Learn SQL

IS 263/ IS 264
Lecture 5: SQL
Instructor: Henry Kalisti
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

DDL and DML
• DDL: Data Definition Language
• Changes data base schema
• Example: create table, drop table, alter table,
create index
• DML: Data Manipulation Language
• Read or change the content of the database
• Example: insert, delete, select, update
2
Data Definition Language
• May change:
• The schema for each relation.
• The domain of values associated with each
attribute.
• Integrity constraints
• The set of indices to be maintained for each
relations.
• Security and authorization information for
each relation.
• The physical storage structure of each 3
relation on disk.
Domain Types in SQL
• char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-
specified length n.
• varchar(n). Variable length character strings,
with user-specified maximum length n.
• int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is
machine-dependent).
• smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent
subset of the integer domain type).
• numeric(p, d). Fixed point number, with user-
specified precision of p digits, with d digits to the
right of decimal point.
4
Domain Types in SQL
• real, double precision. Floating point and double-
precision floating point numbers, with machine-
dependent precision.
• float(n). Floating point number, with user-
specified precision of at least n digits.
• Null values are allowed in all the domain types.
Declaring an attribute to be not null prohibits null
values for that attribute.
• create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-
defined domain types 5
• create domain person-name char(20) not null

Date/Time Types in SQL
• date. Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and
date
• E.g. date ‘2001-7-27’
• time. Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.
• E.g. time ’09:00:30’ time ’09:00:30.75’
• timestamp: date plus time of day
• E.g. timestamp ‘2001-7-27 09:00:30.75’
• Interval: period of time
• E.g. Interval ‘1’ day
• Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another
gives an interval value
• Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp
values 6
Create Table Construct
• An SQL relation is defined using the create table
command:
create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
• r is the name of the relation
• each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of
relation r
• Di is the data type of values in the domain of 7
attribute Ai
Integrity Constraints in Create Table
• not null
• primary key (A1, ..., An)
• Foreign Key (A,…,An) references s(B1,…Bn)
• check (P), where P is a predicate
Example: Declare branch-name as the primary key for branch and
ensure that the values of assets are non-negative.
create table branch
(branch-name char(15),
branch-city char(30)
assets integer,
primary key (branch-name),
check (assets >= 0))
primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures not 8
null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in SQL-89

Integrity Constraints in Create Table
• Foreign Key
Example: Declare branch-name in loan table
referencing the branch-name for branch
CREATE TABLE loan
( loan_number char(100),
branch_name char(15) REFERENCES branch(branch_name),
amount int,
PRIMARY KEY(loan_number) );
Foreign key means: loan.branch_name Í branch.branch_name

9
Drop and Alter Table
• The drop table command deletes all
information about the dropped relation from
the database.
• The alter table command is used to add
attributes to an existing relation.
alter table r add A D
where A is the name of the attribute to be
added to relation r and D is the domain of A.
• All tuples in the relation are assigned null as
the value for the new attribute.
10
Drop and Alter Table
• The alter table command can also be used to
drop attributes of a relation
alter table r drop A
where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
• However, dropping of attributes not
supported by many databases
11
DML
• Read or change the content of the database
12
Data in SQL
1. Atomic types, a.k.a. data types
2. Tables built from atomic types
13
Data Types in SQL
• Characters:
CHAR(20) -- fixed length
VARCHAR(40) -- variable length
• Numbers:
BIGINT, INT, SMALLINT, TINYINT
REAL, FLOAT -- differ in precision
MONEY
• Times and dates:
DATE
DATETIME -- SQL Server 14
• Others... All are simple
Tables in SQL Attribute names
Table name
Product
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

15
Tuples or rows
Tables Explained
• A tuple = a record
• Restriction: all attributes are of atomic type
• A table = a set of tuples
• Like a list…
• …but it is unorderd: no first(), no next(), no
last().
• No nested tables, only flat tables are allowed !
• We will see later how to decompose complex
structures into multiple flat tables 16
Tables Explained
• The schema of a table is the table name and its
attributes:
• Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
• A key is an attribute whose values are unique;

we underline a key
• Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
17
SQL Query
Basic form: (plus many many more bells and whistles)
SELECT attributes
FROM relations (possibly multiple, joined)
WHERE conditions (selections)
18
Simple SQL Query
Product

