EVS NOTES

Food resources

Food Security in India – Important Statistics

Food security has been a major concern in India. 

1. According to UN-India, there are nearly 195 million undernourished people in India, which is
a quarter of the world’s hunger burden. 
2. Roughly 43% of children in India are chronically undernourished.
3. People Below Poverty Line in India decreased to around 22% in 2011-12. The Poverty
percentage was calculated using the Tendulkar methodology.
4. India ranked 76th in 113 countries assessed by The Global Food Security Index (GFSI) in
the year 2018, based on four parameters—affordability, availability and quality, and safety.
5. As per the Global Hunger Index, 2018, India was ranked 103rd out of 119 qualifying
countries.
6. According to FAO estimates in ‘The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, 2018”
report, about 14.8% of the population is undernourished in India.

What is Food Security?

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) states that food security emerges when all people at
all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food security has three important
and closely related components, which are listed below

1. Availability of food 
2. Access to food
3. Absorption of food.

Laws on Food Security – India

In order to provide the Right to food to every citizen of the country, the Parliament of India, enacted
legislation in 2013 known as the National Food Security Act, 2013. Also called the Right to Food Act,
this Act seeks to provide subsidized food grains to approximately two-thirds of India’s 1.33 billion
population.  Food Subsidy is the foundation on which the National Food Security Act 2013 is
implemented in India.
National Food Security Bill, 2013

1. This Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha on 7th August 2013

2. It was passed in Lok Sabha on 26th August 2013.
3. The National Food Security Bill was passed in Rajya Sabha on September 02, 2013.

Civil Service Exam aspirants can learn more about the National Food Security Act, 2013 in the given
link.

Food Security Programmes of India

 1. Public Distribution System. – A major chunk of Government Expenditure on Food Security is
spent on Food Subsidies which are implemented through the Targeted Public Distribution
System.
2. Mid Day Meal Scheme
3. Integrated Child Development Services Scheme.

The food management system and food price policy, to ensure food security in India thus consists of
three major instruments,

1. Procurement at minimum support prices, 

2. The maintenance of buffer stocks, and the 
3. Public Distribution System. 

Food Subsidy in India – Implementation

Food Security of beneficiaries is ensured by distributing food grains at subsidized prices through the
Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).  It protects them from price volatility due to inflation.
Over the years, while the spending on food subsidy has increased, the ratio of people below the
poverty line has decreased.
The Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food, and Public Distribution is the nodal ministry for the
implementation of food subsidy. This Ministry has 2 Departments which are given below

1. Department of Food and Public Distribution

2. Department of Consumer Affairs

98% of this Ministry’s budget is allocated to the Department of Food and Public Distribution.

Department of Food and Public Distribution

For the Financial Year (FY) 2020-21, the department was allocated a budget of more than 1.2 Lakh
crore. Compared to 2019 – 20, revised estimate, the current budget is higher by 6% i.e
approximately Rs 7000 crores.
The objectives of this department are to ensure Food security through the following actions which
are listed below.

1. Food procurement
2. Food storage
3. Distribution of Food Grains
4. Regulating the sugar sector.

Department of Consumer Affairs

In FY 2020 – 21, this department was allocated a budget of Rs 2,300 crores. Compared to the
previous FY 2019 – 20, revised estimate, the current budget allocation is 12 % higher.
The objectives of the Department of Consumer Affairs are listed below.

1. Spreading awareness among the consumers about their rights 

2. Prevention of black marketing
3. Protecting the interests of the consumers.
4. Implementing standards
Food Subsidy – Largest Component of the Department of Food and
Public Distribution.
Food subsidy is calculated as the difference between the economic cost of procuring food grains
(including procurement, stocking, distribution), and their Central Issue Price (CIP). Central Issue
Price (Rs/kg) is the price at which the Government sells the food grains to households belonging to
Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY), Below Poverty Line (BPL), and Above Poverty Line (APL).  

1. Food subsidy is the largest component of the Department of Food and Public Distribution.
2. Food Subsidy accounts for 95% of the total budget allocated to the Department of Food and
Public Distribution.
3. Currently, Food Subsidy covers 81 crore people.
4. As per the National Food Security Act of 2013, food subsidies should cover 50% of the
population in urban areas and must cover 75% of the population in rural areas.
5. Department of Food and Public Distribution gives the food subsidy to the Food Corporation
of India (FCI) and states. These entities in turn procure food grains from the farmers at the
Government notified Minimum Support Prices (MSP).
6. Once the food grains are procured from farmers, the Food Corporation of India (FCI) sells
the food grains at lower subsidized prices also known as Central Issue Prices (CIP). It is sold
to people from economically weaker sections of the society through fair price shops under
the public distribution system.
7. Foodgrains are also given to intended beneficiaries through mid-day meal schemes.
8. The budget allocated for food subsidy also covers the costs incurred for storing food grains
by the Food Corporation of India.

Aspirants can learn more about Minimum Support Price (MSP) in the given link.

Food Subsidy – 3 Main Components

The 3 ways of spending food subsidy by the Department of Food and Public Distribution are listed
below

1. The subsidy is given to the Food Corporation of India

2. The subsidy given to the states.
3. Sugar subsidy

Nutritional Requirements of Poor People – Implementation

1. Currently, the food items provided by the central government for distribution under PDS are
rice, wheat, and sugar.
2. 5 kg of food grains will be given to per person, per month at subsidized prices. This rule is
based on the National Food Security Act, 2013.
3. As per Antyodaya Anna Yojana, each of the households belonging to the poorest of the poor
section will be provided 35 kg of food grains per month at subsidized prices.
4. The National Food Security Act, 2013 requires the central and state governments to
undertake steps to diversify commodities distributed under PDS.

Food Subsidy Delivery – Challenges

There are many challenges related to Food Subsidy and its implementation using PDS. The
challenges associated are shared below.
Public Distribution System (PDS) – Leakages
As per the 2011 data, the leakages in Public Distribution System (PDS) were estimated to be around
47%. The leakages in the Public Distribution System (PDS) is due to the following reasons which are
listed below

1. Damage of food grains during transportation

2. Pilferage of food grains 
3. Diversion of food grains to non-beneficiaries at fair price shops through the issue of forged
cards.
4. Exclusion of people entitled to food grains but who are not on the beneficiary list

Targeted Public Distribution System – Other Issues

1. Situations, where entitled beneficiaries do not get food grains, are called Exclusion errors. It
refers to the percentage of poor households that are entitled to but do not have PDS cards.
This exclusion error had decreased to 41 % in 2011-12 from the figures of 2004-05.
2. Inclusion errors occur when those that are ineligible for subsidized food grains get undue
benefits. This inclusion error had increased to 37% in 2011-12 from the figures of 2004-05.

Increase in Inclusion Errors and & Decrease in Exclusion Errors – 2 Main  Reasons

1. Despite a decline in the poverty rate, non-poor are still identified as poor by the government
thus allowing them to continue using their PDS cards.
2. An increase in the coverage of the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) has reduced
the proportion of poor who do not have access to PDS cards. 

Challenges to Food Security in India

1. Beneficiaries have complained of receiving poor quality food grains.
2. Farmers receive Minimum Support Price (MSP) from the Government for crops such as
wheat, paddy, and sugarcane. The MSP is higher than the market price. There is very
minimum procurement of other crops by the Government at MSP. Due to this factor farmers
do not have the incentive to produce other crops such as pulses. This puts immense
pressure on the water table as the above crops are highly water-intensive.
3. Due to the possibility of increasing nutritional imbalance in food grains, the Government must
expand subsidies and include other protein-rich food items.
4. Under the National Food Security Act, the identification of beneficiaries is to be completed by
State Governments. As per the findings of the Comptroller and Auditor General in 2016, a
massive 49 % of the beneficiaries were yet to be identified by the State Governments.
5. The available storage capacity in states was inadequate for the allocated quantity of food
grains as per the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).

Solutions to Problems in Food Subsidy Delivery

The following solutions will help in addressing problems associated with PDS.

