Electronic

engineering

Electronic engineering (also called electronics and communications engineering) is an

electrical engineering discipline which utilizes nonlinear and active electrical components (such
as semiconductor devices, especially transistors and diodes) to design electronic circuits,
devices, integrated circuits and their systems. The discipline typically also designs passive
electrical components, usually based on printed circuit boards.

Printed circuit board

Electronics is a subfield within the wider electrical engineering academic subject but denotes a
broad engineering field that covers subfields such as analog electronics, digital electronics,
consumer electronics, embedded systems and power electronics. Electronics engineering deals
with implementation of applications, principles and algorithms developed within many related
fields, for example solid-state physics, radio engineering, telecommunications, control systems,
signal processing, systems engineering, computer engineering, instrumentation engineering,
electric power control,

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is one of the most important and
influential organizations for electronics engineers based in the US. On an international level, the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) prepares standards for electronic engineering,
developed through consensus and thanks to the work of 20,000 experts from 172 countries
worldwide.

Relationship to electrical engineering

Electronics is a subfield within the wider electrical engineering academic subject. An academic
degree with a major in electronics engineering can be acquired from some universities, while
other universities use electrical engineering as the subject. The term electrical engineer is still
used in the academic world to include electronic engineers.[1] However, some believe the term
electrical engineer should be reserved for those having specialized in power and heavy current or
high voltage engineering, while others consider that power is just one subset of electrical
engineering similar to electric power distribution engineering. The term power engineering is
used as a descriptor in that industry. Again, in recent years there has been a growth of new
separate-entry degree courses such as systems engineering and communication systems
engineering, often followed by academic departments of similar name, which are typically not
considered as subfields of electronics engineering but of electrical engineering.[2][3]

History

Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the telegraph

industry in the late 19th century and the radio and the telephone industries in the early 20th
century. People were attracted to radio by the technical fascination it inspired, first in receiving
and then in transmitting. Many who went into broadcasting in the 1920s were only 'amateurs' in
the period before World War I.[4]

To a large extent, the modern discipline of electronic engineering was born out of telephone,
radio, and television equipment development and the large amount of electronic systems
development during World War II of radar, sonar, communication systems, and advanced
munitions and weapon systems. In the interwar years, the subject was known as radio
engineering and it was only in the late 1950s that the term electronic engineering started to
emerge.[5]

The first working transistor was a point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen and Walter
Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947.[6] The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect
transistor, or MOS transistor) was later invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell
Labs in 1959.[7][8][9] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be
miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[10] The MOSFET revolutionized the
electronics industry,[11][12] becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.[8][13][14]
The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.[15][16]

Electronics

In the field of electronic engineering, engineers design and test circuits that use the
electromagnetic properties of electrical components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors,
diodes and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. The tuner circuit, which allows the
user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit.

In designing an integrated circuit, electronics engineers first construct circuit schematics that
specify the electrical components and describe the interconnections between them. When
completed, VLSI engineers convert the schematics into actual layouts, which map the layers of
various conductor and semiconductor materials needed to construct the circuit. The conversion
from schematics to layouts can be done by software (see electronic design automation) but very
often requires human fine-tuning to decrease space and power consumption. Once the layout is
complete, it can be sent to a fabrication plant for manufacturing.
For systems of intermediate complexity, engineers may use VHDL modeling for programmable
logic devices and FPGAs.

Integrated circuits, FPGAs and other electrical components can then be assembled on printed
circuit boards to form more complicated circuits. Today, printed circuit boards are found in most
electronic devices including televisions, computers and audio players.[17]

Subfields

Electronic engineering has many subfields. This section describes some of the most popular
subfields in electronic engineering; although there are engineers who focus exclusively on one
subfield, there are also many who focus on a combination of subfields.

Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be either
analog, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in
which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the
information.

For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals
for audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications.
For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error checking and error
detection of digital signals.

Telecommunications engineering deals with the transmission of information across a channel

such as a co-axial cable, optical fiber or free space.

Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a carrier wave in order to
shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this is known as
modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency
modulation. The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these
two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.

Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication

engineers design the transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These two are
sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a transceiver. A key
consideration in the design of transmitters is their power consumption as this is closely related
to their signal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's
information will be corrupted by noise.