SELECT *
FROM Product
WHERE category=‘Gadgets’
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks 19
“selection”
Simple SQL Query
Product

SELECT PName, Price, Manufacturer

FROM Product
WHERE Price > 100
PName Price Manufacturer

“selection” and SingleTouch $149.99 Canon 20
“projection” MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi
A Notation for SQL Queries
Input Schema
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)
SELECT PName, Price, Manufacturer

FROM Product
WHERE Price > 100
Answer(PName, Price, Manfacturer)

21
Output Schema
Selections
What goes in the WHERE clause:
• x = y, x < y, x <= y, etc
• For number, they have the usual meanings
• For CHAR and VARCHAR: lexicographic
ordering
• Expected conversion between CHAR and
VARCHAR
• For dates and times, what you expect...
• Pattern matching on strings: s LIKE p (next) 22
The LIKE operator
• s LIKE p: pattern matching on strings
• p may contain two special symbols:
• % = any sequence of characters
• _ = any single character
Product(Name, Price, Category, Manufacturer)

Find all products whose name mentions ‘gizmo’:
SELECT *
FROM Products 23
WHERE PName LIKE ‘%gizmo%’
Eliminating Duplicates
Category
Gadgets
SELECT category Gadgets
FROM Product Photography
Household
Compare to:
Category
SELECT DISTINCT category Gadgets
FROM Product Photography
Household
24
Ordering the Results
SELECT pname, price, manufacturer

FROM Product
WHERE category=‘gizmo’ AND price > 50
ORDER BY price, pname
Ordering is ascending, unless you specify the DESC

keyword.
Ties are broken by the second attribute on the 25

ORDER BY list, etc.
SELECT Category
FROM Product
ORDER BY PName
?
26
Category
SELECT DISTINCT category Gadgets
FROM Product Household

Photography
ORDER BY category
Compare to:
?
SELECT DISTINCT category
FROM Product
ORDER BY PName
27
Joins in SQL
• Connect two or more tables:
Product PName Price Category Manufacturer

Company CName StockPrice Country
What is GizmoWorks 25 USA

the Connection Canon 65 Japan
28
between
them ? Hitachi 15 Japan
Joins
Product (pname, price, category, manufacturer)
Company (cname, stockPrice, country)
Find all products under $200 manufactured in Japan;

return their names and prices.
Join
between Product
SELECT PName, Price and Company
FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Country=‘Japan’
AND Price <= 200
29
Joins in SQL
Product
Company
PName Price Category Manufacturer Cname StockPrice Country

Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks GizmoWorks 25 USA
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks Canon 65 Japan
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon Hitachi 15 Japan
SELECT PName, Price

WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Country=‘Japan’
AND Price <= 200
PName Price
30
SingleTouch $149.99
Joins
Company (cname, stockPrice, country)
Find all countries that manufacture some product in the

‘Gadgets’ category.
SELECT Country
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Category=‘Gadgets’
31
Joins in SQL
Product
Company
Cname StockPrice Country
GizmoWorks 25 USA
Canon 65 Japan
Hitachi 15 Japan
SELECT Country
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Category=‘Gadgets’
Country
What is ??
the problem ? ?? 32
What’s the
solution ?
Joins
Purchase (buyer, seller, store, product)
Person(persname, phoneNumber, city)
Find names of people living in Seattle that bought some

product in the ‘Gadgets’ category, and the names of the
stores they bought such product from
SELECT DISTINCT persname, store

FROM Person, Purchase, Product
WHERE persname=buyer AND product = pname AND 33
city=‘Seattle’ AND category=‘Gadgets’

Disambiguating Attributes
• Sometimes two relations have the same attr:
Person(pname, address, worksfor)
Company(cname, address)
Which
SELECT DISTINCT pname, address address ?
FROM Person, Company
WHERE worksfor = cname
SELECT DISTINCT Person.pname, Company.address 34

FROM Person, Company
WHERE Person.worksfor = Company.cname
Tuple Variables
Purchase (buyer, seller, store, product)
Person(persname, phoneNumber, city)
Find all stores that sold at least one product that the store
‘BestBuy’ also sold:
SELECT DISTINCT x.store

FROM Purchase AS x, Purchase AS y
WHERE x.product = y.product AND y.store = ‘BestBuy’
35
Answer (store)
Tuple Variables
General rule:
tuple variables introduced automatically by the system:
Product ( name, price, category, manufacturer)

