CHAPTER 2:

Biological membranes

2.1 Membrane components

2.2 Membrane transport
2.3 Membrane excitation
2.4 Special membrane structure
2.1: Membrane components

Introduction

Plasma membrane
- Selectively Permeable Membranes
• Cells need high concentrations of the right chemicals in
order to carry out the processes of life

• Cells need to be able to get rid of waste products that

interfere with the processes of life
2.1:How
Membrane
they contactcomponents
with
Mouth
the environment?
Plasma membrane
Gastrovascular
- Selectively
Exchange
Permeable Membranes
cavity

Exchange
• Cells need high concentrations of the right chemicals in
order to carry out the processes of life

• Cells need to be able to get rid of waste products that

interfere with the processes of life
Exchange

• Every Every
organism must exchange
organism materials with its
must exchange
environment
materials with its environment
• Exchanges ultimately
Exchanges occur occur
ultimately at theat
cellular
the level by
crossing the plasma
cellular level bymembrane
crossing the
plasma membrane
(a) Single cell (b) Two layers of cells
 Selectively Permeable Membranes
• small molecules (O2,
CO2, ethanol, etc) can
diffuse across the
membrane

• ions (Na+, Mg2+)

cannot

• large molecules?

Amphipathic: having both hydrophobic and

hydrophilic regions
 Small molecules

Large molecules
Small molecules

Transport of molecules across

the cell membrane
 MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS

1. Compartmentalization - specialized internal activities

2. Scaffold for biochemical activities - effective interaction

3. Selectively permeable barrier

4. Transporting solutes

5. Responding to external signals - electrical and chemicals

6. Intercellular interaction - adhesion and communication

Membrane Structure- Phospholipid Bilayer
Hydrophilic
• Phospholipid has two fatty-acid chains head
attached to its backbone. Hydrophobic
tail

• One end is strongly nonpolar while the

WATER
other end is strongly polar.

• Polar head oriented toward water and

nonpolar tails oriented away from
water
WATER

• Bilayer is stable because water’s

affinity for hydrogen bonding never
stops
Membrane structure- Fluid Mosaic Model
• Plasma membrane is composed of both lipids
and globular proteins.
• Membrane proteins are not very soluble in
water.

5-8 nm
 The Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer & Nicolson, 1972)

• Lipid bilayers are fluid- constant motion laterally

• Individual phospholipids diffuse rapidly throughout
the two dimensional surface of the membrane

• The fluid mosaic model of biological membranes

because it includes proteins, cholesterol, and other
types of molecules besides phospholipids – non
homogenous
• There are molecules of cholesterol embedded in the
membrane
• Cholesterol breaks up the Van der Waals interactions and
close packing of the phospholipid tails. This disruption makes
the membrane more fluid.
• Therefore, one way for a cell to control the fluidity of its
membrane is by regulating its level of cholesterol in the cell
membrane.
The Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer & Nicolson, 1972)

Phospholipid
bilayer

Hydrophobic regions Hydrophilic

of protein regions of protein
Lateral movement occurs Flip-flopping across the membrane
107 times per second. is rare ( once per month).
 Fluid Viscous

Unsaturated hydrocarbon Saturated hydrocarbon tails

tails

(a) Unsaturated versus saturated hydrocarbon tails

(b) Cholesterol within the animal

cell membrane

Cholesterol
Cell membrane components:
Lipid, protein and carbohydrate

Lipids
✓ Phospholipid bilayer/Phosphoglycerides
✓ Sphingolipids (amino+alcohol)
✓ Glycolipids (CHO+lipids)
✓ Cholesterols
Lipids functions:

• Physical state of a membrane

• Influence the activity of particular membrane
proteins
• Precursors for highly active chemical messenger
• Continuous interconnection, unbroken
structures
• Facilitate the regulated fusion or budding of
membranes
• Maintaining the proper internal composition of
a cell-separating the electrical charges across
plasma membrane
• Able to self assemble-eg, liposomes
 Lipid bilayer with polar heads and hydrophobic interior