Aviation-Electronic Engineering and Aviation-Telecommunications Engineering, They research

and work on electronics and aerospace topics. Aviation-telecommunication engineers include a
group of specialists who have a lot of information about the flight (such as meteorological data,
some specific information, etc.) through the available platforms (such as AFTN, etc.) at the
disposal of the aircraft itself or parts Others are stationed at airports. Specialists in this field
mainly need knowledge of computer, networking, IT and physics.Their works are in
organizations and companies in the air and space. Before, during and after the flight, the aircraft
needs equipment and platforms that meet many of its needs such as navigation information,
communication and monitoring systems (CNS). Of course, such equipment requires installation,
commissioning, maintenance and repair, which is a serious task for an aviation electronics
specialist at the airports. These courses are offered at different universities like Civil Aviation
Technology College[18].[19]

Electromagnetics is an in-depth study about the signals that are transmitted in a channel (Wired
or Wireless). This includes Basics of Electromagnetic waves, Transmission Lines and
Waveguides, Antennas, its types and applications with Radio-Frequency (RF) and Microwaves.
Its applications are seen widely in other sub-fields like Telecommunication, Control and
Instrumentation Engineering.

Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of
commercial airplanes to the cruise control present in many modern cars. It also plays an
important role in industrial automation.

Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control systems. For example, in a car
with cruise control, the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system
which adjusts the engine's power output accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control
theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities
such as pressure, flow and temperature. These devices are known as instrumentation.

The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that often extends
beyond electromagnetic theory. For example, radar guns use the Doppler effect to measure the
speed of oncoming vehicles. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier–Seebeck effect to
measure the temperature difference between two points.

Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical
systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature
remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the
counterpart of control engineering.[20]

Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may
involve the design of new computer hardware, the design of PDAs or the use of computers to
control an industrial plant. Development of embedded systems—systems made for specific
tasks (e.g., mobile phones)—is also included in this field. This field includes the micro controller
and its applications. Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the
design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is
usually considered a separate discipline.

VLSI design engineering VLSI stands for very large scale integration. It deals with fabrication of
ICs and various electronic components.

Education and training

Electronics engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electronic

engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and the
completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science,
Bachelor of Applied Science, or Bachelor of Technology depending upon the university. Many UK
universities also offer Master of Engineering (MEng) degrees at the graduate level.

Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of
Science, Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering, or an Engineering Doctorate. The master's degree
is being introduced in some European and American Universities as a first degree and the
differentiation of an engineer with graduate and postgraduate studies is often difficult. In these
cases, experience is taken into account. The master's degree may consist of either research,
coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research
component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.

In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards
certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. Certification
allows engineers to legally sign off on plans for projects affecting public safety.[21] After
completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements,
including work experience requirements, before being certified. Once certified the engineer is
designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada, and South Africa),
Chartered Engineer or Incorporated Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, and
Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European
Engineer (in much of the European Union).

A degree in electronics generally includes units covering physics, chemistry, mathematics,

project management and specific topics in electrical engineering. Initially, such topics cover
most, if not all, of the subfields of electronic engineering. Students then choose to specialize in
one or more subfields towards the end of the degree.

Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to
obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today
most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-
aided design and simulation software programs when designing electronic systems. Although
most electronic engineers will understand basic circuit theory, the theories employed by
engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid
state physics might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI but are largely irrelevant to
engineers working with embedded systems.

Apart from electromagnetics and network theory, other items in the syllabus are particular to
electronics engineering course. Electrical engineering courses have other specialisms such as
machines, power generation and distribution. This list does not include the extensive
engineering mathematics curriculum that is a prerequisite to a degree.[22][23]
Electromagnetics
…
Elements of vector calculus: divergence and curl; Gauss' and Stokes' theorems, Maxwell's
equations: differential and integral forms. Wave equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves:
propagation through various media; reflection and refraction; phase and group velocity; skin
depth. Transmission lines: characteristic impedance; impedance transformation; Smith chart;
impedance matching; pulse excitation. Waveguides: modes in rectangular waveguides; boundary
conditions; cut-off frequencies; dispersion relations. Antennas: Dipole antennas; antenna arrays;
radiation pattern; reciprocity theorem, antenna gain.[24][25]

Network analysis
…
Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set, and
fundamental circuit matrices. Solution methods: nodal and mesh analysis. Network theorems:
superposition, Thevenin and Norton's maximum power transfer, Wye-Delta transformation.[26]
Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors. Linear constant coefficient differential
equations; time domain analysis of simple RLC circuits, Solution of network equations using
Laplace transform: frequency domain analysis of RLC circuits. 2-port network parameters:
driving point and transfer functions. State equations for networks.[27]

