibre-matrix interface. Another research conducted by Li et al.
(2015b) used fibre fabric in fabricating LTC to minimise work load. Li et al. (2012a) investigated the
effect of optical fibre form (bunchy and filamentous) on the compressive strength and light
transmittance properties of LTC. They reported that optical fibre in filamentous form contributed to
higher concrete compressive strength and higher light transmission.
Huang (2020) investigated the light performance of building envelope using LTC with optical fibre.
The researcher concluded that the acceptance angle of the PMMA optical fibre is 30°. Total internal
reflection will not occur with light incidence angle outside the acceptance cone. This limited the light
transmittance performance of optical fibre and prompted the implementation of compound parabolic
concentrator (CPC) which captured all rays to be fallen into the acceptance cone of the fibre. Besides
that, the study also reported that higher reflective index contributed to higher light intensity. Similarly,
Mosalam and Casquero-Modrego (2018) also used CPC and straight cones (SC) to investigate their
amplifying effect on light transmittance properties of LTC incorporated with optical fibres. They
suggested that the CPC or SC used should have half acceptance angle which is compatible to the
numerical aperture (NA) of the optical fibre to minimise light loss during light transmission.
Su et al. (2020) considered the impacts of fibre volumetric fraction, incidence angle and numerical
aperture of fibre on the daylighting performance of LTC. The study declared that NA is an important
parameter for optical fibre since NA manifests the acceptance cone of the fibre which determines the
acceptance angle that light can pass through. They concluded that large NA contributed to better light
transmittance but resulted in excessive daylighting. Furthermore, they revealed that the impact of fibre
volumetric fraction on the light transmittance of LTC was greater than NA. Robles et al. (2020)
suggested that the low surface roughness of optical fibre resulted in weak interfacial bond strength.
However, the increment of fibre diameter increased the compressive strength and flexural strength of
LTC due to the decrement of fibre-matrix interfacial area. They also revealed that the effect of fibre
diameter on light transmittance diminished when the distance between detector and specimen
increased. This is due to light transmitted through each individual fibre overlapped and acted like a
single source.
Among the existing database and references on LTC, there are several researchers focused the
application of LTC on infrastructure, mainly in road (Saleem et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2019) and tunnel
(Peña-García et al., 2016). Saleem et al. (2017) developed a translucent concrete-based smart lane
separator to increase road safety. The optical fibre embedded in the concrete was not only functioning
as light transmitting elements but also acting as sensors to monitor traffic density. The skid resistance
of LTC also achieved the standard requirement. The LTC lane separator will transmit different light
from the light source based on the signal obtained from the optical fibre so that drivers on road were

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aware of the traffic in front of them. Zhu et al. (2019) used LTC to enhance visibility and introduced
smart-based traffic markings. Light-emitting diode (LED) was used as light source for the LTC road

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markings. The study reported that the visible distance of LTC increased with lower light intensity of
the environment. With the same environmental light intensity, the visible distance for the red light
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passing through LTC was the longest, followed by green light and yellow light. On the other hand,
Peña-García et al. (2016) applied LTC on the pergolas of tunnel linings which allowed sunlight to
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pass through the threshold zone of road tunnels.
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Although LTC incorporated with optical fibre is the most favourable topic compared with other
translucent elements due to its excellent light transmittance properties, the investigation on this field is
still superficial and circumscribed. Li et al. (2015b) stated that the investigation on LTC are still in its
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primary stage as most of the previous studies were mainly from commercial news or products
presentations. In addition, mechanical and physical properties of optical fibre were seldom being
investigated. Besides mechanical properties and light transmitting properties of LTC, there was just
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fewer research mentioned about the physical properties, microstructure analysis and durability of the
concrete. The microstructure of LTC has a close relationship with the concrete mechanical properties
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and durability. Most of the time, physical properties of concrete will directly reflect the quality and
durability of the concrete. Therefore, durability concern such as permeability, water absorption of
concrete due to the inclusion of optical fibre, UV resistance, chemical resistance and others should be
further investigated before LTC can be applied comprehensively in the construction industry.
2.4 Other translucent materials
Other translucent materials such as glow-in-the-dark (GiD) powder, plastic pipes and glass rods were
also used to fabricate LTC. Momin et al. (2014) compared the light transmittance properties of LTC
incorporated with optical fibre and glass rods. However, the effectiveness of light transmission
through glass rod was not as high as optical fibre. On the other hand, Kim (2017) used plastic rods
and plastic pipes to replace optical fibre in fabricating LTC. The replacement of optical fibres by
plastic rods and pipes reduced the manufacture cost, improved the constructability and production.
However, the research in incorporating plastic bars in LTC is still new compared with other types of
LTC. Most of the properties of this kind of LTC is still yet to investigate. Saleem and Blaisi (2019)
introduced GiD powder into the concrete. LTC with GiD powder can absorb light energy during
daytime and generate visible light at night or in dark areas. Different with other types of LTC, GiD
powder transmitted light by electrical excitement, however, the light visibility of LTC with GiD
powder will reduce in rainy days, and may not be durable in harsh warm environment (Saleem and
Blaisi, 2019). Table 1 shows the overview of existing literature on LTC with different types of
translucent elements.

3. Development of LTC
The literature clearly reviewed that LTC can be categorised into four categories based on the use of
translucent materials. This includes waste glass, resin, optical fibre and other miscellaneous
translucent elements. Among all the types of LTC, concrete incorporated with optical fibre gained the
most attention due to its excellent light transmittance properties. The experimental tests conducted
previously on LTC were aimed to investigate light transmittance properties and mechanical properties
of the concrete. A comprehensive investigation on durability of LTC is also required to ensure LTC is
durable and sustainable to be applied in the construction industry. The development of LTC is
presented in Fig. 1.

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4. Application of LTC

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LTC can be potentially applied in buildings and infrastructure. However, the application of LTC in
industry is still less competitive compared with other types of innovative construction materials. This
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is due to the lack of comprehensive and convincing investigation on the efficiency of LTC in
achieving the standard requirements of indoor visibility instead of focusing on its aesthetic appeal
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(Ahuja et al., 2015a, b; Mosalam and Casquero-Modrego, 2018).
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Nevertheless, there are some examples of applications which can be acted as references in the future
investigation and development. For instance, Italian Pavilion at Shanghai Expo 2010 is constructed
using LTC incorporated with polymer resin (Cement, 2010; Henriques et al., 2018; Juan and Zhi,
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2013). Besides that, the Al Aziz Mosque in Abu Dhabi (Han et al., 2017), Europe Gate in Hungary
(Zielińska and Ciesielski, 2017), translucent facades in Aachen University, Germany as well as the
walls and partitions in Bank of Georgia (Altlomate et al., 2016) were constructed with LTC panels.
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On the other hand, the application of LTC in infrastructure is still required further investigation.
Although Lucem Lichbeton, a Germany company, had introduced LTC walkways and pavements
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(Nachrichten, 2017), the information regarding the scientific research and implementation is still
lacking rather than as business advertisements. There are only a few research (Peña-García et al.,
2016; Saleem and Blaisi, 2019; Saleem et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2019) in the existing database and
references regarding the application of LTC in infrastructure, indicating that the investigation is still
in its preliminary stage. The application of LTC is presented in Fig. 2.
Apart from the examples mentioned above, some potential applications of LTC were suggested by the
previous studies which are yet to be practically constructed and adopted in our daily lives. Instead of
reducing the light energy consumptions and for aesthetic purposes, LTC can also be used to ensure
safety, supervision and security in some of the buildings such as banks, museums and prison (Tuaum
et al., 2019). For instance, the wall constructed for prison is normally thick to achieve the impact
resistance requirement, but this results in dark environment and deteriorates the basic health
conditions inside the prison. Azambuja and Castro (2015) used LTC to design a prototype of prison
wall which aimed to promote healthier living conditions as well as to reduce light energy consumption
in the prison.
As for infrastructure, LTC has the potential to illuminate tunnels and dark subway stations (Said,
2020). Lighting system is obligatory for tunnels to improve the visibility and safety in the tunnel.
Peña-García et al. (2016) constructed a mock-up system of tunnel pergolas fabricated from LTC.
However, there were no further investigation on this application in terms of its illuminance level and
mechanical requirements for LTC pergolas.
On the other hand, Qin et al. (2015) discussed a case study related to solar optical fibre system
adopted in Huashuyan Tunnel in China. The solar optical fibre system used optical fibre as light pipes
to lighten up different zones in the highway tunnel by conducting light from outside. Since optical
fibres also act as light pipes in LTC, they have the potential to be used to construct tunnels which
allow light to be transmitted into tunnels to improve the lighting system. However, the design,
manufacturing process, mechanical properties and illuminance level of LTC require further
investigation before being adopted for tunnels.
5. Parameters and Variables
Table 2 illustrates the testing parameters considered by previous research. The consideration of each
parameter in the previous work are summarised in Table 3 whereas Fig. 3 illustrated the percentage of
parameters considered in the previous studies. It is noticed that some of the parameters are only

