CHAPTER 4:

Cell cycle

4.1 Mitosis
4.2 Meiosis
4.3 Stem cells
 4.1: Mitosis

CELL
• Define mitosis REPRODUCTION
• Identify stages in mitosis
• State the importance of mitosis
• Explain the chromosomal
behaviour and structural
organisation of cell during
mitosis.
Introduction – Cell Theory

All organisms consist of cells and arise from pre-

existing cells
• Mitosis is the process by which new cells are
generated for body tissues during
development, growth, and tissue repair.
– 2 cells are produced in one cycle of division
– Daughter cells have ALL of the genetic material
of the parent cell
• Meiosis is the process by which special cells called
gametes are generated for reproduction.
– 4 cells are produced in two cycles of division
– Daughter cells have HALF the genetic material of
the parent cell
 SOMATIC Vs REPRODUCTIVE

GAMETES (n) = EGGS (OVA) & SPERM - MEIOSIS

(Somatic) OTHERS (2n) - MITOSIS

NUCLEAR DIVISION
Vs
CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION
 SOMATIC
Vs
REPRODUCTIVE
 The state in which there are two copies of each
chromosome present is known as diploid (2n).

Haploid (n)– only one copy of a chromosome is

present

• All of the somatic cells in our bodies are

diploid cells
• The only cells in our bodies that are haploid are
our gametes – eggs and sperm
Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes
diploid number (2n) = 46

23 from mom - 23 from dad

22 pairs are autosomes –true homologous pairs

1 pair is not necessarily homologous

- sex chromosomes
females are XX
males are XY – a non homologous
pair.
 Meiosis – will be discuss in subtopic 3.3
– form of cell division where there are two
successive rounds of cell division following
DNA replication

- produces haploid cells (n)

- start with 46 double stranded chromosomes (2n)

After 1 division - 23 double stranded chromosomes (n)
After 2nd division - 23 single stranded chromosomes (n)

- occurs in our germ cells

– cells that produce our gametes
- egg and sperm
Cell
division
 Cell
division
All complex organisms
originated from a single
fertilized egg.
Every cell in your body
started here, through
cell division the
numbers are increased
Cell then specialize and
change into their various
roles
Mitosis
• Mitosis is the process by which
new body cell are produced for:
– Growth
– Replacing damaged or old cells.

This is a complex process requiring

different stages
 Mitosis
• All daughter cells contain the same
genetic information from the original
parent cell from which it was copied.

• Every different type of cell in your

body contains the same genes, but
only some act to make the cells
specialise – e.g. into nerve or muscle
tissue.
 BASIC GENETICS
• Each cell in the human body contains two sets of 23
chromosomes

• Mitosis identically replicates this information

• Each cell therefore has the same

genetic material

• Reproductive cells only have one set

of chromosomes. These combine to
make a new person with different
genetic material to both parents
Parent cell

Chromosomes are
copied and double in
number

Chromosomes
now split

2 daughter cells
identical to original
 Reproduction presents a major problem for cells and organisms:
(how can information be transmitted faithfully to progeny)

= one bit of
genetic information
I

II

abnormal
III

IV
abnormal
The information transfer problem becomes more challenging as more
bits of information are incorporated into the organism

= one bit of
genetic information
One of life’s solutions to this challenge: “Package” the
bits of information into single units called chromosomes

= one bit of
genetic information
 The nucleus

Nuclear membrane - double membrane

Chromosomes/Chromatin- genetic
material/DNA

Gene - DNA segment

Chromosome---→ DNA ---→ Gene

Packaging of genetic material in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
prokaryote cell

eukaryote cell

chromosomes
 Structure of Chromosomes

• Chromosomes are composed of a complex of

DNA and protein, chromatin.

• DNA exists as a single, long, double-stranded

fiber extending chromosome’s entire length.
– forms nucleosome every 200 nucleotides
• DNA coiled around histone proteins
 Chromosome basics

• The number of chromosomes present within the

nucleus is a characteristic of the species.

• Chromosomes of humans and most other

eukaryotic species occurs in pairs.

• Members of a chromosome pair are known as

homologues.
 Mitosis/Cell division

Mitosis is the process of cell division in which

one cell becomes two identical daughter cells

• development
• renewal
• regeneration
 The cell cycle is the mechanism by which a
cell duplicates its contents and then
divides in two
daughter
cell 1

cell contents

cell grows and cell divides

duplicates its contents in two
parental
cell

daughter
cell 2

Each parental cell gives rise to two daughter

cells on completion of each cell cycle
Replication of chromosomes
• Replication is the
process of duplicating a
chromosome

• Occurs prior to division

• Replicated copies are called
sister chromatids
• Held together at centromere
Binary Fission-prokaryotic cells
e) Plant cell
Cell Cycle
Prophase
The Stages of
Mitosis

Interphase
Metaphase

Anaphase Telophase
REMEMBER…!
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase IPMAT
Anaphase
Telophase
Summary of Mitosis
in animal cell
 INTERPHASE

• After a cell has divided, the

two new cells begin the
process again, the cells at this
stage are in Interphase.
• By late interphase, the chromosomes have
been duplicated but are loosely packed.
• The centrosomes have been duplicated and
begin to organize microtubules into an
aster (“star”).