SELECT name
FROM Product
WHERE price > 100
Becomes:
SELECT Product.name
FROM Product AS Product
WHERE Product.price > 100
36
Doesn’t work when Product occurs more than once:
In that case the user needs to define variables explicitely.
Renaming Columns
Product PName Price Category Manufacturer
SELECT Pname AS prodName, Price AS askPrice

FROM Product
WHERE Price > 100
prodName askPrice
Query with SingleTouch $149.99

37
MultiTouch $203.99
renaming
Meaning (Semantics) of SQL
Queries
SELECT a1, a2, …, ak
FROM R1 AS x1, R2 AS x2, …, Rn AS xn
WHERE Conditions
1. Nested loops:
Answer = {}
for x1 in R1 do
for x2 in R2 do
…..
for xn in Rn do
if Conditions 38
then Answer = Answer È {(x1,…,xk)}
return Answer
Meaning (Semantics) of SQL
Queries
SELECT a1, a2, …, ak
FROM R1 AS x1, R2 AS x2, …, Rn AS xn
WHERE Conditions
2. Parallel assignment
Answer = {}
for all assignments x1 in R1, …, xn in Rn do
if Conditions then Answer = Answer È {(x1,…,xk)}
return Answer
Doesn’t impose any order ! 39

First Unintuitive SQLism
SELECT R.A
FROM R, S, T
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A
Looking for R Ç (S È T)
But what happens if T is empty?
40
Advanced SQL
Part 2
41
Outline
• Unions, intersections, differences

• Subqueries, Aggregations, NULLs
• Modifying databases, Indexes, Views
42
Union, Intersection, Difference
(SELECT name
FROM Person
WHERE City=“Seattle”)
UNION
(SELECT name
FROM Person, Purchase
WHERE buyer=name AND store=“The Bon”)
43
Similarly, you can use INTERSECT and EXCEPT.
You must have the same attribute names (otherwise: rename).
Conserving Duplicates
(SELECT name
FROM Person
WHERE City=“Seattle”)
UNION ALL
(SELECT name
WHERE buyer=name AND store=“The Bon”) 44
Subqueries
A subquery producing a single value:

SELECT Purchase.product
FROM Purchase
WHERE buyer =
(SELECT name
FROM Person
WHERE ssn = ‘123456789‘);
In this case, the subquery returns one value.
If it returns more, it’s a run-time error. 45

Subqueries
Can say the same thing without a subquery:
SELECT Purchase.product
FROM Purchase, Person
WHERE buyer = name AND ssn = ‘123456789‘
This is equivalent to the previous one when the ssn is a key
and ‘123456789’ exists in the database;
otherwise they are different.
46
Subqueries Returning
Relations
Find companies that manufacture products bought by Joe Blow.
SELECT Company.name
FROM Company, Product
WHERE Company.name = Product.maker
AND Product.name IN
(SELECT Purchase.product
FROM Purchase
WHERE Purchase .buyer = ‘Joe Blow‘);
47
Here the subquery returns a set of values: no more
runtime errors.
Relations
Equivalent to:
SELECT Company.name
FROM Company, Product, Purchase
WHERE Company.name = Product.maker
AND Product.name = Purchase.product
AND Purchase.buyer = ‘Joe Blow’
Is this query equivalent to the previous one ?

48
Beware of duplicates !
Removing Duplicates
SELECT DISTINCT Company.name
WHERE Company.name= Product.maker
AND Product.name IN
(SELECT Purchase.product
FROM Purchase
WHERE Purchase.buyer = ‘Joe Blow’)
SELECT DISTINCT Company.name

Now
FROM Company, Product, Purchase
they are
WHERE Company.name= Product.maker
equivalent 49
AND Product.name = Purchase.product
AND Purchase.buyer = ‘Joe Blow’
Relations
You can also use: s > ALL R
s > ANY R
EXISTS R
Product ( pname, price, category, maker)
Find products that are more expensive than all those produced
By “Gizmo-Works”
SELECT name
FROM Product
WHERE price > ALL (SELECT price
FROM Purchase 50
WHERE maker=‘Gizmo-Works’)
Correlated Queries
Movie (title, year, director, length)
Find movies whose title appears more than once.
correlation
SELECT DISTINCT title

FROM Movie AS x
WHERE year < > ANY
(SELECT year
FROM Movie
WHERE title = x.title);
51
Note (1) scope of variables (2) this can still be expressed as

single SFW
Complex Correlated Query
Product ( pname, price, category, maker, year)

• Find products (and their manufacturers) that are more expensive
than all products made by the same manufacturer before 1972
SELECT DISTINCT pname, maker

FROM Product AS x
WHERE price > ALL (SELECT price
FROM Product AS y
WHERE x.maker = y.maker AND y.year < 1972);
Powerful, but much harder to optimize !