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limited to a particular translucent element. For instance, specimen thickness manipulates the light
transmittance properties of LTC with the incorporation of polymer resin and glass, but has no

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hindrance for LTC with optical fibre in transmitting light. Similarly, only LTC with optical fibre and
polymer resin consider the spacing between the translucent elements. Waste glass is discrete and
discontinuous that allows them to be distributed randomly in concrete mix in LTC casting. Hence, the
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consideration of elements spacing in LTC with inclusion of waste glass is impossible.
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Based on Table 3 and Fig. 3, the most popular parameters being considered in the experimental
testing of LTC are diameter (or size) of translucent elements and its amount (volumetric fraction or
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area fraction). However, it is noticed that more than 70% of the existing research which considered
these two parameters comprised of LTC with optical fibre. This is because LTC with optical fibre is
the most popular topic in this research area due to its excellent light transmittance properties.
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It is noteworthy that some of the parameters considered for LTC with optical fibre, such as fibre
volumetric fraction, fibre diameter and fibre spacing are intercorrelated. Generally, higher fibre
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volumetric fraction indicates a greater number of fibres in the concrete specimen, which will
eventually reduce the fibre spacing if it is not kept constant. Similarly, if the spacing and number of
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fibres are kept constant, bigger fibre diameter indicates higher volumetric fraction. The relationship
between fibre volumetric fraction, fibre diameter, and fibre spacing are summarised in Fig. 4 (Huang,
2020; Shen and Zhou, 2020a).
On the other hand, translucent element configuration, distance between light source or light detectors
and specimen, curing condition, light beam angle of incident, light beam diameter and numerical
aperture (NA) of the translucent elements are the parameters which were the least being considered,
comprised of not more than 10% among experimental studies. Nonetheless, some of these parameters
are very important and should not be neglected in investigating the properties of LTC, as they may
deeply influence the light transmittance, mechanical properties and durability.
For instance, ageing is one of the parameters which is essential to be considered in the durability
investigation of LTC. Waste glass, polymer resin and optical fibre are either consisted of glass or
polymer. Both of these materials are vulnerable to ageing (McKeen, 2019) when exposed to
weathering, high temperature or UV radiation. Chemical composition of glass and polymer undergoes
irreversible changes when ageing occurred, causing deterioration in the mechanical properties and
physical properties of the material and lead to degradation (Biondini and Frangopol, 2008). Various
ageing treatment on PMMA optical fibre had been investigated by several researchers such as thermal
degradation through vacuum and distilled water (Zhong et al., 2016) as well as ultraviolet radiation
(Alobaidani et al., 2010; de Castro Monsores et al., 2019). These researchers obtained similar results
where the light transmittance properties of PMMA optical fibre degraded after aged. However, for
LTC, only Li et al. (2015a) considered the ageing problem of optical fibre in LTC through concrete
curing temperature.
Visibility of light transmitted through LTC is an important variable especially for infrastructure
application such as traffic markings and tunnel linings. It represents the efficiency of light
transmittance through LTC and how far the light can be visualized by road users. Distance between
the detectors and specimens defines the visible range of the light transmitted through LTC. In the
existing literature, only Shitote et al. (2018) and Robles et al. (2020) considered the distance between
the detectors and specimens in the experiments. Zhu et al. (2019) also took the visible range of LTC
into account, but acted as the responding variable to light intensity of the environment and light
wavelength.
In order to simulate similar daylight condition with random distribution of light rays, different angle
of light incident should be considered in the research investigation of LTC. Since different types and
diameter of translucent material has its own acceptance angle which limits its light incidence angle in
transmitting light, it is necessary to acknowledge the acceptance angle of the translucent material

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before it can be confidently used in the construction industry. There were simulations conducted by
several researchers (Ahuja et al., 2015a, b; Huang, 2020) on half-acceptance angle of translucent

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elements and angle of light incidence, which will be discussed in Section 7. Nonetheless,
experimental data is still required in this field to validate the model developed from the simulations.
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For LTC incorporated with optical fibre, there are several researchers (Henriques et al., 2018;
Mosalam and Casquero-Modrego, 2018) reported that the condition of fibre ends will decide the light
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transmittance properties of LTC. Rough fibre ends promote light scattering and reduce the intensity of
light transmitted through optical fibre. Similar theory can be applied to all translucent materials added
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into LTC. Hence, the surface roughness of translucent elements that exposed on the surface of
concrete should be considered in fabricating LTC in the future research.
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6. Assessment for LTC

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In the existing research, there are five main assessments on LTC being conducted, mainly its
mechanical properties, physical properties, light transmittance properties, durability tests and
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microstructure analysis, as shown in Table 1. The assessment of LTC is discussed in detail in the
following subsections.

6.1 Mechanical properties and physical properties

Compressive strength and flexural strength tests are normally being tested on LTC to assess its
mechanical properties. Compressive strength test is aimed to determine the concrete capability to
resist compressive failure, whereas flexural strength test is aimed to determine its bending capability
especially for LTC used in translucent walls or partitions. Most of the compressive strength tests were
carried out with the compressive load applied perpendicular to the direction of translucent elements
(Altlomate et al., 2016; Kumar¹ and Ahlawat, 2017) whereas flexural load was applied parallel to the
orientation of translucent elements (Henriques et al., 2020; Li et al., 2015a).
Tuaum et al. (2019) focused on structural performance of LTC facades panels. Mechanical properties
such as compressive strength, flexural strength and flexural toughness were tested on LTC
incorporated with optical fibre. Unlike compressive strength and flexural strength which decreased
with the incorporation of optical fibre, the flexural toughness of LTC was 11-12% higher in LTC than
in reference concrete panels. This indicated better ductility and energy absorption in LTC than in
normal concrete. Regardless the types of translucent elements, the incorporation of the translucent
elements normally decreased the concrete compressive strength. Compared with compressive strength,
flexural strength and flexural toughness of LTC were seldom reported in the previous experiments.
For LTC incorporated with polymer resin, no flexural strength data was reported.
Physical and mechanical properties of the translucent elements should be acknowledged before
incorporated in the concrete mix because the properties of translucent elements will directly affect the
properties of the whole concrete mixture. For instance, optical fibre is smooth and hydrophobic in its
nature which contributes to weak bond between the fibre-matrix interface (Henriques et al., 2018).
The incorporation of recycled glass in LTC also showed the similar problem due to the poor geometry
of glass particles and weak adhesion between the glass and cement matrix (de Rosso and de Melo,
2020). This resulted in the initiation of microcracks at the translucent element-matrix interface zone
when stress is applied, thus, lead to lower concrete strength. To the authors’ knowledge, the physical
and mechanical properties of the translucent elements were seldom reported in the existing database.
As mentioned previously, due to the nature of the translucent element, another consideration should
be taken into account, which is the bond strength at the translucent element-matrix interface.