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Late interphase
PROPHASE
• The chromatin (decondensed
DNA) in the nucleus,
condenses to form pairs of
chromosomes.

• As this is happening the nucleolus begins to break down

• The centrioles move to opposite ends

of the nucleus.
•• Nuclear membrane begins to break
down
 • Centrioles
Prophase • Nuclear membrane
• Nucleolus
• Chromosomes
• Replicated
chromosomes
condense.

• Microtubules organize
into a spindle
 The Spindle
A spindle is a web type structure made
up of microtubule fibers. It is
essential for mitosis because it
arranges the chromosomes into their
correct positions in preparation for cell
division. Mitotic center

A cell at metaphase a spindle

Microtubule
 Chromosomes attached to
spindle during nuclear
division
• Final exam…Jan 2013 (4m)…labels and find +/- ends
 METAPHASE

• The spindle
becomes fully
developed
• The chromatid pairs
are aligned along
the center of the
spindle (the EQUATOR)

• The nuclear membrane has completely gone

• The spindle fibers push the sister
chromatids until they are all arranged at
the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane
equidistant between the poles, defining
metaphase.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Anaphase
• Centromeres of sister
chromatids separate

• Chromosomes move
to opposite ends of
the cell
• At anaphase, the centromeres divide,
separating the sister chromatids.
• Each is now pulled toward the pole to
which it is attached by spindle fibers.
• By the end, the two
poles have equivalent
collections of
chromosomes.
 TELOPHASE
Two new nuclei are formed
when the chromosomes reach
the opposite poles of the cell
The nuclear membrane is formed- the nucleolus
reappears
The chromosomes disperse in the nucleus
Telophase
• Nuclear membranes
form

• Spindle disappears

• Division of cytoplasm
occurs (cytokinesis)
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
CYTOKINESIS
Literally means, division of the cytoplasm

Mitosis is the splitting of the nucleus.

Cytokinesis is the splitting of cytoplasm

Cytokinesis

• Cleavage of cell into two halves

– animal cells
• constriction belt of actin filaments
– plant cells
• cell plate
Cytokinesis

Cytoplasmic division
occurs after nuclear
division is complete.

Two cells are formed.

 Cytokinesis in animals

A cleavage furrow forms that pinches the cell in two -

the furrow represents a ring of actin and myosin
filaments just under the plasma membrane.
Rat – epithelial cells
Mitosis – bone cell slides
Parent cell
Chromosomes copied
1 2

Cells split

3 4 5

Copies separating 2 daughter cells

Cytokinesis in plants

A cell plate made up of cell-wall

components gradually forms in the
middle of the cell.
 Plants
• Final exam…
• Jun 2013 (20m)
• Stages of mitosis
and meiosis
So what’s the difference in
Plants?
• Plant cells do not have a centriole
• Plant cells do not pinch in half.
• Cytoplasmic division is
accomplished by a cell plate
forming between 2 daughter cells
Cell Turnover –
The speed of mitosis

• One full cycle can vary between a couple of

minutes to days.

• For example skin and epithelial cells have a

rapid turnover in the human body in order to
replace the ones constantly being worn away.

• Cells which make up organs such as the eye and

the brain, need not multiply as often once they
reach adult size.
Organs which need to
produce new cells
continuously have the
highest turnover.

• For example:-

Bone marrow - producing

replacement blood cells
The testes - producing
spermatogonia
Tumors
• Abnormalities can sometimes occur in
cells which reproduce at a rapid rate,
this in turn may lead to the formation
of tumors.

• Tumors of any type should be

considered serious.

• Although benign tumors do not usually

cause a threat to a persons life, they
can cause great inconvenience if not
treated.
CANCER

• uncontrolled cellular mitotic

divisions
Cancer cells in
bloodstream…
cancer spreads
from the original
tumor to form new
tumors in other
parts of the body
(metastasize).
Benign tumors, tumors that generally stay
eg…
• Myomas are tumors that grow from muscle.
• Nevi (moles) are growths on the skin
• Osteochondromas are the most common
type of benign bone tumor.