52
Existential/Universal
Conditions
Product ( pname, price, company)
Company( cname, city)
Find all companies s.t. some of their products have price < 100
SELECT DISTINCT Company.cname

WHERE Company.cname = Product.company and Product.price < 100
53
Existential: easy ! J
Conditions
Product ( pname, price, company)
Company( cname, city)
Find all companies s.t. all of their products have price < 100
Universal: hard ! L
54
Conditions
1. Find the other companies: i.e. s.t. some product ³ 100
FROM Company
WHERE Company.cname IN (SELECT Product.company
FROM Product
WHERE Product.price >= 100
2. Find all companies s.t. all their products have price < 100
FROM Company
WHERE Company.cname NOT IN (SELECT Product.company
55
FROM Product
WHERE Product.price >= 100
Aggregation
SELECT Avg(price)
FROM Product
WHERE maker=“Toyota”
SQL supports several aggregation operations:
SUM, MIN, MAX, AVG, COUNT
56
Aggregation: Count
SELECT Count(*)
FROM Product
WHERE year > 1995
Except COUNT, all aggregations apply to a single attribute

57
Aggregation: Count
COUNT applies to duplicates, unless otherwise stated:
SELECT Count(category) same as Count(*)

FROM Product
WHERE year > 1995
Better:
SELECT Count(DISTINCT category)

FROM Product 58
WHERE year > 1995

Simple Aggregation
Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)
Example 1: find total sales for the entire database
SELECT Sum(price * quantity)

FROM Purchase
Example 1’: find total sales of bagels
SELECT Sum(price * quantity)

FROM Purchase 59
WHERE product = ‘bagel’

Simple Aggregations
Purchase
Product Date Price Quantity
Bagel 10/21 0.85 15
Banana 10/22 0.52 7
Banana 10/19 0.52 17
Bagel 10/20 0.85 20
60
Grouping and Aggregation
Usually, we want aggregations on certain parts of the relation.
Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)
Example 2: find total sales after 9/1 per product.
SELECT product, Sum(price*quantity) AS TotalSales

FROM Purchase
WHERE date > “9/1”
GROUP BY product
61
Let’s see what this means…

Grouping and Aggregation
1. Compute the FROM and WHERE clauses.

2. Group by the attributes in the GROUP BY
3. Produce one tuple for every group by applying aggregation
SELECT can have (1) grouped attributes or (2) aggregates.
62
First compute the FROM-WHERE clauses (date >
“9/1”) then GROUP BY product:
Product Date Price Quantity

Banana 10/19 0.52 17
Banana 10/22 0.52 7
Bagel 10/20 0.85 20
Bagel 10/21 0.85 15
63
Then, aggregate
Product TotalSales
Bagel $29.75
Banana $12.48

FROM Purchase
WHERE date > “9/1” 64
GROUP BY product
GROUP BY v.s. Nested Quereis
FROM Purchase
GROUP BY product
SELECT DISTINCT x.product, (SELECT Sum(y.price*y.quantity)

FROM Purchase y
WHERE x.product = y.product
AND y.date > ‘9/1’)
AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase x
65
WHERE x.date > “9/1”
Another Example
Product SumSales MaxQuantity
Banana $12.48 17
Bagel $29.75 20
For every product, what is the total sales and max quantity sold?
SELECT product, Sum(price * quantity) AS SumSales
Max(quantity) AS MaxQuantity
66
FROM Purchase
GROUP BY product
HAVING Clause
Same query, except that we consider only products that had

at least 30 items sold.
SELECT product, Sum(price * quantity)

FROM Purchase
GROUP BY product
HAVING Sum(quantity) > 30
HAVING clause contains conditions on aggregates. 67

General form of Grouping and
Aggregation
SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2 Why ?
S = may contain attributes a1,…,ak and/or any aggregates but NO