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Interfacial bond strength determines the properties of heterogenous system (Zhandarov and Mäder,
2005) such as LTC. For advanced composite materials such as fibre reinforced concrete, a number of

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works had been done in investigating the fibre-matrix interfacial bond strength. Fibres such as steel
fibres, polypropylene fibres, brass fibres, and natural fibre were investigated for the bond strength at
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fibre-matrix interfacial zone. This is because bond strength governs the mechanical properties,
durability and failure behaviour of the concrete structures (Drechsler et al., 2019). Li et al. (2015a)
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used silane coupling agent to treat the surface of PMMA optical fibre which was aimed to improve the
fibre-matrix interfacial bond strength. They reported that the silane coupling agent cannot function
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well in enhancing the bond strength. Apart from that, the investigation on element-matrix interfacial
bond strength is still scarce.
On the other hand, physical properties of LTC are important as they indirectly control the concrete
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quality and ensure the durability of the concrete. Parameters usually used to identify the physical
properties of concrete are fresh concrete workability, concrete density, pore ratio and ultrasonic pulse
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velocity (UPV). However, it is noteworthy that only 23% of the existing literature reported the
physical properties of LTC in their research (Altlomate et al., 2016; Juan and Zhi, 2019; Pilipenko et
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al., 2018; Saleem and Blaisi, 2019; Saleem et al., 2017; Taneja et al., 2018).
6.2 Light transmittance properties
Most of the researchers conducted light transmittance test to verify the properties of LTC based on
different variables. It was noted that there was still no standard or guidelines developed in testing the
light transmittance properties of LTC. The test apparatus and the experimental setups varied between
each researcher. For instance, the experimental setup for the light transmittance testing can be either
in enclosed area (Altlomate et al., 2016; Henriques et al., 2018; Momin et al., 2014; Spiesz et al.,
2016) or in open space (Li et al., 2015a; Mainini et al., 2012; Peña-García et al., 2016; Zhu et al.,
2019). (Altlomate et al., 2016); and Henriques et al. (2018) used dark box or cupboard to create an
enclosed area for LTC illuminance testing in order to prevent light scattering and ensure all light rays
from the light source are directed to the specimens.
The equipment used for measuring light intensity among these researchers include photometer, light-
dependent resistor (LDR) and optical power meter where the unit measured is either in lux,
milliampere (mA), ohm (Ω) or microwatt (µW). The variation of measuring equipment may not have
significant effect on the illuminance measurement, but the data obtained is incomparable due to
uncertainties contributed by the accuracy and resistance of the measuring equipment. Hence, some of
the researchers (Li et al., 2012a; Mainini et al., 2012; Shitote et al., 2018; Spiesz et al., 2016)
determined the light transmitting ratio to represent the efficiency of light transmittance of LTC which
will minimise the uncertainties caused by different measuring equipment.
6.3 Durability test
Durability of concrete refers to the ability of concrete to resist deterioration due to weathering,
abrasion, chemical attack or various environmental conditions (Mehta and Monteiro, 2017) while
maintaining its strength and appearance integrity during its service life (Guo et al., 2018). One of the
most important fundamental measurements of concrete durability is the permeability of concrete (Zhu,
2020) where it determines the vulnerability of concrete when exposed to water, gases or ions from the
surrounding environment.
For the case of LTC, the durability tests were carried out based on the type of translucent element
used in LTC. For instance, it is well known that glass is vulnerable to ASR when exposed to alkaline
environment. Hence, previous researchers (Pagliolico et al., 2015; Spiesz et al., 2016) conducted ASR
test on LTC incorporated with glass to determine the concrete durability. On the other hand, Pilipenko

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et al. (2018) conducted freeze-thaw resistance test, colour fade resistant test, chemical resistant test,
water absorption test and permeability test for LTC incorporated with polymer epoxy. For the

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inclusion of GiD powder, Saleem and Blaisi (2019) investigated the effects of anions concentrations
on the structural durability of reinforced LTC structures.
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For LTC incorporated with optical fibre, most of the tests were focused on concrete permeability,
concrete porosity and water absorption test (Henriques et al., 2018; Li et al., 2015a). This is because
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the incorporation of optical fibre creates more voids within the concrete matrix due to the weak
interfacial bond between the fibre and concrete matrix. Besides that, as mentioned earlier in Section 5,
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polymer optical fibre is vulnerable to UV radiation, where it will alter the chemical composition of the
optical fibre and lead to weaker mechanical strength and lower light transmission of the material.
Based on authors’ knowledge, durability of LTC after exposed to weathering or UV radiation is yet to
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be investigated.
Overall, durability test attracted less attention from the researchers compared with mechanical
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properties and light transmittance properties of LTC. Nonetheless, durability of LTC is vital important
and cannot be underestimated as it determines the sustainability of LTC in resisting deterioration and
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maintaining the efficiency of light transmission throughout its service life.

6.4 Microstructure Analysis
Microstructure analysis discloses the structure of concrete matrix microscopically (Mehta and
Monteiro, 2017) which provides useful and supporting information related to concrete strength and
durability. The concrete strength and durability are determined by the porosity and permeability of
concrete. Based on the literature, only few researchers (de Rosso and de Melo, 2020; Henriques et al.,
2018; Juan and Zhi, 2019; Li et al., 2015a; Li et al., 2015b) conducted microstructure analysis to
obtain better understanding on these two characteristics of concrete. For instance, Henriques et al.
(2018) who studied LTC incorporated with optical fibre found out that there were gaps between the
fibre-matrix interface. This revealed that the decreased in concrete compressive strength was
attributed to weak bond strength between the fibre and concrete matrix. Thus, it is encouraged to
conduct microstructure analysis in future investigation for LTC to discover the relationship between
the microstructure of LTC with its mechanical strength and durability.
6.5 Analysis and Discussion
Mechanical properties and light transmittance properties of LTC is the main interest for the
researchers. This subsection will compare and discuss the experimental results of mechanical
properties and the light transmittance properties of LTC. Since the durability data is scarce in the
existing literature, it will not be discussed in this subsection. The experimental data reported for LTC
incorporated with recycled glass and epoxy resin were limited, scattered and incomparable among the
studies due to the consideration of different parameters. Hence, this subsection only focuses and
discusses the experimental data reported for LTC incorporated with optical fibre.
Compressive strength and flexural strength tests are the most common tests conducted to determine
the mechanical properties of LTC. However, factors such as concrete design strength, size effect as
well as the synergy effects from other parameters lead to inconsistency of compressive strength (or
flexural strength) data reported among the studies. In order to make the results comparable, the
concrete compressive strength (or flexural strength) from each researcher is normalised by dividing
the compressive strength (or flexural strength) of LTC with the compressive strength (or flexural
strength) of the reference specimen.
Based on Fig. 3, the most common parameter considered in the experimental studies was volumetric
fraction and most of them are LTC with optical fibre. Hence, comparison of compressive strength and
flexural strength based on fibre volumetric fraction was conducted and illustrated in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6,

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respectively. From Fig. 5, it is noted that the increment of fibre volumetric fraction leads to a
descending trend of compressive strength. The compressive strength of LTC is always lower than that