Electronic devices and circuits …

Electronic devices: Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic silicon. Carrier transport in
silicon: diffusion current, drift current, mobility, resistivity. Generation and recombination of
carriers. p-n junction diode, Zener diode, tunnel diode, BJT, JFET, MOS capacitor, MOSFET, LED,
p-i-n and avalanche photo diode, LASERs. Device technology: integrated circuit fabrication
process, oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub CMOS
process.[28][29]

Analog circuits: Equivalent circuits (large and small-signal) of diodes, BJT, JFETs, and MOSFETs.
Simple diode circuits, clipping, clamping, rectifier. Biasing and bias stability of transistor and FET
amplifiers. Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage, differential, operational, feedback and power.
Analysis of amplifiers; frequency response of amplifiers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters.
Sinusoidal oscillators; criterion for oscillation; single-transistor and op-amp configurations.
Function generators and wave-shaping circuits, Power supplies.[30]

Digital circuits: Boolean functions (NOT, AND, OR, XOR,...). Logic gates digital IC families (DTL,
TTL, ECL, MOS, CMOS). Combinational circuits: arithmetic circuits, code converters, multiplexers
and decoders. Sequential circuits: latches and flip-flops, counters and shift-registers. Sample
and hold circuits, ADCs, DACs. Semiconductor memories. Microprocessor 8086: architecture,
programming, memory and I/O interfacing.[31][32]

Signals and systems

…
Definitions and properties of Laplace transform, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier
series, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier Transform, z-transform. Sampling theorems.
Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems: definitions and properties; causality, stability, impulse
response, convolution, poles and zeros frequency response, group delay, phase delay. Signal
transmission through LTI systems. Random signals and noise: probability, random variables,
probability density function, autocorrelation, power spectral density, function analogy between
vectors & functions.[33][34]

Control systems …
Basic control system components; block diagrammatic description, reduction of block
diagrams — Mason's rule. Open loop and closed loop (negative unity feedback) systems and
stability analysis of these systems. Signal flow graphs and their use in determining transfer
functions of systems; transient and steady-state analysis of LTI control systems and frequency
response. Analysis of steady-state disturbance rejection and noise sensitivity.

Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis and design: root loci, Routh–Hurwitz
stability criterion, Bode and Nyquist plots. Control system compensators: elements of lead and
lag compensation, elements of proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control. Discretization of
continuous-time systems using zero-order hold and ADCs for digital controller implementation.
Limitations of digital controllers: aliasing. State variable representation and solution of state
equation of LTI control systems. Linearization of Nonlinear dynamical systems with state-space
realizations in both frequency and time domains. Fundamental concepts of controllability and
observability for MIMO LTI systems. State space realizations: observable and controllable
canonical form. Ackermann's formula for state-feedback pole placement. Design of full order
and reduced order estimators.[35][36]

Communications
…
Analog communication systems: amplitude and angle modulation and demodulation systems,
spectral analysis of these operations, superheterodyne noise conditions.

Digital communication systems: pulse-code modulation (PCM), differential pulse-code

modulation (DPCM), delta modulation (DM), digital modulation – amplitude, phase- and
frequency-shift keying schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK), matched-filter receivers, bandwidth
consideration and probability of error calculations for these schemes, GSM, TDMA.[37][38]

Professional Bodies

Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) (now renamed the
Institution of Engineering and Technology or IET). Members of the Institution of Engineering and
Technology (MIET) are recognized professionally in Europe, as Electrical and computer
(technology) engineers. The IEEE claims to produce 30 percent of the world's literature in
electrical/electronic engineering, has over 430,000 members, and holds more than 450 IEEE
sponsored or cosponsored conferences worldwide each year. SMIEEE is a recognised
professional designation in the United States.

Project engineering

For most engineers not involved at the cutting edge of system design and development,
technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time is also spent on
tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project
schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this
reason, project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form
of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important.

The workplaces of electronics engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do.
Electronics engineers may be found in the pristine laboratory environment of a fabrication plant,
the offices of a consulting firm or in a research laboratory. During their working life, electronics
engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists,
electricians, computer programmers and other engineers.

Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electronics engineers. Membership and
participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of
continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. And these are mostly used
in the field of consumer electronics products.[39]

See also

Electrical engineering technology

Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering

Index of electrical engineering articles

Information engineering

List of electrical engineers

Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering

References

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