1. Replacing the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) with Direct Benefit Transfer
(DBT) of food subsidy. National Food Security Act (NFSA) states that the centre and states
should introduce schemes for cash transfers to beneficiaries. Cash transfers seek to
 increase the choices available with a beneficiary and provide financial assistance.  It has
been argued that the costs of DBT may be lesser than TPDS, owing to lesser costs incurred
on transport and storage.  These transfers may also be undertaken electronically. As per a
report given by a high-level committee of Food Corporation of India (FCI), DBT would reduce
Government subsidy bills by more than Rs 30,000 crores.
2. Automation at the Fair Price Shops is another important step taken to address the
problem in PDS. Currently, more than 4.3 lakh (82%) Fair Price Shops have been automated
across the country. Automation involves the installation of Point of Sale (PoS) devices, for
authentication of beneficiaries and electronic capturing of transactions. 
3. Aadhar and the introduction of Biometrics were recommended to plug leakages in PDS.
Such transfers could be linked to Jan Dhan accounts, and be indexed to inflation. It facilitates
the removal of bogus ration cards, checks leakages, and ensure better delivery of food
grains. In February 2017, the Ministry made it mandatory for beneficiaries under NFSA to
use Aadhaar as proof of identification for receiving food grains. 
4. 100% of ration cards had been digitized.
5. Between 2016 and 2018, the seeding of Aadhaar helped in the detection of 1.5 crores fake,
duplicate, and bogus ration cards, and these cards were deleted.
6. Increase the procurement undertaken by states known as Decentralised Procurement
(DCP), and reduce the expenditure on centralized procurement by the Food Corporation of
India (FCI). This would drastically reduce the transportation cost borne by the government as
states would distribute the food grains to the targeted population within their respective
states. As of December 2019,17 states have adopted decentralized procurement.
7. The Fair Price shops operate at very low margins as per the findings of the Government.
Hence the fair price shops should be allowed to sell even non-PDS items and make it
economically viable. This will motivate them not to resort to unfair practices in the distribution
of Government-subsidized food grains meant for beneficiaries of Government schemes.
8. Greater and more active involvement of the panchayats in the PDS can significantly improve
access at the village level.  
9. There is also an urgent need to set up a proper and effective grievances redressal system
for both the fair price shops as well as beneficiaries

International Organisations Ensuring Food Security

1. Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) – It was established in 1945. It is
headquartered in Rome, Italy. It is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads
international efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security. It is the oldest
existing agency of the United Nations.
2. World Food Programme (WFP)–  It is the world’s largest humanitarian organization
addressing hunger and promoting food security. It was established in 1961. It is
headquartered in Rome, Italy. It is a food assistance branch of the United Nations.
3. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) – It is an international financial
institution and a specialized agency of the United Nations that works to address poverty and
hunger in rural areas of developing countries. It is headquartered in Rome, Italy.
4. World Bank – It was established in 1944, it is headquartered in Washington.
 ENERGY RESOURCES

 The resources which are widely used and constitute the major source of energy

 Examples → Coal, Oil, Natural gas, Wood etc.

Conventional resources of Energy
 Limited, Non-renewable, Costly, Cause Pollution & Exhaustible

 Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Tidal Energy, Geothermal Energy, OTEC (Ocean thermal energy conversion) etc
Non-conventional resources
 Renewable, Cheap, Pollution free & Inexhaustible

Renewable sources of Energy

 Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Tidal Energy, Fish, Trees etc.

Non – Renewable sources of Energy

 Fossils (Coal, Gas), Minerals, Nuclear Power etc.

Biotic resources
 Which have life >> Forests, Crops, Animals, Coal & Mineral oil

Abiotic resources
 Land, Water, Minerals

  Ashok Chawla Committee on Natural Resources

 Creation of national database of natural resources
 Allocation of natural resources, if possible, through e-auction
 Measures for benefit of stakeholders in mineral rich areas
 
Need for conserving Conventional Energy Resources
 Are limited in supply and cannot be renewed easily.
 Due to population explosion, modernization and industrialization the
demand for energy resources is increasing day by day
 To control energy crisis there is need to conserve conventional energy
resources.
 There is also an eminent need to explore alternative sources of energy
 

Energy Crisis 
 A situation in which resources are less than the demand
 In the past few decades due to high demand, there is shortage of energy
resources, which has created energy crisis
 Major causes for Energy Crisis:
 Rapid Industrialization

 Over Population

 Transfer losses

 Rise in oil prices

 Problems in Middle east

 Wastage of energy resources

 

Coal
 Quality of coal is determined by its carbon content
 Major problems of Indian Coal -
 Low Carbon content

 High Ash content

 Low Calorific Value

 Major coal producing areas in India → Jharkhand > Odisha >
Chhattisgarh > West Bengal
 Chhota Nagpur Region   →   Hub of 90 % of Indian minerals (esp.in Coal
& Iron → Ruhr of India)

Major types of Coals

Anthracite 
 Best quality coal
 Approx. 90 % carbon content Bituminous
 Found at J & K only in India  70 – 90 % carbon content
 Very little smoke & ash content  Most common in India
 Burns without flames  Used in making coke

Lignite
Peat
 40 – 70 % carbon content
 1  transformation of wood into
st

 Known as brown coal  ~ 40 % carbon content

Coke
 Formed by destructive distillation of coke
 Heating of coal in the absence of oxygen to burn of volatile gases
 High in carbon content
 
 Petroleum / Mineral oil
 Found in sedimentary rocks of marine origin
 Formed by decomposition of tiny marine creatures, plants & vegetation
under mud, silt & sand
 Over the years, it underwent chemical changes to form crude oil & natural
gas under the action of heat & pressure
 20 % of India’s crude oil & gas demand is produced domestically & 80 %
is imported
 Jamnagar Refineries of Reliance industries is world largest refinery
complex
 

Natural Gas
 Mainly contains methane & found in association with mineral oil ( 75 %
lies in Bombay high & Bassein oil fields)
 Largest share of NG is as follows -
 40 % → Production of chemical fertilizers
 30 % → Power generation
 10 % → LPG (Cooking Gas)
 Conventional sources → Shale gas, Coal bed methane, Methane Hydrates, Tight sandstones
 

Bio-Fuels 
 Fuel derived from Non fossil plants
 In India, mainly centers around cultivation & processing of Jatropha plant seeds, used in
production of Bio – Diesel
 Encouraged only on wasteland / government / forest land

 Not allowed on fertile land

 To produce ethanol from sugarcane (Bio-ethanol)
 National Bio-fuel Policy – Targets minimum 20 % biofuel blending
(both bio-diesel and bio-ethanol) across the country by 2017
 

Electricity in India → Thermal > Hydro > Wind > Nuclear

Thermal Energy
 67 % of total energy production
 Generated by using fossil fuels (Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas)
 No Geological conditions required
 Limited reserves, Rising demands (cost) & non – ecofriendly
 Largest Producer → Maharashtra
 To boost Thermal power production gov. has promoted Ultra Mega
Power Projects (4000 MW & above)
 
Hydroelectricity
 18 % of total energy production
 Eco-friendly, Clean & Renewable
 Small hydel power projects < 25 MW
 Are counted under New renewable energy sources
 Largest Producer → Andhra Pradesh
 Central electricity authority (CEC) has estimated Hydel power potential
of 84000 MW at 60 % load factor from 39000 MW at present
 
Nuclear Energy
 26 % of total energy production
 Energy obtained from atomic minerals viz. Uranium, Thorium, zircon,
beryllium
 Provide colossal energy through a small quantity of substance
 Thorium → Found as monazite sand in lakes & sea beds
 Thorium → AP > TN > Kerala > Orissa constitutes 30 % of world
reserves
 Largest Producer → Tamil Nadu
 Very economical; does not produce green-house gases that pollute
atmosphere

Wind Energy
 Non-conventional Renewable source of energy
 5  largest installed wind power capacity in the world
th

 Largest Producer → Tamil Nadu

 High cost as compared to the efficiency of power generated
 Nagercoil (TN) and Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) are well known for effective
use of wind energy in the country
 
Solar Energy
 Non-conventional Renewable source of energy
 Thermal + Photovoltaic → Sunlight to energy
 High cost as compared to the efficiency of power generated
 India plans to add 20000 MW of solar energy by 2022 under Jawahar
Nehru National Solar Mission
 The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhavpur, near Bhuj, where
solar energy is used to sterilise milk cans.
 
Tidal Energy
 Non-conventional Renewable source of energy
 Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity.
 Floodgate dams are built across inlets
 During high tide water flows into the inlet and gets trapped when the gate
is closed.
 After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained by the
floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-
generating turbine.
 In India, the Gulf of Kutch, provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal
energy.
 Experimental plant (150 kw) at Vizinjam (Thiruvananthapuram) & 900
mw at Kutch
Geo Thermal Energy
 Refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the
interior of the Earth
 Exists because, the Earth grows progressively hotter with increasing depth
 Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot.
 It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into steam.
 This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.
 Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness
geothermal energy
 Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley,
Ladakh

Bio Gas
 Energy produced from organic waste such as farm waste, shrubs, animal
and human waste
 Converted into energy by direct combustion or by conversion of such
wastages into alcohol, methane, or other storage fuels
 Provides pollution-free energy
 Cheaper than most of the common fuels
 The residue can be used as manure
 Has higher thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene, cow dung, coal
and charcoal
 OTEC
 Ocean thermal energy conversion and uses the difference between cooler
deep and warmer shallow surface ocean waters to run a heat engine.
UNIT 4 – BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity can be defined as a community of all the living organisms on the earth and the diversity
among them from all the ecosystems. Biodiversity is thus the variability between the species, within
the species, and between the ecosystem.
The term biodiversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in the year 1986.
Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with nourishment, housing,
fuel, clothing, and several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits through tourism.
Therefore, it is very important to have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a sustainable livelihood

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity plays a major role in maintaining the ecological balance of the ecosystem. It refers to the
number of different species belonging to a particular region. In biodiversity, each species has a
major role to play in the ecosystem.
Ecological Role of Biodiversity
Apart from providing ecological balance to the environment, each species of biodiversity has a major
function to play in the ecosystem. They play a major role in the production and decomposition of
organic wastes, fixing atmospheric gases, and regulation of water and nutrients throughout the
ecosystem. The stability of the ecosystem increases with the diversity of the species.
Economical Role of Biodiversity
Biodiversity acts as a source of energy and has a major role in providing raw materials for industrial
products such as oils, lubricants, perfumes, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, etc.
The importance of plant species for various medicinal use has been known for ages. According to
reports, more than 70 % of the anti-cancer drugs are derived from plants in the tropical rainforests.
Scientific Role of Biodiversity
Each species of the ecosystem contributes to providing enough evidence as to how life evolved on
this planet and the role of each species in maintaining the sustainability of the ecosystem.

Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be categorized into three main types:

1. Genetic Diversity (Diversity within species)

2. Species Diversity (Diversity between species)
3. Ecosystem Diversity (Diversity between ecosystem)

Genetic Diversity
Every individual of a particular species differs from each other in its genetic makeup. This genetic
variability among the members of any plant or animal species is known as genetic diversity. When
two individuals are closely related, they share more genetic information and hence, are more similar.
Species Diversity
Species diversity can be defined as the variety of species within a particular region or habitat. This
type of diversity can be found in both the natural ecosystem and agricultural ecosystem.
There are more than 85,000 flowering plant species in tropical North and South America, tropical
and subtropical Asia has more than 50,000 flowering plants whereas, there are only 35,000
flowering plant species in tropical and subtropical Africa. But, Europe has around 11,300 vascular
plants. Also, other areas, such as salt flats or a polluted stream, have fewer species.
Ecosystem Diversity
There is a large diversity of different ecosystems that have distinctive species. This ecosystem
varies with each other as per their habitats and the difference in their species. This ecosystem
diversity can be found within a specific geographical region or a country or a state. This type of
diversity also includes forests, grasslands, deserts, and mountains.

Loss of Biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity is the decrease in the number of a particular species in a certain habitat. Loss of
biodiversity also leads to the extinction of the plant and animal species and this loss can be either
reversible or permanent.
Human activities have been the major cause of the loss of biodiversity which has led to sudden
changes in climate causing a big threat to biodiversity. There has also been an increased demand
for natural resources along with the growing population leading to greater waste generation.
Causes of Loss of Biodiversity
Some of the major causes that have resulted in the loss of biodiversity are mentioned below:

1. The natural habitat of the ecosystem plays a major role in maintaining the ecological
balance. Several trees are cut down every year for the construction of industries, highways,
settlement,s and so on to fulfill the human demands. As a result, the species become the
target of predation and eventually dies.
2. Hunting of the wild animals for commercialization of their products has been a major reason
for the loss of biodiversity. Since the year 2013, more than 90 rhinos were killed by the
poachers for their horns and as per the records of 2016, 9 Indian Rhinos have been killed in
Kaziranga National Park of Assam.
 3. The exploitation of the medicinal plants for several laboratory purposes has resulted in the
extinction of these species. Also, several animals are sacrificed for various research in
science and medicine.
4. Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, forest fires also lead to the loss of biodiversity.
5. Air pollution has a major role in the loss of biodiversity. Rapid cutting down of the trees has
resulted in the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leading to climate change. As a
result, there has been an increase in the land and ocean temperature leaving an inimical
impact on species.

Biodiversity of India
Biodiversity is referred to as the variation of plant and animal species in a
particular habitat. Species evenness and species richness form the major components
of biodiversity.
India is known for its rich biodiversity and has 23.39% of the geographical
area covered by forests and trees.

Biodiversity Hotspots

 Biodiversity hotspots are defined as regions “where exceptional concentrations of

endemic species are undergoing an exceptional loss of habitat”.
 Biodiversity hotspots are regions with high species richness and a high degree of
endemism.
 The concept of biodiversity hotspots was developed by the Norman Myers in
1988 when he identified that the tropical forest losing its plants species as well as
habitat.
 IUCN prepares ‘Red Data Book’. There are 36 areas around the world that are
qualified as Biodiversity hotspots. These hotspots represent only 2.3% of the total
Earth’s land surface,  yet more than 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all
terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to these areas.
These hotspots are important because Biodiversity underpins all life on Earth.
Without species, there would be no air to breathe, no food to eat, no water to drink.
There would be no human society at all. And as the places on Earth, where the most
biodiversity is under the most threat, hotspots are critical to human survival.

Criteria to qualify as a Biodiversity Hotspot

According to Conservation International, a region must fulfill the following two
criteria to qualify as a hotspot:
1. It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics which are to say, it must have
a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other
words, is irreplaceable.
2. It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation (It has to have lost at
least 70% of its original habitat). In other words, it must be threatened.
Biodiversity hotspots in India
There are major four biodiversity hotspots in India:
1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan,
Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar).
 2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman
group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern
China)
3. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
4. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, Philippines).
Eastern Himalayas, which was originally part of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity
Hotspot and included Bhutan, north-eastern India, and southern, central, and eastern
Nepal.
In 2004, a hotspot reappraisal classified the region as part of two hotspots: Indo-Burma
and the newly distinguished Himalaya.
Hottest Hotspots in the world
1. Indo – Burma region
2. Sundaland
3. Philippines
4. Western Ghats & Srilanka
5. Madagascar
6. Eastern arc & coastal forests of Tanzania/Kenya
7. Caribbean island
8. Brazil’s Atlantic forests

Hope spots
 A Hope Spot is an area of the ocean that merits special protection because of its
wildlife and significant underwater habitats.
 Andaman and Nicobar & Lakshadweep Islands have been named as the new
“hope spots” by IUCN and Mission Blue, an organization involved in the study of
oceans.
 Andamans & Nicobar Island has some of the world’s unique species of birds
and plants.
 In the case of Lakshadweep, the coral reefs are quite sensitive to the ocean
environment and that needs protection.
Cool-Spots
 ‘Cool-spots’ are the world’s last refuges where high numbers of threatened
species still persist.
 Cool-spots could be the result of protection or because of intact habitat that has not
been cleared yet.
 All cold spots would benefit from higher levels of protection, conservation
management, and restoration. 

 ndia is recognized as one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in

biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge.
 India has 23.39% of its geographical area under forest and tree cover.
 With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the
recorded species even while supporting almost 18% of the human
population.
 In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in
birds and fifth in reptiles.
 In terms of endemism of vertebrate groups, India’s position is tenth in
birds with 69 species, fifth in reptiles with 156 species and seventh in
amphibians with 110 species.
 India’s share of crops is 44% as compared to the world average of 11%.
 India Represents

 Two ‘Realms’
 Five Biomes
 Ten Bio-geographic Zones
 Twenty-five Bio-geographic provinces

Realms

 Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions within which ecosystems

share a broadly similar biota.
 A realm is a continent or sub-continent sized area with unifying features of
geography and fauna & flora.
 The Indian region is composed of two realms. They are:

1. the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm and

2. the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan Realm

 In world, Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are typically recognised.

They are

1. Nearctic Realm
2. Palaearctic Realm
3. Africotropical Realm
4. Indomalayan Realm
5. Ocenaia Realm
6. Australian Realm
7. Antarctic Realm
8. Neotropical Realm

Biomes of India

 The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living in

areas of certain climate patterns.
 It includes the way in which animals, vegetation and soil interact together.
The plants and animals of that area have adapted to that environment.
The five biomes of India are:

1. Tropical Humid Forests

2. Tropical Dry or Deciduous Forests (including Monsoon Forests)
3. Warm deserts and semi-deserts
4. Coniferous forests and
5. Alpine meadows.

Bio-geographic Zones

 Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and

animals.
 Biogeographic zones were used as a basis for planning wildlife
protected areas in India.
 There are 10 biogeographic zones which are distinguished clearly in India.
They are as follows:

1. Trans-Himalayas
2. Himalayas
3. Desert
4. Semi-arid
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Peninsula
7. Gangetic plain
8. North-east India
9. Islands
10. Coasts

Bio-geographic provinces

 Bio-geographic Province is an ecosystematic or biotic subdivision of

realms.
 India is divided into 25 bio geographic zones.