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of reference concrete. However, it is noteworthy that, within 5% optical fibre inclusion in the concrete,
the reduction of compressive strength normally will not more than 20% of the concrete. Henriques et
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al. (2020) mentioned that the inclusion of optical fibre up to 5% deteriorated the compressive strength,
but it can still be considered for the use in construction. It is not recommended to incorporate optical
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fibre beyond 5% into the concrete, as this leads to difficulties in compaction and results in high
porosity.
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On the other hand, it is obvious that the compressive strength data from Altlomate et al. (2016)
showed a contradict trend compared with others. The compressive strength increased with the
increment of fibre volumetric fraction and eventually exceeded the strength of reference specimen.
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This is due to the combination effect of fibre spacing and fibre diameter. The mentioned researchers
manipulated the fibre diameter to determine the fibre volumetric fraction which is not a common
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practice among the research. The bigger fibre diameter will result in larger concrete compressive
strength. Besides that, microcracks are more easily propagated between shorter interconnecting
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distance within the matrix, which deteriorates the compressive strength. The fibre spacing used by the
study is bigger than other researchers, which contributed to a stronger matrix.
Fig. 6 illustrated the LTC flexural strength based on fibre volumetric fraction. Similar with
compressive strength, the inclusion of optical fibre and the increment of fibre volumetric fraction
reduced the flexural strength. The reduction can range from 0 – 40% of the flexural strength of
reference specimen. It is noteworthy that the loading direction has a remarkable impact on the extent
of strength decrement. If the loading direction is parallel to the direction of fibre arrangement, the
load will directly concentrate on the voids and microcracks between the fibre-matrix interface, leads
to lower failure strength.
Although most of the existing literature conducted light transmittance experimental test on LTC, the
results of the measurement (mostly reported in lux or µW) are very subjective. This is because
different types and power of light source were used among the studies which will determine the extent
of light intensity transmitted by the LTC specimens. Furthermore, some of the researchers did not
reported the initial light intensity before passing through LTC. This causes the results reported less
valuable as the light transmittance data are only reported according to respective parameters instead of
determine the efficiency of light transmittance of LTC.
Nonetheless, some of the experimental data of light transmittance from several researchers were still
comparable and were shown in Fig. 7. It is obvious that the data of light transmittance was scattered.
This is due to the synergy effect of other parameters such as fibre diameter, power of light source,
distance between the light source and specimen, specimen size as well as and other factors besides
fibre volumetric fraction. However, each researcher showed similar trend in light transmittance
properties of LTC. The increment of fibre volumetric fraction leads to higher light transmittance
efficiency.
Throughout the discussion, it is obvious that experimental data from LTC incorporated with waste
glass and epoxy resin were limited for comparison and analysis. Even for LTC incorporated with
optical fibre, the experiments mostly focused on the effects of fibre volumetric fraction on the
properties of LTC. Apart from mechanical properties and light transmittance properties, durability test
such as water absorption test and porosity test were seldom being reported in the studies. Although
most of the researchers conducted light transmittance test, the light transmittance data were very
subjective based on the varieties of parameters considered in each study, hindered further analysis and
thus unconvincing.
It is suggested that future investigation should consider the efficiency of light transmittance (in %)

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instead of reporting the light transmittance level of LTC. Other parameters should be taken attention
in investigating LTC properties instead of only focus on fibre volumetric fraction. Furthermore, it is

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encouraged to have more investigation on LTC incorporated with other translucent materials
especially epoxy resin as it has potential to replace optical fibre due to its low cost and simplicity of
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manufacturing compared with optical fibre. More durability tests data are required in future
investigation to ensure LTC is sustainable and durable to be applied in construction for long term use.
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7. Design of LTC
This section comprised of two subsections which review the simulation modelling and theoretical
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studies on LTC based on the existing literature database. Compared with experimental investigation,
simulation modelling and theoretical studies are seldom being considered in the previous studies.
Since the main purpose of LTC is to transmit light and to reduce the energy consumption (light energy
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and HVAC energy consumption), most of the simulation and theoretical studies are related to light
transmittance, energy saving and heat transfer of LTC.
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7.1 Simulation modelling

Simulation modelling is essential in research investigation, aimed to obtain information without
altering the actual system, attain clearer perspective on the performance and operation of the system,
improve the system by developing operating policies and testing new concepts or system before it can
be implemented practically (Chung, 2003). For LTC investigation, simulation modelling is also
required to examine the performance with various parameters in the actual environmental conditions.
Actual environmental conditions were imitated in most of the simulation modelling to investigate the
effects on light transmittance performance, energy saving and thermal comfort of the building where
LTC panels were implemented. Table 4 represents the design focus and variables considered in the
simulation modelling by previous researchers (Ahuja and Mosalam, 2017; Ahuja et al., 2015a, b;
Huang, 2020; Juan and Zhi, 2019; Mainini et al., 2012; Pagliolico et al., 2015; Shen and Zhou, 2020a).
It was clarified that these researchers considered the angle of light incident either by adjusting the
concrete panels according to the light source or considering the light transmittance throughout the day
(angle of sunlight varies throughout the daytime).
To authors’ knowledge, the existing simulation is only focused on building application, where
simulation on infrastructure application is required for further investigation. The invention of LTC is
aimed to transmit light through concrete and reduce light energy consumptions. Based on Table 4, it is
noteworthy that light transmittance properties were evaluated in most simulations, but the
performance of energy savings and thermal comfort were less focused.
Since translucent elements transmit light energy, it is undeniable to have conversion of light energy to
heat energy during transmission loss. Hence, thermal comfort is another important concern for LTC
application in building. Thermal comfort is not only influenced by the heat convection of the building
envelope, but also by the number of occupants, and HVAC (heating, ventilation and air-conditioning)
system. The environmental conditions such as summer, winter, sunny sky or overcast sky, will also
decide the amount of light and heat transmitted through LTC panels. This will directly affect visibility
and thermal comfort inside the building. The synthesize effects from light transmittance performance,
thermal conductivity of LTC and the load on HVAC system determine the building total energy
consumption.
On the other hand, the investigation on the effect of light incidence angle and CPC on light
transmittance properties of LTC panel is still in its preliminary stage. Some researchers (Ahuja et al.,
2015a, b) tilted the LTC panel to certain angle to manipulate the angle of light incident (half-

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acceptance angle) indirectly and evaluated the light transmittance properties of the LTC panels.
Ahuja and Mosalam (2017) on the other hand, investigated light transmittance properties of LTC

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panel for the whole daytime to evaluate the light performance based on the angle of light source
(sunlight). Su et al. (2020) is the only researchers in the existing literature who considered NA in the
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simulation of daylighting performance of LTC. They suggested that the illuminance of LTC will
reduce sharply when the sunlight incident angle exceeded the acceptance angle. Hence, the larger NA
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(larger acceptance angle) of optical fibre that incorporated in LTC exhibited great potential in
elongating the daylighting illuminance at a stable level.
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Overall, future research should take more attention in LTC simulation modelling to establish
sufficient comprehension and recognition on the performance of LTC in order to be used in
construction industry. Simulation modelling of LTC enables designers, engineers and architects to
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choose and design suitable LTC panels based on client’s demand in terms of illuminance, thermal
comfort and energy savings. Therefore, considerations on thermal comfort and energy savings should
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be more focused besides light transmittance performance of LTC in the simulation investigation of
future research.
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7.2 Theoretical Studies

Theoretical analysis is necessary in research investigation as it explains the relationships between
variables in research and validates the experimental results. It is also used to simplify the work by
predicting the performance precisely without conducting the experiments. The primary concern on the
performance of LTC is its light transmittance properties and energy saving. Energy saving is mainly
related to the illuminance level and thermal comfort. Hence, most of the theoretical studies available
in the past research are based on these two performances of LTC. It is noted that most of the
theoretical studies were based on LTC incorporated with optical fibre.
Regardless the translucent materials, the efficiency of light transmittance of LTC is evaluated by its
percentage of light passing through (de Rosso and de Melo, 2020; Saleem et al., 2017; Shen and Zhou,
2020a), as shown in Eq. (1):

= × 100% (1)

where ρ is the plate translucency; J1 is the light passing through LTC in lux and J0 is the incident light
before passing through LTC in lux.
Zhu et al. (2019) investigated the effects of light source colour and optical fibre diameter on the
illuminance of LTC which applied in active-luminous traffic markings. They used regression analysis
to identify the relationship between the light transmitting rate and the optical fibre diameter under
different colours of light source (red, yellow, and green), presented in Eq. (2), (3) and Eq. (4)
respectively.
For red colour light,
.
= 60.49 − ( . )/ . (2)

For yellow colour,

" ."#
= 47.06 − ( . $)/ . (3)

For green colour,

&.
= 62.74 − ( '.( )/ . (4)

where f is the light-transmitting rate in % and d is the fibre diameter in mm.