Each represents a
phospholipid - head, is the
negatively charged
phosphate group

The two tails are the two

5 nm highly hydrophobic
thick. hydrocarbon chains of
the phospholipid

Molecules that can diffuse through the membrane do so at differing rates

depending upon their ability to enter the hydrophobic interior of the membrane
bilayer.
 Membrane Carbohydrates
• Linked to lipids (glycolipids) or proteins
(glycoproteins-90%)

• Its roles:
✓ Mediating interactions of cell & its environment
✓ Sorting of membrane proteins to diff. cellular
compartments
✓ Antigenic markers – ABO blood groups
How to identify your blood group?
 The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell Recognition

The Roleonofthe
Carbohydrates Membrane
external side Carbohydrates
of the plasma in Cell-Cell
membrane vary
HIV
Recognition
among species, individuals, and even cell types in an individual

• Carbohydrates on the external side of the plasma

membrane vary among species, individuals, and even
cell types in an individual

Receptor Receptor (CD4)

(CD4) but no CCR5
Co-receptor Plasma
(CCR5) membrane

HIV can infect a cell that HIV cannot infect a cell lacking
has CCR5 on its surface, CCR5 on its surface, as in
as in most people. resistant individuals.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Membrane Proteins
PROTEINS
– Transmembrane proteins
Interior protein network
– Peripheral protein
Glycoproteins
 Membrane Proteins
(1) Integral/transmembrane proteins
• penetrate the lipid bilayer
• hydrophilic-end interact with water soluble substances
• large proteins contain interior channel – passageway through
the plasma membrane
- single-pass anchors
- multiple-pass channels and carriers
- pores

(2) Peripheral proteins-surface

• Form fibrillar networks
• membrane skeleton - attachments to cytoskeleton
• Provide anchor for the integral proteins
The roles of Plasma Membrane Proteins
Membrane structure results in selective
permeability
Permeability of a molecule through a membrane depends on the
interaction of that molecule with the hydrophobic core of the
membrane.
Hydrophobic molecules, like hydrocarbons, CO2, and O2, can
dissolve in the lipid bilayer and cross easily.

Ions and polar molecules pass not easily cross.

Polar molecules, includes small molecules, like water, and
larger critical molecules, like glucose and other sugars.
Ions, whether atoms or molecules, and their surrounding
shell of water also have difficulties penetrating the
hydrophobic core.

Proteins can assist and regulate the transport of ions and polar
molecules.
2.2: Membrane transport

Introduction
• Diffusion
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Osmosis
– Osmotic Balance
• Active Transport
• Bulk Transport
 Transport Across Cell Membranes

Lipid bilayers are not permeable to:

• ions – cations (eg. K+, Na+, Ca2+ ) and

anions (eg. Cl-, HCO3)

• small hydrophilic molecules like glucose

• macromolecules like proteins and RNA

Specific ions and polar molecules can cross the lipid bilayer by
passing through transport proteins that span the membrane.

– Certain molecules or ions can use hydrophilic channel/

tunnel
– Others bind and carry the certain molecules across the
membrane physically.

Each transport protein is specific

• Eg. the glucose transport protein in the liver will carry
glucose from the blood to the cytoplasm, but not fructose,
its structural isomer.
passive transport - follow concentration gradient,
active transport - against their concentration gradient and need ATP.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – diffusion, fascilitated diff. and osmosis
Diffusion
Random motion causes a net movement of
substances from regions of high concentration to
regions of low concentration until equilibrium.
The diffusion - is passive transport, requires no energy

The concentration gradient represents potential

energy and drives diffusion.

The interactions of the molecules with the membrane

play a role in the diffusion rate.