Biogeographic Zones Biogeographic Provinces (25)

(10)

1. 1A: Himalaya – Ladakh Mountains

1. Trans Himalaya 2. 1B: Himalaya – Tibetan Plateau
3. 1C: Trans – Himalaya Sikkim

1. 2A: Himalaya – North West Himalaya

2. 2B: Himalaya – West Himalaya
1. The Himalaya
3. 2C: Himalaya – Central Himalaya
4. 2D: Himalaya – East Himalaya

1. 3A: Desert – Thar

1. The Indian Desert
2. 3B: Desert – Kutch

1. 4A: Semi-Arid – Punjab Plains

1. The Semi-Arid
2. 4B: Semi-Arid – Gujarat Rajputana

1. 5A: Western Ghats – Malabar Plains

1. The Western Ghats 2. 5B: Western Ghats – Western Ghats
Mountains

1. 6A: Deccan Peninsular – Central Highlands

2. 6B: Deccan Peninsular – Chotta Nagpur
1. The Deccan
3. 6C: Deccan Peninsular – Eastern Highlands
Peninsula
4. 6D: Deccan Peninsular – Central Plateau
5. 6E: Deccan Peninsular – Deccan South

1. 7A: Gangetic Plain – Upper Gangetic Plains

1. The Gangetic Plains
2. 7B: Gangetic Plain – Lower Gangetic Plains

1. 8A: Coasts – West Coast

1. The Coasts 2. 8B: Coasts – East Coast
3. 8C: Coasts – Lakshadweep
 1. 9A: North-East – Brahmaputra Valley
1. Northeast India
2. 9B: North-East – North East Hills

1. 10A: Islands – Andaman
1. Islands
2. 10B: Islands – Nicobars

Wildlife Diversity of India

Himalayan mountain system

 The west Himalayas have low rainfall, heavy snowfall (temperate

conditions).
 In the east Himalayas, there is heavy rainfall, snowfall only at very high
altitudes.
 Lower altitudes conditions are similar to the tropical rain forests.

Himalayan foothills

 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dominant

species are sal, silk-cotton trees, giant bamboos; tall grassy meadow with
savannahs in terai.
 Fauna: Elephant, sambar, swamp deer, cheetal, hog deer, barking deer,
wild boar tiger, panther, hyena, black bear, sloth bear, Great Indian one-
horned rhinoceros, wild buffalo, Gangetic gharial, golden langur.

Western Himalayas (High altitude region)

 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen

forests; rhododendrons; dwarf hill bamboo and birch forests mixed with
alpine pastures.
 Fauna: Tibetan wild ass (kiang) (Don’t confuse this with Asiatic wild ass
which in found in Kutch region), wild goats (thar, ibex) and blue sheep;
antelopes (Chiru and Tibetan gazelle), deers (hangul of Kashmir stag and
shou or Sikkim stag, musk deer); golden eagle, snow cocks, snow
 partridges; snow leopard, black and brown bears; birds like Griffon
vultures.

Peninsular – Indian sub-region

 It has two zones.

1. peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of the Ganges
river system, and
2. desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of Indian desert region.

Peninsular India

 It is home to tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous and scrub

vegetation depending upon the variation in rainfall and humidity.
 Flora: Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall) and teak in southern
plateau are dominant trees.
 West Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna similar to
evergreen rainforests of northeastern of India. In dry areas of Rajasthan and
Aravalli hills, trees are scattered, and thorny scrub species predominate. The
forests give way to more open savannah habit.
 Fauna: Elephant, wild boar, deers (cheetal or axis deer), hog deer
swamp deer or barasinga, sambar, muntjak or barking deer, antelopes
(four-horned antelope, Nilgiri, blackbuck, chinkara gazelle), wild dog or
dhole, tiger, leopard, cheetah, lion, wild pig, monkey, striped hyena,
jackal, gaur.

Indian desert

 Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique flora and fauna.

 Flora: Thorny trees with reduced leaves; cacti, other succulents are the main
plants.
 Fauna: Animals are mostly burrowing ones. Among mammals’ rodents are
the largest group.
 The Indian desert gerbils are mouse-like, rodents, other animals
are, Asiatic wild ass, black buck, desert cat, caracal, red fox;
reptiles (snakes, lizards and tortoise) well represented.
 Desert lizards include agamids and geckos. Among birds, the most
discussed is Great Indian Bustard.

Tropical rain forest region

 Distributed in areas of Western Ghats and northeast India.

 Flora: Extensive grasslands interspersed with densely forested gorges of
evergreen vegetation known as sholas occur in the Nilgiris (an offshoot of
Western Ghats). Sholas also occur in Annamalai and Palani hills.
 The rain forests of the Western Ghats have dense and lofty trees with much
species diversity. Mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, herbs,
shrubs make diverse habitat. Ebony trees predominate in these forests.
 Fauna: It is very rich with all kinds of animals. There are wild elephants,
gaur and other larger animals.
 Most species are tree dwellers. The most prominent are hoolock
gibbon (only ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or leaf
monkey, Assam macaque and the pig-tailed macaque, lion-tailed
macaque, Nilgiri langur slender loris, bats, giant squirrel, civets, flying
squirrels, Nilgiri mongoose, spiny mouse.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

 Flora: These are home for tropical rain forests. Mangroves are distributed in

the coastal areas.
 Fauna: Among mammals, bats and rats; Andaman pig, crab-eating
macaque, palm civet and deers (spotted deer, barking deer, hog deer,
sambar).
 Among marine mammals, there are dugong, false killer whale, dolphin.
 Among birds are rare one is Narcondum hornbill, white-bellied sea-
eagle.
 Salt-water crocodile, a number of marine turtles, coconut crab, lizards
(the largest being water monitor), 40 species of snakes including cobra, viper,
voral and sea snake, python, etc. are present.
Mangrove swamps of Sundarbans

 Sunderbans are the delta of the Ganges where both the Brahmaputra and
the Ganges join and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
 Flora: Various species of mangroves.
 Fauna. In the higher regions of mangroves, there are spotted deer, pigs,
monitor lizard, monkeys. The most interesting animal of Sunderbans is
the Royal Bengal Tiger.

Biodiversity Hotspots

 Biodiversity hotspots are regions with high species richness and a high

degree of endemism.
 The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term “biodiversity hotspot”
in 1988 as a biogeographic region characterized both by exceptional levels
of plant endemism and by serious levels of habitat loss.
 Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers’ hotspots and in 1996, the
organization made the decision to undertake a reassessment of the hotspots
concept.
 According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot a region must meet two strict
criteria:

1. It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the
world’s total) as endemics – which is to say, it must have a high
percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in
other words, is irreplaceable.
2. It has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. (It must
have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation). In other words, it
must be threatened.

 In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity hotspots in the book “Hotspots:

Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”.
 In 2005 CI published an updated titled “Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s
Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”.
 The 35 biodiversity hotspots cover 2.3% of the Earth’s land surface, yet
more than 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial
vertebrate species are endemic to these areas.
 In 2011, the Forests of East Australia region was identified as the 35th
biodiversity hotspot.

Biodiversity hotspots in India

1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling

in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar).
2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and
Andaman group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia and southern China)
3. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri
Lanka).
4. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei, Philippines).
Eastern Himalayas, which was originally part of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity
Hotspot and included Bhutan, north-eastern India and southern, central and
eastern Nepal.

In 2004, a hotspot reappraisal classified the region as part of two hotspots: Indo-

Burma and the newly distinguished Himalaya.
 UNIT – V
DISASTER MANAGEMENT

What is a Disaster?
A disaster is defined as a disruption on a massive scale, either natural or man-made, occurring in
short or long periods. Disasters can lead to human, material, economic or environmental hardships,
which can be beyond the bearable capacity of the affected society. As per statistics, India as a whole
is vulnerable to 30 different types of disasters that will affect the economic, social, and human
development potential to such an extent that it will have long-term effects on productivity and macro-
economic performance.
The various disaster-prone zones in India can be inferred from the map below:
Disasters can be classified into the following categories:

 Water and Climate Disaster: Flood, hail storms, cloudburst, cyclones, heat waves, cold
waves, droughts, hurricanes. (Read about Cyclone Disaster Management separately at the
linked article.)
 Geological Disaster: Landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes
 Biological Disaster: Viral epidemics, pest attacks, cattle epidemic, and locust plagues
 Industrial Disaster: Chemical and industrial accidents, mine shaft fires, oil spills,
 Nuclear Disasters: Nuclear core meltdowns, radiation poisoning
 Man-made disasters: Urban and forest fires, oil spill, the collapse of huge building
structures

What is Disaster Management?