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Angle of light incidence is important especially in LTC incorporated with optical fibre due to the

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acceptance cone which only allows light passing through at a certain angle. Furthermore, different
latitude of locations which the angle of sunlight varies will affect the angle of light incidence passing
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through LTC. Hence, Su et al. (2020) conducted a simulation on LTC in China to determine the
optimum tilt angle in different locations. They took the latitude of the location and numerical aperture
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(NA) of the fibre into account to determine the LTC optimum tilt angle as expressed in Eq. (5):
) = −5.1446 + 0.8694- + 29.7028-& − 0.4874-. (5)
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where y is the optimum tilt angle (°); X1 is the latitude of the location (°); X2 is the NA of optical fibre
and X3 is the product of X1 and X2. However, this equation is only limited to optical fibre with NA of
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0.51 to 0.70. Additional calculation is required to obtain the precise results if the NA is out of this
range.
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It is noteworthy that the theoretical equations proposed for the illuminance of LTC in the existing
literature did not considered fibre volumetric fraction, which is the most investigated parameter in the
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experimental studies. It is well-known that the fibre volumetric fraction has a great impact on light
transmittance properties of LTC compared with other parameters. Therefore, it is suggested to include
fibre volumetric fraction in the future theoretical studies of LTC.
In theoretical studies, the researchers expressed thermal comfort of LTC by its heat absorption or heat
transfer. Eq. (6) proposed by Ahuja and Mosalam (2017) and Eq. (7) by Ahuja et al. (2015a) were
used to determine the heat transfer and heat absorption of LTC panel, respectively, given as:
12
/0 13 = ∇. (5∇6) + 789: (6)

where ρ is the mass density of LTC; cp is the specific heat at constant pressure; λ is the heat
conductivity of LTC, T is the temperature and qdis is the heat dissipated in the fibre.
12
; 2< =2< 13 = > ?@ A (7)

where mTC is the mass of LTC; CTC is the heat capacity of LTC; dT/dt is the heating rate (°C/s); A is
the total LTC area and Eab is the fraction of the global irradiation absorbed by the LTC panel. The
difference between these two equations is that Ahuja and Mosalam (2017) considered heat dissipated
evenly along the entire optical fibre, whereas Ahuja et al. (2015a) assumed that all the incident heat
was absorbed by the TC panel without considering the heat convection and conduction.
From the theoretical equations proposed for heat transfer or heat absorption, similar gap as in light
transmittance equations appeared. Fibre volumetric fraction was not considered in the equations. It is
known that the heat conduction will increase with the increment of element size. The combination
effect of heat absorbed by concrete and fibre may be different due to different fibre volumetric
fraction. Hence, it is suggested that fibre volumetric fraction should be taken into account in the future
theoretical studies in order to obtain a more precise prediction.
Apart from light transmittance and heat conduction, there is a lack of theoretical studies on total
energy saving and mechanical strength of LTC in the existing literature. Total energy saving
comprised of the reduction of light energy consumption as well as energy used by HVAC system to
maintain thermal comfort in a building. The theoretical studies on total energy savings can act as a
design fundamental for Engineers and to predict the greatest benefit obtained from the application of
LTC. On the other hand, mechanical properties such as compressive strength plays an important role
in concrete to determine its capacity against compression. The inclusion of translucent element in
most cases deteriorates the mechanical strength of the concrete. Therefore, theoretical studies on the
mechanical strength of LTC enable the prediction of changing trend of concrete strength with the

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inclusion of translucent elements. Hence, it is suggested that more attention to be taken in the
theoretical studies especially for the total energy saving and mechanical properties of LTC in the

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future investigation.
8. Cost Analysis -p
The cost for manufacturing LTC and its economic viability is an important concern to ensure the
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product can provide the greatest benefit to the consumers. Fig. 8 demonstrated the cost comparison of
various translucent materials. Glass aggregate is the cheapest among all the translucent materials. It is
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well-known that optical fibre is the most expensive material among all the translucent materials
(Ugale et al., 2019), especially for glass optical fibre. Hence, plastic optical fibre and polymer resin
are introduced to replace glass optical fibre to reduce the material cost.
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Manufacturing process and the labour work are also being considered in the total cost of LTC
production. Glass aggregates are mixed together with concrete during casting, hence, there is no extra
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labour work to be considered for the glass aggregate distribution in the mixture. Juan and Zhi (2019)
stated that the complicated layout arrangement and installation of optical fibre impeded the large-scale
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production of LTC and reduce the popularity of its applications in the construction industry. The
introduction of plastic bar and polymer resin in the production of LTC minimizes the manufacturing
cost where the complex processes of fibre arrangement and installation are eliminated. Saleem and
Blaisi (2019) are the only researchers who manufactured LTC blocks with GiD powder. The cost of
production however, is three times the cost of regular interlocking blocks.
In terms of cost-benefit ratio, Henriques et al. (2020) compared the cost (only material production cost)
per lux for LTC with different fibre volumetric fraction. The higher amount of fibre contributes to
higher cost of material production. However, it does not promise that higher cost of LTC will have
equal returns of light transmittance when the fibre volumetric fraction increased. The study concluded
that 5% of fibre volumetric fraction was proved to be the most advantageous with the small increase
of fibre content but gave the best translucency when compared with 3.5% of fibre content.
Although LTC is claimed to reduce the energy consumptions, to author’s knowledge, there were only
two studies in the existing literature reported the energy saving and expenditure with the application
of LTC. Sawant et al. (2014) considered the production cost and payback period of LTC through light
energy savings. They reported that although the production cost of LTC was high, but the benefits of
reduction for light energy consumptions in long terms not only compensated the production cost, but
also reduced the carbon footprint which contributed to global warming.
On the other hand, Ahuja and Mosalam (2017) conducted a comprehensive analysis on the total
expenditure in energy when using LTC by considering the light energy consumption and thermal
comfort in a building. Since the translucent materials have their own heat conductivity, therefore
when light passing through LTC, both light and heat energy were transmitted into the building. Hence,
by considering the expenditure on lighting and HVAC (heating, ventilation and air-conditioning)
system, Ahuja and Mosalam (2017) concluded that LTC panels with 5.6% of fibre content can reduce
the total energy expenditure by 18%.
In a nutshell, economic viability study in the existing literature is more focused on the LTC
production cost. Feasibility study in terms of total energy savings with the consideration of light and
thermal analysis is still lacking in this area of research. Furthermore, most of the economic viability
studies in the existing literature database are more focused on LTC incorporated with optical fibre. It
is encouraged that more investigations should be conducted on economic viability study for LTC with
various types of translucent materials including polymer resin and glass aggregate.

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9. Conclusions and Recommendations
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The present study discusses and compares the performance of LTC incorporated with different types
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of translucent elements. The commonly-used translucent elements are classified into four categories
which are waste glass, polymer resin, optical fibres and others (GiD powder, plastic pipes/rods, glass
rod). Among all these translucent elements, optical fibre is the most popular element used in
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manufacturing and investigations of LTC due to its excellent properties in light transmittance and
chemical resistance. Several conclusions are highlighted based on the comparison and assessment
done in this review study:
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(a) Most of the existing literature focused on LTC with optical fibre. There is a great potential to
use waste glass and epoxy resin to manufacture LTC, but the information on the properties of
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these types of LTC is still lacking in the literature.