OTHER ATTRIBUTES
C1 = is any condition on the attributes in R1,…,Rn
C2 = is any condition on aggregate expressions
68
General form of Grouping and
Aggregation
SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2
Evaluation steps:
1. Compute the FROM-WHERE part, obtain a table with all attributes in
R1,…,Rn
2. Group by the attributes a1,…,ak
3. Compute the aggregates in C2 and keep only groups satisfying C2
4. Compute aggregates in S and return the result 69
Aggregation
Author(login,name)
Document(url, title)
Wrote(login,url)
Mentions(url,word)
70
Grouping vs. Nested Queries
• Find all authors who wrote at least 10 documents:
• Attempt 1: with nested queries
This is
SQL by
a novice
SELECT DISTINCT Author.name
FROM Author
WHERE count(SELECT Wrote.url
FROM Wrote
WHERE Author.login=Wrote.login) 71
> 10
• Find all authors who wrote at least 10 documents:
• Attempt 2: SQL style (with GROUP BY)
SELECT Author.name This is

FROM Author, Wrote SQL by
WHERE Author.login=Wrote.login an expert
GROUP BY Author.name
HAVING count(wrote.url) > 10 72
No need for DISTINCT: automatically from GROUP BY

• Find all authors who have a vocabulary over 10000 words:
SELECT Author.name
FROM Author, Wrote, Mentions
WHERE Author.login=Wrote.login AND Wrote.url=Mentions.url
GROUP BY Author.name
HAVING count(distinct Mentions.word) > 10000
Look carefully at the last two queries: you may 73
be tempted to write them as a nested queries,

but in SQL we write them best with GROUP BY
NULLS in SQL
• Whenever we don’t have a value, we can put a NULL
• Can mean many things:
• Value does not exists
• Value exists but is unknown
• Value not applicable
• Etc.
• The schema specifies for each attribute if it can be null
(nullable attribute) or not
• How does SQL cope with tables that have NULLs ?
74
Null Values
• If x= NULL then 4*(3-x)/7 is still NULL
• If x= NULL then x=“Joe” is UNKNOWN

• In SQL there are three boolean values:
FALSE = 0
UNKNOWN = 0.5
TRUE = 1
75
Null Values
• C1 AND C2 = min(C1, C2)
• C1 OR C2 = max(C1, C2)
• NOT C1 = 1 – C1
SELECT * E.g.
FROM Person age=20
WHERE (age < 25) AND heigth=NULL
weight=200
(height > 6 OR weight > 190)
Rule in SQL: include only tuples that yield TRUE
76
Null Values
Unexpected behavior:
SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE
Some Persons age <included
are not 25 OR! age >= 25
77
Null Values
Can test for NULL explicitly:
• x IS NULL
• x IS NOT NULL
SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE age < 25 OR age >= 25 OR age IS NULL
Now it includes all Persons

78
Outerjoins
Explicit joins in SQL:
Product(name, category)
Purchase(prodName, store)
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store

FROM Product JOIN Purchase ON
Product.name = Purchase.prodName
Same as:
But Products that never sold will be lost !
FROM Product, Purchase
WHERE Product.name = Purchase.prodName 79
Outerjoins
Left outer joins in SQL:
Product(name, category)
Purchase(prodName, store)

FROM Product LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase ON
Product.name = Purchase.prodName
80
Product Purchase
Name Category ProdName Store
Gizmo gadget Gizmo Wiz
Camera Photo Camera Ritz
OneClick Photo Camera Wiz
Name Store
Gizmo Wiz
Camera Ritz
Camera Wiz 81
OneClick NULL
Outer Joins
• Left outer join:

• Include the left tuple even if there’s no match
• Right outer join:
• Include the right tuple even if there’s no match
• Full outer join:
• Include the both left and right tuples even if there’s no match
82
Modifying the Database
Three kinds of modifications
• Insertions
• Deletions
• Updates
Sometimes they are all called “updates”
83
Insertions
General form:
INSERT INTO R(A1,…., An) VALUES (v1,…., vn)
Example: Insert a new purchase to the database:

INSERT INTO Purchase(buyer, seller, product, store)
VALUES (‘Joe’, ‘Fred’, ‘wakeup-clock-espresso-machine’,
‘The Sharper Image’)
Missing attribute ® NULL.