The Disaster Management Act of 2005 defines Disaster Management as an integrated process of
planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary for-

1. Prevention of threat of any disaster

2. Reduction of risk of any disaster or its consequences
3. Readiness to deal with any disaster
4. Promptness in dealing with a disaster
5. Assessing the severity of the effects of any disaster
6. Rescue and relief
7. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction

Agencies involved in Disaster Management

 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):- The National Disaster Management

Authority, or the NDMA, is an apex body for disaster management, headed by the Prime
Minister of India. It is responsible for the supervision, direction, and control of the National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF).
 National Executive Committee (NEC):- The NEC is composed of high profile ministerial
members from the government of India that include the Union Home Secretary as
Chairperson, and the Secretaries to the Government of India (GoI)like
Ministries/Departments of Agriculture, Atomic Energy, Defence, Drinking Water Supply,
Environment and Forests, etc. The NEC prepares the National Plan for Disaster
Management as per the National Policy on Disaster Management.
 State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA):- The Chief Minister of the respective state
is the head of the SDMA.The State Government has a State Executive Committee (SEC)
which assists the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) on Disaster Management.
 District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA):- The DDMA is headed by the District
Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Magistrate depending on the situation, with the
elected representatives of the local authority as the Co-Chairperson. The DDMA ensures
that the guidelines framed by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all the departments
of the State Government at the District level and the local authorities in the District.
 Local Authorities:- Local authorities would include Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI),
Municipalities, District and Cantonment 11 Institutional and Legal Arrangements Boards, and
Town Planning Authorities which control and manage civic services.
 EARTHQUAKE

What is an Earthquake?
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of Earth due to the sudden release of energy in the
Earth’s crust, as a result, seismic waves (also known as S waves)are created. The seismic activities
in an area determine the type and intensity of the earthquake.

What Causes an Earthquake?

Earthquakes are caused due to sudden tectonic movements in the earth’s crust. When the tectonic
plates slide over one another, there is a cause of orogeny which results in earthquakes and
volcanoes. These disturbances cause vibrations that spread in all directions. As there is a relative
motion of these plates, there is stress built up, which breaks by releasing the stored energy known
as shock waves.
To learn about the project on disaster management of class 9, below is the link:

 How to make a Volcano

What to do During an Earthquake?

Before the disaster:

 Connections of gas lines and appliances must be made flexible.
 An earthquake readiness plan must be kept ready, including locating a shelter house,
canned food and up to date first aid kit, gallons of water, dust masks, goggles, firefighting
equipment, a torch, and a working battery-operated radio.
 Architects and structural engineers must be consulted before laying the foundation of
buildings in earthquake-prone areas, also the building must be manufactured as per the
rules and regulations laid by the disaster management committee.
 Awareness must be spread among friends and family members about the above-mentioned
measures.

Do’s and Dont’s:

 One must stay indoors until the shaking stops and it’s officially announced that it is safe to
exit.
 One must stay away from bookcases, furniture, and heavy appliances that may fall.
 The shelter must be under a table or bed, and hold on to a post or any other fixture.
 If one is outdoors, the shelter must be taken in a clear stop away from buildings, trees, and
power lines.

After the disaster:

The following are the measures that must be undertaken after the calamity is over.
  First aid kits must be used to tend to persons with minor injuries such as bleeding and
bruises. Whereas seriously injured individuals must not be moved until they are out of
danger and proper medical help has arrived.
 If the person is not breathing, rescue breathing must be administered. If the person has no
pulse, CPR must be given.
 Tumbling shelves and falling items must be taken care of and damaged walls made of bricks
must be avoided.
 Main gas valves must be checked for leaks. The main power switch must be turned off if
there is a possibility of damage. Broken appliances must be unplugged until the damage is
repaired.
 One must stay away from downed power lines and any object or appliance in contact with it.

What are the Effects of an Earthquake?

Following are the effects of the earthquake:

 Ground shaking: Surface waves that are near the epicenter are responsible for the
earthquake. The intensity of ground shaking depends on the duration, local geology, and
distance.
 Damage to a man-made structure.
 An outbreak of fire and spilling of hazardous chemicals.

What is the difference between seismograph and Richter scale?

Following is the table explaining the difference between seismograph and Richter scale:

Seismograph Richter scale

Used for indicating the intensity of an

Used for measuring and recording the vibrations of earthquakes 
earthquake

Used for measuring the motions related to the ground like seismic Used for quantifying the energy that is
waves resulting in an earthquake and volcanic eruptions released during an earthquake

FLOODS
 A high water level that overflows the natural banks along any portion of a stream
is called a flood. Thus, Floods are commonly associated with a stream or river.
 A stream floods when its discharge is greater than the capacity of its river
channel. Excess water flows over the river banks and submerges the adjacent land
which is usually dry. When it happens, the channel and the flood plain together allow
passage of water.
  Floods and Droughts on one hand are cumulative hazards. On the other hand, due
to the peculiar nature of the Indian monsoon floods and droughts may affect different
pockets of the country at the same time of a year. Thus, floods can be seasonal, and
sometimes flash floods also occur.
Causes of Floods

Unlike other natural disasters, the causes of floods are well established. They are
relatively slow in occurrences and often occur in well-identified regions and within
expected time in a year. There are many causes of floods. Some of the Important
causes of floods are:
Natural Causes
 Heavy rainfall and cloud bursts – Heavy concentrated rainfall reduces the capacity of
rivers to accept any more surface run–offs due to rainfall and as result water spills over
to adjoining areas. Clod bursts are basically thunderstorms which yield very heavy rains
(>50 – 100 cm within few hours). All of these can cause extensive damage within short
span of time.
 Heavy melting of ice and snow,
 Changes in river systems and large catchment areas,
 Sediment deposition/Silting of river beds,
 The collapse of dams,
 Transgression of sea at the occasion of tropical cyclone, and
 Tsunami in coastal areas and landslides in course of rivers
Man-made/Anthropogenic causes
Unlike other natural disasters, human beings play an important role in the genesis as
well as spread of floods.
 Deforestation – It leads to soil erosion and Landslides. It is responsible for the loss of
vegetation and soils which holds down the soil that acts as a sponge and absorbs most
of the water when it rains. It also leads to silting of river beds.
 Unscientific use of land utilization and bad farming practices – Some farmers have
caused soil and water to flush into the rivers by leaving fields bare. Even choosing the
wrong direction to plough in can cause floods.
  Increased Urbanisation – It has reduced the ability of the land to absorb rainfall
through the introduction of hard impermeable surfaces. This results in an increase in the
volume and rate of surface run-off as less water infiltrates into the ground.
Consequences of Floods

Though floods are temporary inundation, they cause extensive damage as the
frequency, intensity, and magnitude of floods are increasing day by day. Floods cause
more damage than any other single disaster now a day.
 Floods are taking thousands of lives and loss of property every year.
 The crops get adversely affected by the temporary loss of the agricultural season and
fertile soil cover.
 It leads to changes in habitats, destruction of habitats, and loss of animals due to
drowning.
 Disruption of the lines of rail, road communication, and essential services creating great
problems for the movements of people and goods.
 Spread of water-borne and infectious diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, etc.
immediately after floods.
 Positive consequences – Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every year
floods to deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields which are good for the crops. It also
recharges the groundwater table.
Flood distribution in India

 Floods have been a recurrent phenomenon in India and cause huge losses to lives,
properties, livelihood systems, infrastructure, and public utilities. India’s high-risk
vulnerability is highlighted by the fact that 40 million hectares out of the geographical
area of 3290 lakh hectares are prone to floods, which is 12%.
 State-wise study shows that about 27% of the flood damage in the country is in Bihar,
33% in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and 15% by Punjab and Haryana.
 The major flood areas in India are in the Ganges – Brahmaputra – Meghna Basin which
accounts for nearly 60% of the total river flow of the country.
 Distribution of flood plains –
 Brahmaputra River Region
 Ganga River Region
 North – West River Region
 Central and Deccan India
 The middle and lower courses of North Indian rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra,
Kosi, Damodar, Mahanadi, etc. Are prone to floods due to very low gradient. The flat
plains do not have enough gradients for the outlet of drainage.
 Peninsular rivers are mature and have hard rock beds, so they have shallow basins.
This makes them prone to flooding.
 Parts of the Eastern coasts of India are particularly prone to cyclones during October –
November. These cyclones are accompanied by strong winds, storm surges, tidal
waves, and torrential rains.
Flood Control Management

The central and State Government have taken the following steps to reduce the
menace of floods:-
Flood Forecasting-
 It involves giving prior information regarding the occurrence of floods. It is of immense
help in taking timely action to reduce the loss of human lives, livestock, and movable
properties. The central water commission started flood forecasting in November 1985,
 when the first flood forecasting station was established near the old railway bridge of
Delhi.
 At present, there are 175 flood forecasting stations on various rivers in the country. The
flood forecasting network covers the flood-prone states and UTs where the station
issues daily flood warnings throughout the flood season from May to October.
Reduction in Run-Off-
 It is one of the very effective methods of flood control. Runoff can be reduced by
inducing and increasing infiltration of the surface water into the ground in the catchment
areas. This can be done by large scale afforestation, especially in the upper catchment
areas.
Construction of Dams-
 Dams and multi-purpose projects are being constructed across the rivers to store the
surplus water in the reservoirs. A number of such reservoirs were constructed during the
1st Five-year plan. In the subsequent plans also, many dams have been constructed to
reduce the run-off and to store and release water under controlled conditions.
Channel Improvements and Construction of Embankments-
 The channels of the rivers more prone to flood are improved by deepening and
widening. The water of those rivers is also diverted into canals.
 The central and state governments have constructed a number of embankments along
the rivers to reduce the menace of floods. Such embankments have been constructed
along the Brahmaputra, Krishna, Godavari, Gandak, Kosi, and Narmada, Tapi, son,
satluj, and their tributaries.
Flood Plain Zoning –
 It is also an important step to control floods which are based on information regarding
flood plains, particularly the identification of floodways in relation to land use.
NDMA Guidelines for Flood Management