(b) The current development of LTC are more focused on aesthetic purpose or in building
construction. LTC has a great potential to be developed for infrastructure applications
especially in improving traffic safety. However, information such as design, manufacturing
process, mechanical properties and illuminance level which are suitable for infrastructure
application is still lacking.
(c) The most common factors being considered in LTC investigations are the amount, size and
spacing of translucent elements within the concrete matrix. It is found that factors such as
angle of light incident, light intensity, distance between light source/light detector from the
specimen, curing condition, and other variables also play important roles in determining the
properties of LTC. For LTC incorporated with optical fibre, surface roughness and half
acceptance angle of the fibre is very crucial in determining the light transmittance properties
but only a few studies took these factors into consideration.
(d) Past studies mostly covered mechanical properties and light transmittance properties of LTC.
For mechanical properties, compressive strength of LTC was given more attention than
flexural strength. From the general results reported by the researchers, mechanical strength of
LTC decreases when incorporated with translucent elements. However, the increment of
volumetric fraction of translucent elements can either enhance or reduce the mechanical and
 light transmittance properties, depends on the types of translucent elements and other
parameters.
(e) Microstructure analysis reveals the actual situation between translucent elements-matrix
interface. This helps in investigating the mechanical properties and durability of concrete.
Durability of LTC such as porosity and water permeability are seldom being investigated yet
it requires demanding attention to ensure its sustainability in construction.
(f) The purpose of LTC is to transmit light, hence light transmittance test is essential in LTC
investigation. It is concluded that the light transmittance level increased with higher
volumetric fraction and bigger size of translucent element. Most of the experimental data on
light transmittance test reported the illuminance value instead of light transmittance efficiency,
which caused the data unconvincing and bias.
(g) Illuminance, thermal comfort and energy savings are normally considered in simulation
modelling of LTC. Among these requirements, the investigation on thermal comfort and
energy savings of LTC is still lacking. Based on authors’ knowledge, the existing simulation
modelling is only focused on LTC application for building.

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(h) Most of the theoretical equations proposed for LTC are focused on light transmittance and
heat conduction (or heat transfer). It is noted that most of the theoretical equations are based

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on LTC incorporated with optical fibre. Furthermore, the proposed equations lack of the most
common factor which is fibre volumetric fraction. Besides that, there is still limited research

(i)
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on theoretical studies on the mechanical strength of LTC.
LTC production is the main focus for most of the economic viability study. LTC incorporated
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with optical fibre is considered the most expensive production among LTC incorporated with
other types of translucent elements due to its high material cost and intensive labour cost in
manufacturing. In terms of total energy savings with the consideration of light and thermal
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analysis, LTC feasibility study is still lacking.

Based on the conclusions drawn, a few recommendations are suggested for future research:
na

(a) It is recommended that the future investigation should pay more attention on LTC
incorporated with waste glass and epoxy resin instead of optical fibre. This is because these
ur

materials especially epoxy resin have great potential to replace optical fibre in LTC due to
their low material and labour cost, in addition with less complicated manufacturing process.
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(b) Future investigations on LTC applications should be expanded to infrastructure sector,

especially tunnels and road markings.
(c) Factors (such as angle of light incidence, light intensity, distance between light
source/detector and specimen, curing condition, and others) which can simulate the real-life
situation should be paid more attention. For LTC with optical fibre, more focus should be
paid on the fibre surface roughness and its half acceptance angle since these factors directly
affect the light transmittance properties of LTC.
(d) There are several parameters considered in LTC which are intercorrelated. The synergy
effects of these parameters on the mechanical and light transmittance properties of LTC
should be further investigated.
(e) Durability test of LTC incorporated with different types of translucent elements should be
further studied. On the other hand, microstructure analysis and physical properties test should
be conducted to attain potent evidence in analysing mechanical properties and durability of
LTC. Approaches should be taken if the physical properties of translucent elements are the
main contributors in the deterioration to the mechanical strength and durability of LTC.
(f) For light transmittance test, the future research is recommended to analyse the illuminance
level of LTC in terms of its efficiency. Eq. (1) is suggested to be used in the analysis to ensure
the information obtained from the experiment can be more representable and served as
references to others.
 (g) Besides light transmittance and heat conduction, it is suggested that theoretical studies also
focus on total energy saving and mechanical strength of LTC to act as design fundamental for
the engineers. This enables the designers to estimate the properties of LTC and predict the
greatest benefit that can be obtained from its application.
(h) Besides light transmittance properties, simulation modelling of LTC should focus more on
thermal comfort and energy savings of LTC in order to meet the standard living requirement.
(i) Feasibility study in terms of total energy expenditure with consideration of light transmittance
and thermal comfort should be paid more attention in the future research. Since, epoxy resin
possesses similar light transmittance properties and has lower material cost, it is suggested to
compare both feasibility study of LTC incorporated with epoxy resin and optical fibre to
determine which type of LTC gives the best result in terms of light transmittance, total energy
saving and cost-effectiveness.
The above conclusions and recommendations are based on authors’ opinions and observations. The
scientific research on LTC is still in its preliminary stage, most of the research is only reporting the
experimental results and lack of representation and practicality. Hence, more comprehensive studies

of
and investigation are required in the future based on the suitability and durability of different LTC
applications.

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Acknowledgements
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The authors would like to appreciate the support by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and Hanyang
University Korea of this project by Research Grant No. 4B358 and Professional Development
Research University Grant No. 05E14.
ur
Jo

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Table 1
An overview of existing database on LTC with different translucent elements.

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Translucent Material Researchers Mechanical Properties Test Physical Properties Durability Test Light transmittance Test Microstructure Analysis
Element Test
Waste glass Glass Pagliolico et - Non-reactive under - Light transmission in range of 1.3-
al. (2015) alkali-silica reaction 4.9%, as a function of glazed hollows.
(ASR) - With light transmission of 11%,
test. energy demand reduced to 20.6%.
Spiesz et al. - Polluted materials for unwashed waste - ASR can be - Maximum glass particle size provides
(2016) glass distorted the hydration of cement and suppressed with better translucency.
deteriorated the concrete strength. addition of fly ash or - Translucency decreased with

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GGBS. increment of sample thickness.
Manuello et - LTC with glass inclusion showed more

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al. (2011) ductile behaviour with the aid of steel fibre
compared with LTC without steel fibre

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De Rosso - The reduction of compressive strength is - All of the samples - The inclusion of 42.6% of glass - Incomplete adhesion was
and De Melo 34.6% with 61% replacement of aggregates showed expansion aggregates resulted in 0.073% plate observed between glass-

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(2020) with recycled glass. under standard limit translucency. cement interface.
of 0.10% after 14 - Plates with 10 mm thickness showed
days. No surface no translucency compared with plates

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cracks observed. with 6 mm thickness.
Resin PMMA Mainini et - Light transmission decreased with

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al. (2012) higher
angular incident ray.
Polyester Juan and Zhi - The higher area ratio of resin, the lower - LTC incorporated - Higher light transmission can be - The surface of the resin
(2019) the
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compressive strength, but the overall
strength is close to plain concrete.
with resin has good
thermal insulation
due to resin low
attributed to higher light wavelength
and light wave guide.
can be made rougher to
enhance the adhesion of
resin with matrix and
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thermal conductivity. improve the durability of
the concrete.

Epoxy Pilipenko et - Mechanical strength depended on the - Decolourization - Water absorption

and al. (2018) method of casting. occurred without decreased by 16-20%,
Acrylic dense concrete with unit elongation during
lesser capillary pores. freezing and thawing
decreased by 17-20%
with the used of
activated coarse
aggregate.
GID GID Saleem and - The inclusion of GID powder content has - No thermal stress or - Good thermal - Glow intensity increased with
Concrete powder Blaisi (2019) insignificant effect on the concrete strength. deformations cycling and skid increment GID powder content.
occurred under resistance - Duration of glow is not affected by
temperature of duration of excitation beyond 5
160°C. minutes.
Table 1 (continued)

Translucent
Translucent Material
Material Researchers
Researchers Mechanical Properties
Mechanical test
Properties test Physical Properties Durability
Physical Properties Light Transmittance
Durability Test Test
Light Transmittance Test Microstructure Analysis
Microstructure Analysis
Element
Element Test Test Test
Glass rods / Glass Momin et al. - The compressive strength of LTC with - The light transmission of glass optical fibre was
optical fibre (2014) glass rod is higher than normal concrete found to be more efficient than glass rods.
and LTC - The light transmission reduced with the
with and LTC with glass fibre glass fibre. increment of fibre or glass rod spacing.