Diffusion of molecules with limited permeability

through the lipid bilayer may be assisted by transport
proteins.
 Selective Membrane Transport
Movement of ions and small hydrophilic molecules
need assistance of membrane transport proteins.
Facilitated diffusion
• Have water-filled pore - ions and some small
hydrophilic molecules can pass by diffusion. The
channels can be opened (or closed) according to the
needs of the cell.

Active transport
• Transmembrane proteins, called transporters, use
the energy of ATP to force ions or small molecules
through the membrane against their concentration
gradient.
 Facilitated Diffusion
– through protein channel or binding with protein

(1) Facilitate movement by physically binding

molecules on one side of the membrane, and
releasing them on the other.
essential characteristics: specific, passive, saturates

Ion bind ion cross ion unbind

(conformational changes of protein)
(2) Many transport proteins simply provide
corridors - channel proteins allow fast transport.
– For example, water-channel proteins (aquaporins)
facilitate massive amounts of diffusion.
Key
Na+
K+

Sodium-
potassium
pump
OUTSIDE
OF CELL
Potassium
channel

Sodium
channel

INSIDE
OF CELL
The transmembrane channels that permit facilitated
diffusion can be opened or closed.

They are said to be "gated".

Some types of gated ion channels:

• ligand-gated
• mechanically-gated
• voltage-gated
• light-gated

Some channel proteins, ‘gated channels’, open or

close depending on the presence or absence of a
physical or chemical stimulus.
 A chemical synapse – impuls transmission
Presynaptic
Postsynaptic cell
cell

Axon
Synaptic vesicle
containing Postsynaptic
neurotransmitter membrane
Synaptic
cleft

Presynaptic
membrane

Ca2+

Voltage-gated Ligand-gated
Ca2+ channel ion channels
Voltage -gated channel
• conformational state depends on the
difference in ionic charge of both sides of
the membrane - eg. neuron and muscle cell
Ligand-gated channels
• conformational state depends on the
binding of a specific molecule/signalling
molecule (the ligand) - extracellular ligands
(eg neurotransmitter), eg. or intracellular ligands
(eg. cAMP)
Gated Ion channels

Importances:
• Formation and propagation of impulses
• Secretions of substances into extracellular
space
• Muscle contraction
• Regulation of cell volume
• The opening of stomatal pores in plant leaves
 OSMOSIS - is the passive transport of water

SOLUTION = SOLVENT + SOLUTES

The solution with the higher concentration of solutes is

hypertonic.

The solution with the lower concentration of solutes is

hypotonic.

Solutions with equal solute concentrations are isotonic.

Osmotic concentration - concentration of all
solutes in solution

– Hyperosmotic - solution with the higher solute

concentration
– Hypoosmotic - solution with the lower solute
concentration
– Isosmotic - solute concentrations are equal
Imagine that two sugar solutions differing in
concentration are separated by a membrane that will
allow water through, but not sugar.
The hypertonic solution has a lower water
concentration than the hypotonic solution.

More of the water molecules in the hypertonic

solution are bound up in hydration shells around
the sugar molecules, leaving fewer unbound water
molecules.
Unbound water molecules / free water will move
from the hypotonic solution to the hypertonic
solution - osmosis.

Osmosis continues until the solutions are isotonic

The cells of most land animals are bathed in an
extracellular fluid that is isotonic to the cells.

Organisms without rigid walls have osmotic problems

in either a hypertonic or hypotonic environment and
must have adaptations for osmoregulation to maintain
their internal environment.
Paramecium have a
specialized organelle,
the contractile vacuole,
that functions as a
pump to force water out
of the cell.
Maintaining Osmotic Balance
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Active transport involves the expenditure of
energy (ATP) to move substance against their
concentration gradient.
– involves highly selective protein carriers within the
membrane, eg:
• sodium-potassium pump
• coupled transport - using energy stored in a gradient of a
different molecule
Ion pumps – Transport proteins in
the membrane act as pumps.
Example: The sodium-potassium pump actively
maintains the gradient of sodium (Na+) and potassium
ions (K+) across the membrane.
– Typically, an animal cell has higher concentrations of K+
and lower concentrations of Na+ inside the cell.
– The sodium-potassium pump uses the energy of one ATP
to pump three Na+ ions out and two K+ ions in.
– Na-K ATPase - Present in nearly every cell in the body,
Pumps 3 Na ions out in exchange for 2 K ions pumped in
(cost=1 ATP)

Other pumps include the Ca-ATPase, and the H-ATPase.