STRUCTURAL NON – STRUCTURAL

Reservoirs, dams, other water storages Flood plain zoning

Embankments/flood walls Flood proofing

Drainage improvement Flood management plans

Desilting/ dredging of rivers Integrated watershed management

Diversion of flood water

Afforestation/ catchment area treatment

Government Programmes for Flood management

 In addition to the steps given above, legislative measures are taken to restrict the
construction of industrial and residential units in flood-prone areas. The construction of
buildings, factories, houses in the zones adjacent to river channels should be prohibited.
The areas occasionally flooded should be under green belts and social forestry should
be encouraged in the flood plain.
 National Flood Control Management Programme, 1954
 At the national level, the first policy statement on flood control in India was
established on 3 September 1954. This policy statement envisaged 3 types of flood
control measures, namely, Intermediate, short and long term.
 National Hydrology Project, 2016
 It is a central sector scheme with 50% of the outlay amount received from the
World Bank loan. This project gathers hydro-meteorological data which will be stored
and analyzed on a real-time basis and can be seamlessly accessed by any user at
the State/District/Village level.

Mitigation (Post – Flood Management)

 Rescue Operations
  Speedy restoration of the transport system
 Supply of safe drinking water
 Repair of power, telephone, and sewerage lines
 Supply of food, shelter, and clothing
 Survey to assess the loss and compensation
 Rehabilitation of properties
 Desilting and dewatering of inundated areas
 Contingency Plan for the agriculture sector

CYCLONES

A Brief About Cyclones

The storms caused by wind blowing around the low-pressure areas are called cyclones. Similarly,
storms around the high-pressure areas are called anticyclones. There are types of cyclones:
1. Tropical Cyclone

 The storms that originate over a warm tropical ocean are termed as tropical cyclones.
 Low atmospheric pressure, high winds and heavy rainfall are characteristics of these types of
cyclones.
 Parts of the Atlantic region, pacific ocean, Indian ocean witness tropical cyclones affecting
Gulf Coast of North America, northwestern Australia, and eastern India and Bangladesh
along with other areas.
To know how tropical cyclones are formed, what are their characteristics; read the linked article.
2. Temperate Cyclone

 These are storms that occur outside the tropics.

 These are referred to as extratropical cyclones. Other names are frontal cyclones and wave
cyclones.
 They occur in polar regions, temperate and high latitudes.

Cyclones in India
India witnesses cyclones in the North Indian Ocean Cyclone Season usually between April and
November. The Indian coastline length is around 7516 km and it is noted that 5770 km of coastline is
vulnerable to natural hazards including cyclones. The east coast of India is more prone to cyclones
than the western coast.
In Indian History, there have been various cyclones that made headlines due to their effect on the
country.
The list of some important cyclones of India is given below:
1. Bhola Cyclone – 1970

 It struck Bangladesh (Then, East Pakistan) and West Bengal in 1970.

  It was the strongest cyclone of the 1970 North Indian Ocean Cyclone Season.
 It is considered as the deadliest cyclone causing around 3-5 lakh deaths.
2. Odisha Cyclone – 1999

 It was a very severe cyclonic storm that struck Thailand, Bangladesh, Myanmar and India.
 As the name suggests, Odisha was the most affected Indian state.
 According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)’s data, around 9887 people lost
their lives in this cyclone.
3. Cyclone Fani – 2019

 After the Odisha Cyclone 1999, it was the second strongest cyclone to strike Odisha.
A detailed description of the Cyclone Fani was taken up in the In-Depth discussion of Rajya Sabha
TV, which is given in a brief in the linked article.
4. Cyclone Amphan – 2020

 It was a super tropical cyclone that affected Indian states of West Bengal and Odisha; and
Bangladesh.
 It originated in the Bay of Bengal in May 2020.
 It is noted to be the costliest tropical cyclone on record in the North Indian Ocean costing Rs.
1.03 crores economic loss.
Read in detail about the characteristics of Cyclone Amphan in the linked article.
5. Cyclone Nisarga – 2020

 It was a severe cyclonic storm that formed over the Arabian Sea.
 Maharashtra and Gujarat were the Indian states that were affected by this cyclonic storm.
Read about the formation and characteristics of Cyclone Nisarga at the linked article.
6. Cyclone Nivar – 2020

 It was a severe cyclonic storm that affected Tamil Nadu and Puducherry in November 2020.
 There was no loss of life but damaged horticultural crops in about 23000 acres.
The important facts about Cyclone Nivar are mentioned in detail in the linked article.
7. Cyclone Burevi – 2020

 It is a cyclonic storm that affected Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India.

 It followed the Nivar Cyclone and originated in the southwest region of Bay of Bengal, in
December 2020.

Cyclone Disaster Management

The above-mentioned data signifies the importance of cyclone disaster management in India to
mitigate personal and economic losses.
Mitigation Measures
The mitigation measures as proposed by the UN-HABITAT are given below:
 1. Hazard Mapping – It suggests that using hazard mapping, one can predict the vulnerable
areas affected by the storms. It maps the pattern of old cyclones using their wind speed,
areas affected, flooding frequency etc.
2. Land use planning – With the effective implementation of land use planning, the key
activities and settlements can be avoided in the most vulnerable areas. For example, a
settlement in the floodplains is at utmost risk. Hence, authorities should plan ahead to avoid
such risks.
3. Engineered Structures – These structures withstand the wind forces and prove to mitigate
the losses. The public infrastructure of the country should be designed keeping in mind the
hazard mapping of the cyclone.
4. Retrofitting Non-Engineered Structures – The settlements in non-engineered structures
should ensure that they are aware of their houses’ resistance to the wind or certain
disastrous weather conditions. A few examples of retrofitting the non-engineered structures
given by UN-HABITAT are:

o Construction of a steep-slope roof to avoid the risk of being blown away.

o Anchoring strong posts with solid footings on the ground.
o Plantations of trees at a safe distance from the house to help break the wind forces.
o Repair of the shelters before time.
 Cyclone Sheltering – At national, state and regional level, the construction of
cyclone shelters should be taken up to help the vulnerable community from cyclones.
The shelters should be built considering the population density, transportation and
communication, distance from the affected areas of the past, and the areas’
topography.
 Flood Management – As the cyclonic storms lead to heavy rainfall that further lead
to flooding in various areas; important should be given to the flood management. The
drainage systems should be well-designed to mitigate flooding. The participation both
from the government and the local community is required for this. (Read
about Floods in the linked article.)
 Vegetation Cover Improvement – To increase the water infiltration capacity,
improving vegetation cover is of high importance. Planting trees in rows, coastal
shelterbelt plantations, mangrove shelterbelt plantations, etc can help break the wind
force and mitigate the severe losses.
 Mangrove Plantation – The ecologically-efficient mangroves should be planted
more. India has 3 per cent of the world’s mangroves cover. The root systems of
mangroves help in mitigating tsunamis, soil erosion etc. (Read about important facts,
the significance of Mangroves in the linked article.)
 Saline Embankment – Along the coast, saline embankments help protect habitation,
agricultural crops, and other important installations.
 Levees – They act as an obstruction to the wind forces and also provide a shelter
during floods. (Learn about important terms related to rivers in the linked article.)
 Artificial Hills – These act as the refuge during flooding, and should be taken up in
the right areas.
 Awareness of the public – The participation of the community increases with the
number of public awareness initiatives. The governments at all levels should initiate
programs bringing awareness about the natural calamities and making provisions for
higher local participation in the mitigation process.

India’s Cyclone Disaster Management Initiatives

Let us read about a few governmental initiatives for cyclone management in India:

1. National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project

o India initiated this project to undertake structural and non-structural measures to

mitigate the cyclone’s effects.
o It is designed for coastal states and UTs of India.
o The aim of the project is to protect the vulnerable local communities from the impact
of cyclones and other hydro-meteorological calamities.
o The phase 1 of the project spans from 2015-2020.
o The World Bank is providing financial assistance for this project.
o It is being implemented by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA.)
 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project
o In August 2019, a draft of Environmental and Social Management Framework
(ESMF) for integrated coastal management was released by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC.)
o It aims to bring a comprehensive plan to manage coastal areas.
 Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) – The CRZ Notification 2018 and 2019 bring new
reforms w.r.t sustainable development of coastal areas. Read in detail about
the Coastal Regulation Zones in the linked article.
 IMD’s Colour Coding of Cyclones
o It is a weather warning that is issued by the IMD to aware people ahead of natural
hazards.
o The four colours used by IMD are Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red.