Optical Glass Li et al. -Filamentous form of LTCM transmit - Concrete with higher fibre volumetric fraction - Gaps existed in the
fibre (2012a) more light than bunchy fibres and possess has higher light transmittance properties. interior of bunchy fibres
higher compressive strength and the interface between

f
cement mortar and fibres

o
were not firmed compared
with filamentous fibre.

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Jiménez- - Compressive strength of concrete
Muñoz and decreased with fibre volumetric fraction

-p
Fernández- greater than 2%.
Martínez

re
(2014)
Snoeck et al. - Strain hardening only occur on LTC with - The translucent effect of LTC is proportional to
(2020) the inclusion of macro fibres, but not with the fibre volumetric fraction. The combination of

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micro fibres. 3% glass fibre and 2% of PVA fibres exhibited
- 2% PVA fibres inclusion increased the 4.71% of translucent effect.
overall strain-hardening capacity of LTC

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incorporated with macro glass fibres.
Optical Plastic Shitote et al. - Spacing and number of fibres affected overall
Fibre (2018) ratio of light transmitted.

ur - Increasing the distance of LDR and light source

decreased the intensity of light intensity.
Jo
- 6% of POF performs up to 22% of light
transmittance.
- With same fibre volumetric fraction, smaller
diameter and spacing will have higher light
transmittance.
Kumar¹ and - The concrete compressive strength is not - Higher light transmission with higher fibre
Ahlawat affected by the inclusion of optical fibre. volumetric fraction.
(2017)
Huang - The smoothness of fibre end is important to
(2020) ensure efficient light transmission.
- The acceptance angle of PMMA fibre is 30°,
limited the light capturing performance, hence
CPC is used.
- Higher reflection index, fibre volumetric
fraction and diameter of fibre transmit more light.

Table 1 (continued)
 Optical Plastic Bashbash et - Concrete with larger diameter of fibre has higher
Fibre al. (2013) compressive strength if the fibre volumetric fraction is
kept constant.
Translucent Material Researchers Mechanical Properties test Physical Properties Durability Test Light Transmittance Test Microstructure Analysis
- The flexural strength of LTC is slightly lower with
Element Test
the increment of fibre volumetric fraction.
Nirmal and - The load deflection characteristics at mid span of
Nehemiya mesh with fibre beam shows less deflection than
(2017) conventional concrete beam.
- Light transmitting concrete beams with mesh and
fibres show improved properties than conventional
concrete.
Huong and - The increment of fibre volumetric fraction increased - Light transmittance of LTC

f
Kassim the compressive strength of LTC at 7th day and 28th is higher with higher fibre

o
(2019) day. volumetric fraction.

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Ugale et al. - Maximum compressive strength of LTC can be - LTC type with marble dust
(2019) achieved by replacing the fine aggregate and coarse and marble aggregate poses

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aggregate totally with marble powder and marble higher light transmittance
respectively. properties compared to

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concrete with sand and coarse
aggregate.
Saleem et al. - The optimum fibre tendon volumetric fraction is 3% - The optical fibre - Light transmission can be

lP
(2017) to have minimal loss of compressive strength. embedded inside increased with the increment
concrete is successfully of POF tendon ratio.
withstand the high

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temperature without
melting.
Altlomate et - The compressive strength increased with the - The homogeneity of - Bigger diameter with bigger - Some scratches appeared
al. (2016)
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increment of fibre precentage. the concrete does not
affect much by the
inclusion of optical
spacing but lower
volumetric fraction may
possess higher light
on the fibre coating but
these do not exceed the
layer thickness.
Jo
fibre. transmission.
Zhu et al. - The greater fibre diameter
(2019) transmits more light.
- The visible distance of LTC
increased with lower light
intensity of environment. With
same light intensity, the
visible distance for luminous
LTC with red colour is the
longest, follow by LTC with
green and yellow colour.
 Optical Plastic Henriques et - For fibre volumetric fraction between 0-2%, there - The increment of fibre - Light transmittance increased - Presence of voids at the
Fibre al. (2018) is insignificant difference in compressive strength. volumetric fraction with the increment of fibre fibre-matrix interface.
Translucent Material Researchers - Concrete with Properties
Mechanical fibre volumetric
test fraction greater Properties
Physical Durability Testincreased the concrete Lightvolumetric fraction.
Transmittance Test Microstructure
Element than 5% is difficult to compact and place. Test water absorption. Analysis

Li et al. - The inclusion of optical fibre decreased the - The compressive - Light transmitting - Large number of gaps
(2015a) compressive strength and flexural strength of strength and flexural performance of optical fibre found around the fibre-
concrete. strength of concrete decreased after cured in water matrix interface.
specimen which cured in bath of 80°C.
water bath of 80°C is
higher due to the
acceleration of hydration

f
triggered by the higher

o
temperature.

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Li et al. - Compressive strength of LTCM is lower than the - For specimen with different - Surface roughness of the
(2015b) normal concrete. number of fibres, regardless exit end of fibre will
white or red light, the optical affect the light

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power tends to be the same transmittance of the
when the distance of optical emergent light due to

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power rises to certain range scattering loss.
because the emergent of the - Tiny gaps still observed
light is scattering. around the fibre-matrix

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interface.
Taneja et al. - It does not lose the strength with certain amount - The ratio of optical fibre is
(2018) of fibre compared to normal concrete. proportional to light

na
transmission.
Hoyos - Mortar thickness, aggregate
Montilla et size, and cement types are those
al. (2015)
ur with the greatest impact on
transmittance.
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Salih et al. - Flexural strength decreased dramatically with the
(2014) inclusion of optical fibre.
- The compressive strength of LTCM is lower than
the control sample.
Henriques et - The incorporation of 5% fibre volumetric fraction - The inclusion of fibres - The inclusion of 5% fibre - Voids were observed
al. (2020) decreased the compressive strength and flexural increased the porosity and volumetric fraction in LTC between the fibre-matrix
strength by 20% and 25.4% respectively, with water absorption of the resulted in 100% increment of interface.
respect to reference sample. concrete. light transmittance compared
with 3.5% fibre content of LTC.
Table 1 (continued)
 Optical Plastic Shen and - LTC possess excellent light transmittance property and the
Fibre Zhou transmittance is proportional to amount of fibre.
(2020a) - Simulation showed that LTC can reduce approximately 20% of
light energy consumption.
Sawant et al. - Compressive strength decreased - Light transmittance increased with increment of fibre.
(2014) with increment of fibre content.
Mosalam - Optical fibre transmits more light than acrylic rods.
and - With same fibre volumetric fraction, the optical fibre with smaller
Casquero- diameter transmits more light.
Modrego - Specimen thickness has more significant effect on light
(2018) transmittance by acrylic rods compared with optical fibre.
- CPC or SC should compatible with the numerical aperture of

f
optical fibre to achieve maximum efficiency in concentrating and

o
transmitting light through optical fibre.

ro
Tuaum et al. - Compressive strength increased
(2019) with increment of fibre volumetric
fraction.

-p
- LTC experienced large
deformation without significant

re
reduction of load, implicated that
it is more ductile than the
reference concrete panels.

lP
- POF improved the toughness of
concrete by 11-12% compared
with reference concrete panels.

na
Su et al. - Large numerical aperture (NA) resulted in excessive daylighting
(2020) even though it increased the light transmittance capacity.
- Fibre volumetric fraction has greater impact on light

ur transmittance properties compared with NA.