84
May drop attribute names if give them in order.

Insertions
INSERT INTO PRODUCT(name)
SELECT DISTINCT Purchase.product

FROM Purchase
WHERE Purchase.date > “10/26/01”
The query replaces the VALUES keyword.

Here we insert many tuples into PRODUCT 85
Insertion: an Example
Product(name, listPrice, category)
Purchase(prodName, buyerName, price)
prodName is foreign key in Product.name
Suppose database got corrupted and we need to fix it:

corrupted Purchase
Product
prodName buyerName price
name listPrice category
camera John 200
gizmo 100 gadgets gizmo Smith 80
camera Smith 225 86
Task: insert in Product all prodNames from Purchase

INSERT INTO Product(name)
SELECT DISTINCT prodName

FROM Purchase
WHERE prodName NOT IN (SELECT name FROM Product)
gizmo 100 Gadgets
camera - - 87
INSERT INTO Product(name, listPrice)
SELECT DISTINCT prodName, price

FROM Purchase
WHERE prodName NOT IN (SELECT name FROM Product)
gizmo 100 Gadgets
camera 200 -
88
camera ?? 225 ?? - Depends on the implementation

Deletions
Example:
DELETE FROM PURCHASE
WHERE seller = ‘Joe’ AND

product = ‘Brooklyn Bridge’
Factoid about SQL: there is no way to delete only a single

occurrence of a tuple that appears twice
in a relation. 89
Updates
Example:
UPDATE PRODUCT
SET price = price/2
WHERE Product.name IN
(SELECT product
FROM Purchase
WHERE Date =‘Oct, 25, 1999’);
90
Data Definition in SQL
So far we have seen the Data Manipulation Language, DML
Next: Data Definition Language (DDL)
Data types:
Defines the types.
Data definition: defining the schema.
• Create tables
• Delete tables
• Modify table schema
91
Indexes: to improve performance

Data Types in SQL
• Characters:
• CHAR(20) -- fixed length
• VARCHAR(40) -- variable length
• Numbers:
• INT, REAL plus variations
• Times and dates:
• DATE, TIME (Pointbase)
92
Creating Tables
Example:
CREATE TABLE Person(
name VARCHAR(30),
social-security-number INT,
age SHORTINT,
city VARCHAR(30),
gender BIT(1),
Birthdate DATE
); 93
Deleting or Modifying a Table
Deleting:
Example: DROP Person; Exercise with care !!
Altering: (adding or removing an attribute).
ALTER TABLE Person

ADD phone CHAR(16);
Example:
ALTER TABLE Person
DROP age;
94
What happens when you make changes to the schema?
Default Values
Specifying default values:
CREATE TABLE Person(

name VARCHAR(30),
social-security-number INT,
age SHORTINT DEFAULT 100,
city VARCHAR(30) DEFAULT ‘Seattle’,
gender CHAR(1) DEFAULT ‘?’,
Birthdate DATE
95
The default of defaults: NULL

Indexes
REALLY important to speed up query processing time.
Suppose we have a relation
Person (name, age, city)
SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE name = “Smith”
96
Sequential scan of the file Person may take long
Indexes
• Create an index on name:
Adam Betty Charles …. Smith ….
• B+ trees have fan-out of 100s: max 4 levels !

97
Creating Indexes
Syntax:
CREATE INDEX nameIndex ON Person(name)
98
Creating Indexes
Indexes can be useful in range queries too:
CREATE INDEX ageIndex ON Person (age)
B+ trees help in: SELECT *

FROM Person
WHERE age > 25 AND age < 28
99
Why not create indexes on everything?
Creating Indexes
Indexes can be created on more than one attribute:
CREATE INDEX doubleindex ON

Example:
Person (age, city)
SELECT *
Helps in: FROM Person
WHERE age = 55 AND city = “Seattle”
SELECT *
and even in: FROM Person
WHERE age = 55
SELECT * 100
But not in: FROM Person
WHERE city = “Seattle”
The Index Selection Problem
• We are given a workload = a set of SQL queries
plus how often they run
• What indexes should we build to speed up the
workload ?
• FROM/WHERE clauses è favor an index
• INSERT/UPDATE clauses è discourage an index
• Index selection = normally done by people,
recently done automatically
101
Defining Views
Views are relations, except that they are not physically stored.
For presenting different information to different users
Employee(ssn, name, department, project, salary)
CREATE VIEW Developers AS