 Primary Active Transport: Pumps Products
Cytoplasmic Na+ binds to
the sodium-potassium pump. Na+ binding stimulates
phosphorylation by ATP.

Loss of the phosphate

restores the protein’s
original conformation.
Phosphorylation causes
K+ is released and Na+
the protein to change its
sites are receptive again;
conformation, expelling Na+
the cycle repeats.
to the outside.

Extracellular K+ binds to the

protein, triggering release of the
Phosphate group.
• In plants, bacteria, and fungi, a proton pump is the
major electrogenic pump, actively transporting H+ out
of the cell.
• Protons pumps in the cristae of mitochondria and the
thylakoids of chloroplasts, concentrate H+ behind
membranes.
• These electrogenic
pumps store energy
that can be harnessed
for cellular work.
Indirect Active Transport.
• Transporters use the energy already
stored in the gradient of a directly-
pumped ion establishes a
concentration gradient.
• The energy released can be
harnessed to the pumping of some
other ion or molecule.
In cotransport, a
membrane protein
couples the transport
of two solutes
 Types of carrier-mediated transport
• Uniport
• Cotransport:
– Symport
– Antiport
Cotransport in plants
- proton pumps drive the active transport of
amino acids, sugars, and other nutrients into the
cell.
Why we study transport system??? – example: nephron function
Proximal tubule Distal tubule
Bowman’s
capsule NaCl H2O Glucose and H2O
HCO3– amino acids NaCl HCO3–
Blood

Some NH H+ K+
3 H+
Filtrate drugs Collecting
H2O and poisons duct
CORTEX
Salts (NaCl, etc.)
MEDULLA
HCO3–
H+ Loop of
Urea Henle NaCl
Glucose
Amino acids NaCl
Some drugs H2O

Reabsorption
Urea
Active transport
NaCl H2O
Passive transport
Secretion
(active transport)

Urine (to renal pelvis)

Figure 25.11
 Connection: Kidney dialysis can be a lifesaver
• A dialysis machine compensates for kidney failure
– It performs the function of the nephrons by removing wastes from the
blood and maintaining its solute concentration

Pump
Tubing made of a
selectively permeable
membrane
Line from artery
to apparatus

Dialyzing
solution
Line from
apparatus
to vein

Fresh dialyzing Used dialyzing

solution solution
(with urea and
excess salts) Figure 25.12
BULK TRANSPORT (transport of large molecules)
(1) Endocytosis - enveloping food
– phagocytosis - materials taken in is in particulate
form
– pinocytosis - materials taken in is in liquid form
– receptor-mediated endocytosis- transport of
specific molecules
(2) Exocytosis - discharge of material from vesicles
at the cell surface
Phagocytosis - “cellular eating”.
• The cell engulfs a particle by extending pseudopodia
around it and packaging it in a large vacuole.
• The contents of the vacuole are digested when the
vacuole fuses with a lysosome.
Pinocytosis - “cellular drinking”
• A cell creates a vesicle around a droplet of
extracellular fluid.
– This is a non-specific process.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Very specific in what substances are being transported.
• Extracellular substances (ligands) bind to special receptors,
coated pits form and triggers the formation of a vesicle-
containing large molecules
• Eg. Cholesterol travels in the blood in low-density lipoproteins
(LDL). These lipoproteins bind to LDL receptors and enter the
human cell by endocytosis.