- The optimum tilt angle of LTC varies with local latitude
Jo
especially in low and high latitude area.
Robles et al. - The increment of fibre diameter - The optical power of LTC decreased with the decrement of
(2020) increased the flexural and distance between detector and specimen (d).
compressive strength due to the - When d increased, the effect of fibre diameter on the optical
decreased in interface area. power disappeared due to overlapping light of each individual
fibres based on their NA.
Plastic bar Plastic Kim (2017) - The light weight concrete can - The smaller diameter of plastic pipes/rods lead to higher light
replace the ordinary concrete to transmittance of LTC.
solve the problem of heavy weight
of the LTC with plastic
rods/pipes.
Table 1 (continued)

Table 2
Testing parameters for LTC investigation in previous research.
 Description of the testing parameters
a Diameter/ size of translucent element
b Volumetric fraction / area fraction of translucent element
c Spacing between translucent element
d Translucent element configuration
e Light wavelength
f Light Intensity
g Distance between light source /light detector and specimen
h Reflective index
i Translucent element form
j Translucent element type
k Curing condition

fo
l Matrix constituents
m Specimen thickness

ro
n Light beam angle of incident
o Light beam diameter

-p
p Presence of Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) or Straight Cone (SC)
q Numerical aperture (NA)

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lP
na
ur
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Table 3 Parameters investigated on LTC in previous research.

Table 3 (continued)

Testing Parameters (as described in Table 2)

Translucent Testing Parameters (as described in Table 2)
Authors
Authors
Element aa bb cc dd ee ff gg hh i i j j kk l l mm nn oo pp q q
Shitote et al. (2018)
Su et al. (2020)
Optical Kumar¹ and Ahlawat
Robles
(2017) et al. (2020)
Fibre
Huang (2020)
Henriques et al. (2020)
Bashbash et al. (2013)

f
Pagliolico et al. (2015)

o
Nirmal and Nehemiya
Spiesz et al. (2016)
(2017)

ro
Glass Huong andetKassim
Manuello al. (2011)
(2019)

-p
Ugale
De et al.and
Rosso (2019)
De Melo
(2020)
Saleem et al. (2017)

re
Juan and Zhi (2019)
Altlomate et al. (2016)

lP
Resin Pilipenko et al. (2018)
Zhu et al. (2019)
Henriques
Mainini et et
al.al. (2018)
(2012)

na
Optical Saleem
Li et al. and Blaisi
(2015a)
Fibre (2019)
Li et al. (2015b)
Others Momin et al. (2014)
Li et al. (2012a)
Kim (2017)
ur
Jo
Taneja et al. (2018)
Hoyos Montilla et al.
(2015)
Shen and Zhou (2020a)

Sawant et al. (2014)

Mosalam and Casquero-
Modrego (2018)
Salih et al. (2014)
Jiménez-Muñoz and
Fernández-Martínez
(2014)
Tuaum et al. (2019)

Snoeck et al. (2020)

 o f
ro
Table 4

-p
Design focus and variables for simulation models.

re
Authors Simulation Model Design Focus Design Variables
Energy saving Thermal comfort/ Light Environmental Angle of light Volumetric Presence of CPC Occupancy
conductivity transmittance conditions incident fraction estimation

lP
Pagliolico et al. Daysim. Ecotect,
(2015) Radiance
Mainini et al. Ecotect, Radiance

na
(2012)
Juan and Zhi ANSYS
(2019)
Huang (2020) TracePro
ur
Jo
Ahuja et al. Radiance
(2015b)
Ahuja et al. Ray-tracing Algorithm,
(2015a) Radiance, Energy Plus
Ahuja and Perez
Mosalam (2017)
Shen and Zhou ZEMAX, Ecotect
(2020a)
Su et al. (2020) Ray-tracing method
 Development of LTC

Types of
Waste Resin Optical Fibre Others
Translucent
Glass
Elements

- Variation of - Angular light - Fibre diameter - Amount of

daylight beam of - Fibre spacing translucent
amount incidence - Fibre volumetric powder
- Condition of - Light beam fraction - Exposed
glass aggregate diameter - Fibre configuration condition
- Inclusions of - Resin orientation - Light wavelength - Spacing of

of
mineral - Area ratio of resin - Light intensity translucent
admixtures - Light wavelength - Distance between elements
- Size of waste - Length of resin

ro
light source and - diameter of
Parameters
glass light guide specimen translucent
- Specimen - Specimen - Fibre form elements
thickness
- Presence of
thickness
- Matrix
-p - Fibre type
- Curing condition
re
additional constituents - Matrix constituents
reinforcement
lP

- Self-compacting - Rapid-hardening - Cement mortar - Normal

mortar (SCM) high strength - SCC concrete
na

Concrete - Self-compacting concrete - SCM - Light-

Types concrete (SCC) - SCM - Normal concrete weight
- High performance - Blend concrete concrete
ur

concrete
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Mechanical Light transmittance Microstructure

Properties Test Properties Test Analysis
Assessment
on LTC
Physical Properties Test Durability Test

Fig. 1. Development of LTC incorporated with various translucent material.

 Application of LTC

Building Infrastructure

(a) (f)

of
(b)

ro
-p
re
(c)
lP
na

(d)
ur
Jo

(e)

Fig. 2. Application of LTC: (a) Italian Pavilion at Shanghai Expo 2010 (Cement, 2010; Henriques et
al., 2018; Juan and Zhi, 2013); (b) Al Aziz Mosque in Abu Dhabi (Han et al., 2017); (c) translucent
facades in Aachen University, Germany (Altlomate et al., 2016); (d) Europe Gate in Hungary
(Zielińska and Ciesielski, 2017); (e) the walls and partitions in Bank of Georgia (Altlomate et al.,
2016); (f) walkways by LUCEM LICHBETON, Germany (NACHRICHTEN, 2017).
 80

70

No. of studies considered (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q
Testing parameters

of
Fig. 3. Testing parameters considered in the experimental studies.

ro
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

(a) (b)

Fig. 4. Relationship between (a) fibre spacing, fibre volumetric fraction and fibre diameter (Huang,
2020); (b) fibre spacing, fibre diameter and light transmittance (Shen and Zhou, 2020a).
 Effect of fibre volumetric fraction on normalised
compressive strength
1.4
Normalised compressive strength
1.2 Henriques et al., 2018
Li et al., 2015a
1
Li et al., 2015
0.8 Sawant et al., 2014

0.6 Henriques et al., 2020

Shitote et al., 2018
0.4 Altlomate et al., 2016

0.2

of
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

ro
Fibre volumetric fraction (%)

Fig. 5. Comparison of LTC compressive strength based on fibre volumetric fraction. -p

re
lP

Effect of fibre volumetric fraction on normalised

flexural strength
1.2
na
Normalised flexural strength

1
Henriques et al., 2018
0.8
ur

Li et al., 2015a
0.6
Li et al., 2015
Jo

0.4
Henriques et al., 2020
0.2 Shitote et al., 2019
0 Shakir et al., 2014
0 2 4 6 8
Fibre volumetric fraction (%)

Fig. 6. Comparison of LTC flexural strength based on fibre volumetric fraction.

 Effect of fibre volumetric fraction on the light
transmittance efficiency
40
Light transmittance (%) 35
30
25 Kumar and Ahlawat, 2016
20 Sawant et al. 2014
15 Shitote et al., 2018
10 Snoeck et al., 2020
5 Shen and Zhou, 2020a
0
0 2 4 6 8
Fibre volumetric fraction (%)

of
Fig. 7. Comparison of light transmittance efficiency of LTC based on fibre volumetric fraction.

ro
-p
Price Comparison of Translucent Materials
re
40
32
Price ($/dm3)

30
lP

20
na

10 5 6

0
ur

Material Types
Glass Plastic optical fibre Polyester Resin
Jo

Fig. 8. Price comparison of various translucent materials (Juan and Zhi, 2019).
Highlights

• Detailed review on the types of LTC, its properties, applications and development.
• Critical discussion on mechanical strength and light transmittance of LTC.
• Simulation modelling and theoretical studies of LTC are reviewed.
• Manufacturing cost and total energy expenditure of LTC are discussed.
• Suitability and durability of LTC should be more focused in future research.

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-p
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lP
na
ur
Jo
Declaration of interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that
could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

of
ro
-p
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lP
na
ur
Jo