SELECT name, project
FROM Employee
WHERE department = “Development”
102
Payroll has access to Employee, others only to Developers
A Different View
Person(name, city)
Purchase(buyer, seller, product, store)
Product(name, maker, category)
CREATE VIEW Seattle-view AS
SELECT buyer, seller, product, store

WHERE Person.city = “Seattle” AND
Person.name = Purchase.buyer
We have a new virtual table: 103
Seattle-view(buyer, seller, product, store)

A Different View
We can later use the view:
SELECT name, store

FROM Seattle-view, Product
WHERE Seattle-view.product = Product.name AND
Product.category = “shoes”
104
What Happens When We Query a
View ?
SELECT name, Seattle-view.store
FROM Seattle-view, Product
WHERE Seattle-view.product = Product.name AND
SELECT name, Purchase.store

FROM Person, Purchase, Product
WHERE Person.city = “Seattle” AND
Person.name = Purchase.buyer AND
105
Purchase.poduct = Product.name AND
Types of Views
• Virtual views:
• Used in databases
• Computed only on-demand – slow at runtime
• Always up to date
• Materialized views
• Used in data warehouses
• Pre-computed offline – fast at runtime
• May have stale data
106
Updating Views
How can I insert a tuple into a table that doesn’t exist?
Employee(ssn, name, department, project, salary)
CREATE VIEW Developers AS

SELECT name, project
FROM Employee
WHERE department = “Development”
If we make the INSERT INTO Developers

following insertion: VALUES(“Joe”, “Optimizer”)
It becomes: INSERT INTO Employee(ssn, name, department, project, salary)

VALUES(NULL, “Joe”, NULL, “Optimizer”, NULL) 107
Non-Updatable Views
Person(name, city)
Purchase(buyer, seller, product, store)
CREATE VIEW City-Store AS
SELECT Person.city, Purchase.store

WHERE Person.name = Purchase.buyer
How can we add the following tuple to the view?
(“Seattle”, “Nine West”)

108
We don’t know the name of the person who made the purchase;
cannot set to NULL (why ?)

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IS 263/ IS 264

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

• create domain person-name char(20) not null

primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures not 8

null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in SQL-89

Foreign key means: loan.branch_name Í branch.branch_name

PName Price Category Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon

MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

• A key is an attribute whose values are unique;

Basic form: (plus many many more bells and whistles)

PName Price Category Manufacturer

PName Price Category Manufacturer

SELECT PName, Price, Manufacturer

PName Price Manufacturer

Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)

SELECT PName, Price, Manufacturer

Answer(PName, Price, Manfacturer)

Product(Name, Price, Category, Manufacturer)

SELECT pname, price, manufacturer

Ordering is ascending, unless you specify the DESC

Ties are broken by the second attribute on the 25

PName Price Category Manufacturer

FROM Product Household

Product PName Price Category Manufacturer

Company CName StockPrice Country

What is GizmoWorks 25 USA

Find all products under $200 manufactured in Japan;

PName Price Category Manufacturer Cname StockPrice Country

SELECT PName, Price

Find all countries that manufacture some product in the

Find names of people living in Seattle that bought some

SELECT DISTINCT persname, store

city=‘Seattle’ AND category=‘Gadgets’

SELECT DISTINCT Person.pname, Company.address 34

SELECT DISTINCT x.store

Product ( name, price, category, manufacturer)

SELECT Pname AS prodName, Price AS askPrice

Query with SingleTouch $149.99

Doesn’t impose any order ! 39

But what happens if T is empty?

• Unions, intersections, differences

A subquery producing a single value:

In this case, the subquery returns one value.

If it returns more, it’s a run-time error. 45

Can say the same thing without a subquery:

Is this query equivalent to the previous one ?

SELECT DISTINCT Company.name

SELECT DISTINCT title

Note (1) scope of variables (2) this can still be expressed as

Product ( pname, price, category, maker, year)

SELECT DISTINCT pname, maker

Powerful, but much harder to optimize !

SELECT DISTINCT Company.cname

SQL supports several aggregation operations:

SUM, MIN, MAX, AVG, COUNT

Except COUNT, all aggregations apply to a single attribute

COUNT applies to duplicates, unless otherwise stated:

SELECT Count(category) same as Count(*)

SELECT Count(DISTINCT category)

WHERE year > 1995