LANDSLIDES
Landslide in India and NDMA guidelines

India has the highest mountain chain on earth, the Himalayas, which are formed
due to collision of Indian and Eurasian plate, the northward movement of the
Indian plate towards China causes continuous stress on the rocks rendering them
friable, weak and prone to landslides and earthquakes.

 The slow-motion of the Indian crust, about 5 cm/year accumulates stress to which
natural disasters are attributed. Some landslides make unique and unparalleled
catastrophes. Landslides and avalanches are among the major hydro-geological
hazards that affect large parts of India besides the Himalayas, the Northeastern hill
ranges, the Western Ghats, the Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyans, in
that order, covering about 15 % of the landmass The Himalayas alone count for
landslides of every fame, name and description- big and small, quick and creeping,
 ancient and new. The Northeastern region is badly affected by landslide problems
of a bewildering variety. Landslides in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal as
also those in Sikkim, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland and
Arunachal Pradesh pose chronic problems, causing recurring economic losses
worth billions of rupees. A different variety of landslides, characterized by a
lateritic cap, pose a constant threat to the Western Ghats in the South, along the
steep slopes overlooking the Konkan coast besides Nilgiris, which is highly
landslide-prone.

Concerns

 Frequency of damaging landslides

 Loss assessment.
 Mitigation methods used.
 A number of buildings being built on land at risk.
 Land subject to landslide activity being set aside/purchased.
 The awareness level of the community.
Challenges

 Technical/Scientific: Integrating landslide concerns in the development of

disaster management plans at different levels i.e., national, state, district,
municipal/panchayat.
 Financial Issues: Criteria for disbursement of funds for servicing different
areas of landslide mitigation.
 Legal Issues: I) Techno-legal regime for the introduction of sound slope
protection, planned urbanization, regulated land use and environment-friendly land
management practices.
1. ii) Zero tolerance against deliberate environmental violence and unhealthy
construction practices.
How landslide mitigation can be done?

1. By restricting or even removing the population from landslides prone areas.

2. By restricting certain types of land use where slopes are vulnerable.
3. By installing early warning systems based on the monitoring of ground
conditions such as strain in rocks and soils, slope displacement, and groundwater
levels.

NDMA guidelines on Landslides and Snow Avalanches

The main objectives of the NDMA guidelines are to institutionalize the landslide
hazard mitigation efforts, to make society aware of the various aspects of landslide
hazard in the country and to prepare the society to take suitable action to reduce
both risks and costs associated with this hazard. The recommendations include:

 Continuously updating the inventory of landslide incidences affecting the

country.
 Landslide hazard zonation mapping in macro and meso scales after
consultation with the Border Road Organization, State government and local
communities.
 Pilot projects to be taken up in different regions of the country to carry out
detailed studies and monitoring of selected landslides to assess their stability status
and estimate risk.
 Setting pace setter examples for stabilisation of slides and also setting up
early warning systems depending on the risk evaluation and cost-benefit ratio. v)
 Complete site-specific studies of major landslides and plan treatment
measures and encourage state governments to continue these measures.
 Setting up of institutional mechanisms for generating awareness and
preparedness about landslide hazard among various stakeholders.
 Enhancing landslide education, training of professionals and capacity
development of organisations working in the field of landslide management.
 Capacity development and training to make the response regime more
effective.
 Development of new codes and guidelines on landslide studies and revision
of existing ones.
 Establishment of an autonomous national centre for landslide research,
studies and management.
 CONSERVATION LAWS

National Environmental Legislation

 Our constitution, originally, did not contain any direct provision regarding

the protection of natural environment.
 However, after the United Nations Conference on Human Environment,
held in Stockholm in 1972, Indian constitution was amended to
include protection of the environment as a constitutional mandate.
 Environment related legislation came very late in 1972 with Wild
Life Protection Act 1971.
 The forty second amendment (Fundamental Duties) Clause (g) to Article
51A of the Indian constitution made it a fundamental duty to protect and
improve the natural environment.
 Clause (g) to Article 51A of the Indian constitution states “It shall be the
duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and have compassion for living
creatures.”
 There is a directive, given to the State as one of the Directive Principles of
State Policy regarding the protection and improvement of the environment.
 Article 48A states “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”.
 Article 21 of the Indian Constitution assures the citizens of India
the right to a healthy environment.
 The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to
ensure a healthy environment for the country. This later became the Ministry
of Environment and Forests (MoEF) in 1985.
 The Environment Protection Act of 1986 (EPA) came into force soon
after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered umbrella legislation as it
fills many lacunae in the existing legislations.

Pollution Related Laws

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and

Amendment, 1988

Some important provisions of this Act are given below:

 The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards to

establish and enforce effluent standards for factories.
 A Central Pollution Control Board performs the same functions for Union
Territories and formulate policies and coordinates activities of different State
Boards.
 The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the
sample for the purpose of analysis.
 Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved
through criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
 The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a
defaulting industrial plant.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977

 The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial resources to meet
expenses of the Central and State Pollution Boards.
 The Act creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires local
authorities and certain designated industries to pay a cess (tax) for water
effluent discharge.
 The Central Government, after deducting the expenses of collection, pays
the central and state boards such sums, as it seems necessary.
 To encourage capital investment in pollution control, the Act gives a
polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable cess upon installing effluent
treatment equipment.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and

amendment, 1987

 To implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the

Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, Parliament enacted the
nationwide Air Act.
 The main objectives of this Act are to improve the quality of air and to
prevent, control and abate air pollution in the country.

Important provisions of this Act are given below:

 The Air Act’s framework is similar to that of the Water Act of 1974.
 The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards
established under the Water Act, to include air pollution control.
 States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air
pollution boards.
 Under the Air Act, all industries operating within designated air pollution
control areas must obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
 The states are required to prescribe emission standards for industry and
automobiles after consulting the central board and noting its ambient air
quality standards.
 The Act grants power to SPCB and to test equipment and to take the
sample for the purpose of analysis from any chimney, fly ash or dust or any
other.
 Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved
through criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
 The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a defaulting
industrial plant.
 Notably, the 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the
Air Act and extended the Act to include noise pollution.
Environment (Protection) Act of 1986

 In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the

Environment Act of 1986.
 The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment of 1972.
 The decisions relate to the protection and improvement of the human
environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living
creatures, plants and property.
 The Act is an “umbrella” for legislations designed to provide a framework
for Central Government, coordination of the activities of various central and
state authorities established under previous Acts, such as the Water Act and
the Air Act.
 In this Act, main emphasis is given to “Environment”, defined to include
water, air and land and the inter-relationships which exist among water, air
and land and human beings and other living creatures, plants, micro-
organisms and property.
 “Environmental pollution” is the presence of pollutant, defined as any
solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such a concentration as may be
or may tend to be injurious to the environment.
 “Hazardous substances” include any substance or preparation, which may
cause harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms,
property or the environment.
 Through this Act Central Government gets full power for the purpose of
protecting and improving the quality of the environment.

The main provisions of this Act are given below

 The Act empowers the centre to “take all such measures as it deems

necessary”.
 By virtue of this Act, Central Government has armed itself with considerable
powers which include,
 coordination of action by state,
 planning and execution of nationwide programmes,
 laying down environmental quality standards, especially those governing
emission or discharge of environmental pollutants,
 placing restriction on the location of industries and so on.
 authority to issue direct orders, included orders to close, prohibit or
regulate any industry.
 power of entry for examination, testing of equipment and other purposes
and power to analyse the sample of air, water, soil or any other substance
from any place.
 The Act explicitly prohibits discharges of environmental pollutants in excess
of prescribed regulatory standards.
 There is also a specific prohibition against handling hazardous
substances except those in compliance with regulatory procedures and
standards.
 The Act provides provision for penalties. For each failure or contravention,
the punishment included a prison term up to five years or fine up to Rs. 1
lakh, or both.
 The Act imposed an additional fine of up to Rs. 5,000 for every day of
continuing violation.
 If a failure or contravention occurs for more than one year, offender may
be punished with imprisonment which may be extended to seven years.
 Section 19 provides that any person, in addition to authorized government
officials, may file a complaint with a court alleging an offence under the Act.
 This “Citizens’ Suit” provision requires that the person has to give notice
of not less than 60 days of the alleged offence of pollution to the Central
Government.

Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells

1989

 Biosafety concerns have led to the development of regulatory regime in

India.
 Aim of ‘Rules 1989’ is to protect environment, nature and health in
connection with application of gene technology and micro-organisms.
 These rules cover areas of research as well as large scale applications of
GMOs and their products including experimental field trials and seed
production.
 The Rules 1989 also define the competent authorities and composition of
such authorities for handling of various aspects of the Rules.
Presently there are six committees:

1. Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC): The functions are of an

advisory nature. It recommends safety regulations for India in recombinant
research, use and applications.
2. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) established under
the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, to
monitor the safety related aspects in respect of on-going research projects.
3. Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC): it is the apex body
constituted in the MoEF under ‘Rules 1989′, under the Environment
Protection Act, 1986.
4. State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC’s) have a major
role in monitoring. It also has powers to inspect, investigate and take punitive
action in case or violations of statutory provisions.
5. District Level Committees (DLCs) have a major role in monitoring the
safety regulations in installations engaged in the use of genetically modified
organisms/hazardous microorganisms and its applications in the
environment.
6. Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBSC) is established under the
institution engaged in GMO research to oversee such research and to
interface with the RCGM in regulating it.

The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules

 The rules are framed under the jurisdiction of Environment (Protection)

Act.
 These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various ODSs, besides
regulating production, trade import and export of ODSs and the product
containing ODS.
 These Rules prohibit the use of CFCs in manufacturing various products
beyond 1st January 2003 except in metered dose inhaler and for other
medical purposes.
 Similarly, use of halons is prohibited after 1st January 2001 except for
essential use.
 Other ODSs such as carbon tetrachloride and methylchoroform and CFC
for metered dose inhalers can be used upto 1st January 2010.
 Further, the use of methyl bromide has been allowed upto 1st January
2015.
 Since HCFCs are used as interim substitute to replace CFC, these are
allowed up to 1st January 2040.

National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)

 National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) is a financing, planning,

implementing, monitoring and coordinating authority for the Ganges River,
functioning under the Ministry of Water Resources.
 The mission of the organization is to safeguard the drainage basin which
feeds water into the Ganges by protecting it from pollution or overuse.
 In 2014, the NGRBA has been transferred from the Ministry of Environment
and Forests to the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development &
Ganga Rejuvenation.
 It was established by the Central Government of India, in 2009 under
Section 3(3) of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, which also declared
Ganges as the ‘National River’ of India.

Composition of NGRBA

 The Prime Minister chairs the authority.

Members belonging to the government sector are as follows:

 Prime Minister of India

 Minister of Environment and Forests (Union Minister)
 Minister of Finance
 Minister of Urban Development
 Minister of Water Resources
 Minister of Power
 Minister of Sciences and Technology
 Chief Ministers of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West
Bengal
 Ministry of Environment and Forests (state minister)
 Ministry of Environment and Forests, secretary.
Protecting Coastal Environment and Wetlands

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

 The coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and back waters
which are influenced by tidal action are declared “Coastal Regulation Zone”
(CRZ) in 1991.
 India has created institutional mechanisms such as National Coastal Zone
Management Authority (NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone Management
Authority (SCZMA) for enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ Notification.
 These authorities have been delegated powers under Section 5 of
the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 to take various measures for
protecting and improving the quality of the coastal environment and
preventing, abating and controlling environmental pollution in coastal areas.

Classification Criteria and Regulatory Norms

 The coastal regulation zone has been classified for the purpose of
regulation of the permitted activities.

CRZ-I:

 Ecological sensitive area and the area between High Tide Line (HTL)
and Low Tide Line (LTL).
 No new construction is permitted except for a few specified most
essential activities like support activities for Atomic Energy Plants and
Defense requirements, facilities required for disposal of treated effluents and
other port related water front activities.

CRZ-II:

 The area that have been developed up to or close to the shore line which
includes the designated urban areas that are substantially built up.
 Buildings permitted only on the landward side of the existing authorized
structures as defined in the notification.

CRZ-III:

 The areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to
either CRZ-I or CRZ-II which includes mainly the rural area and those not
substantially built up within designated urban areas.
 The area up to 200 meters from HTL is earmarked as “No Development
Zone“.
 No construction is permitted within this zone except for repairs to the
existing authorized structures.
 Development of vacant plots between 200 and 500 meters of HTL is
permitted in CRZ III for the purpose of construction of dwelling units
and hotels/beach resorts subject to certain conditions.
 CRZ-IV

 The activities impugning on the sea and tidal influenced water bodies will
be regulated except for traditional fishing and related activities undertaken
by local communities.
 No untreated sewage, effluents, pollution from oil drilling shall be let off or
dumped.

Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010

 MoEF has notified the rules in order to ensure that there is no further
degradation of wetlands.
 The rules specify activities which are harmful to wetlands such as
industrialization, construction, dumping of untreated waste and reclamation
and prohibit these activities in the wetlands.
 Other activities such as harvesting, and dredging may be carried out in the
wetlands but only with prior permission from the concerned authorities.
 Under the Rules, wetlands have been classified for better management and
easier identification.
 Central Wetland Regulatory Authority has been set up to ensure proper
implementation of the Rules.

Role of information technology in protecting

environment and health.
Information technology has tremendous potential in the field of
environment education and health as in any other field like business,
economics, politics or culture. Development of internet facilities,
Geographic Information System (GIS) and information through
satellites has generated a wealth of up-to- date information on various
aspects of environment and health.
A number of software have been developed for environment and
health studies which are used friendly and can help an early learner in
knowing and understanding the subject.

Database on Environment System:

Database is the collection of interrelated data on various subjects. It is
usually in computerized form and can be retrieved whenever required.
In the computer the information of database and can be very quickly
retrieved. The comprehensive database includes wildlife database,
conservation database, forest cover database etc. database is also
available for diseases like HIV/AIDS, Malaria, Fluorosis, etc.

(a) National Management Information System (NMIS):

NMIS of the Department of Science and Technology has compiled a
database on Research and Development Projects along with
information about research scientists and personnel involved.

(b) Environmental Information System (ENVIS):

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has
created an information System called Environmental Information
System (ENVIS). With its headquarters in Delhi, it functions in 25
different centres all over the country.

The ENVIS centres work for generating a network of database in areas

like pollution control, clean technologies, remote sensing, coastal
ecology, biodiversity, western Ghats and eastern environmental
management, media related to environment, renewable energy,
desertification, mangroves, wildlife, Himalayan ecology, mining etc.

(c) Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System

(GIS):
Satellite imageries provide us actual information about various
physical and biological resources and also to some extent about their
state of degradation in a digital form through remote sensing. Satellite
imageries provide us actual information about various physical and
biological resources and also to some extent about their state of
degradation in a digital form through remote sensing. We are able to
gather digital information on environment aspects like water logging,
desertification, deforestation, urban sprawl, river and canal network,
mineral and energy reserves and so on.
(d) Geographical Information System (GIS):
GIS has proved to be a very effective tool in environmental
management. GIS is a technique of superimposing various thematic
maps using digital data on a large number of inter-related or inter
dependent aspects. Several useful soft-wares have been developed for
working in the field of GIS.

Different thematic maps containing digital information on a number

of aspects like water resources, industrial growth, human settlements,
road network, soil type, forest land, crop land or grassland etc. are
superimposed in a layered form in computer using software.

Such information of polluted zones, degraded lands or diseased

cropland etc. can be made based on GIS. Planning for locating suitable
areas for industrial growth is now being done using GIS by preparing
Zoning Atlas. GIS serves to check unplanned growth and helps in
providing correct, reliable and verifiable information about forest
cover, success of conservation efforts etc.

They also provide information of atmospheric phenomena, like

approach of monsoon, ozone layer depletion many new reserves of oil;
minerals etc. with the remote sensing and GIS play a key role in
resource mapping, environmental conservation, management,
planning and environmental impact assessment.

It also helps in identifying several disease infested areas which are

prone to some vector-borne diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis etc.
based upon mapping of such areas. There are several Distribution
Information Centres (DICs) in our country that are linked with each
other and with the central information network having access to
international database.

They also provide information of atmospheric phenomena like

approach of monsoon, ozone layer depletion, inversion phenomena,
smog etc. We are able to discover many new reserves of oils, minerals
etc. with the help of information generated by remote sensing
satellites. Thus remote sensing and GIS play a key role in resource
mapping, environmental conservation, management, and planning
and environmental impact assessment.
(e) The World Wide Web:
With resources material on every aspect, class-room activities, and
digital files of photos, power-point lecture presentations, animations,
web-exercises and quiz has proved to be extremely useful both for the
students and the teachers of environmental studies.

The role of online learning centre website has the following

features:

(a) Student-friendly features:
These include practice quiz, how to study tips, hyperlinks on every
topics with detailed information, web exercises, case studies,
environmental maps, key-terms, career information, current articles,
and interactive encyclopaedia and how to contact your elected
officials.
(b) Teacher-friendly features:
These include in addition to above supplement resources charts,
additional case studies, answers to web exercises, solutions to critical
thinking, questions, editing facility to add or delete questions and
create multiple version of same test etc. Information technology is
expanding rapidly with increasing applications and new avenues are
being opened with effective role in education, management and
planning in the field of environment and health.