Malignant tumor, have two goals in life: to

survive and to conquer new territory
eg…
• cancer cells can break away from a
malignant tumor and enter the lymphatic
system or the bloodstream.
BEWARE ….breast lump becomes
breast cancer!!!
 4.2: Meiosis

Introduction – Meiosis: A Source of Distinction

Why do you share some

but not all characters of
each parent?

What are the rules of this

sharing game?

At one level, the answers

lie in meiosis.

Homeworks! … look for advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction

Meiosis does two things:

• Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of

every chromosome (diploid) and makes
cells with a single copy of every
chromosome (haploid) – genetic materials
. is reduced by half
• In meiosis, one diploid cells produces four
haploid cells - formation of gametes.
Understanding chromosome
Chromosomes
and
Karyotype

Eg. Human chromosome

2n = 23
(23 autosomes + XX or XY)

Karyotype:
An ordered display of the
pairs of chromosomes
from a cell
Why do we need meiosis?

• Meiosis is necessary to halve the

number of chromosomes going into
the sex cells (gametes)

Why halve the chromosomes in

gametes?
• At fertilization the male and female
sex cells will provide ½ of the
chromosomes each – so the offspring
has genes from both parents
2) Meiosis scrambles the specific forms of
each gene that each sex cell (egg or sperm)
receives.

This makes for a lot of genetic diversity. This

trick is accomplished through
independent assortment and crossing-over.

Genetic diversity is important for the evolution

of populations and species.
Meiosis – one division of the
chromosome followed by two divisions nucleus
and cell
Parent cell –
chromosome pair

Chromosomes
copied

1st division - pairs split

2nd division – produces

4 gamete cells with ½
the original no. of
chromosomes
Meiosis
Meiosis – mouse testes
Parent cell
1st division

2nd division

4 gametes
The Stages of Meiosis:
Reduction Division
Meiosis I : Separates
Homologous Chromosomes

• Interphase
– Each of the
chromosomes
replicate
– The result is two
genetically
identical sister
chromatids which
remain attached at
their centromeres
 Prophase I
• This is a crucial phase for mitosis.
• During this phase each pair of
chromatids don’t move to the
equator alone, they match up with
their homologous pair and fasten
together (synapsis) in a group of
four called a tetrad.
• Extremely IMPORTANT!!! It is
during this phase that crossing over
can occur.
• Crossing Over is the exchange of
segments during synapsis.
Metaphase I

• The chromosomes
line up at the
equator attached
by their
centromeres to
spindle fibers
from centrioles.
– Still in
homologous pairs
Anaphase I
• The spindle guides the
movement of the chromosomes
toward the poles
– Sister chromatids remain attached
– Move as a unit towards the same
pole
• The homologous chromosome
moves toward the opposite pole
– Contrasts mitosis – chromosomes
appear as individuals instead of
pairs (meiosis)
Telophase I
• This is the end of the first
meiotic cell division.
• The cytoplasm divides, forming
two new daughter cells.
• Each of the newly formed cells
has half the number of the
parent cell’s chromosomes, but
each chromosome is already
replicated ready for the second
meiotic cell division
Cytokinesis
• Occurs simultaneously with
telophase I
– Forms 2 daughter cells
• Plant cells – cell plate
• Animal cells – cleavage
furrows

• NO FURTHER REPLICATION
OF GENETIC MATERIAL
PRIOR TO THE SECOND
DIVISION OF MEIOSIS
Figure 13.7 The stages of meiotic cell division: Meiosis I
Meiosis II :
Separates sister
chromatids

• Proceeds similar to mitosis

• THERE IS NO INTERPHASE II !
 Prophase II

• Each of the
daughter cells
forms a spindle,
and the double
stranded
chromosomes
move toward the
equator
Metaphase II

• The chromosomes
are positioned on
the metaphase
plate in a mitosis-
like fashion
Anaphase II

• The centromeres of
sister chromatids
finally separate
• The sister
chromatids of each
pair move toward
opposite poles
– Now individual
chromosomes
Telophase II and
Cytokinesis

• Nuclei form at opposite

poles of the cell and
cytokinesis occurs
• After completion of
cytokinesis there are
four daughter cells
– All are haploid (n)
Figure 13.7 The stages of meiotic cell division: Meiosis II
One Way Meiosis Makes Lots of
Different Sex Cells (Gametes) –
Independent Assortment
Independent assortment produces 2n
distinct gametes, where n = the number
of unique chromosomes.

In humans, n = 23 and 223 = 60,000,000.

That’s a lot of diversity by this

mechanism alone.
 Another Way Meiosis Makes Lots of Different
Sex Cells – Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of different

gamete types produced by independent assortment.
The Key Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis is
the Way Chromosomes Uniquely Pair and Align in
Meiosis

Mitosis The first (and

distinguishing)
division of meiosis
Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”
 Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”

Y chromosome
X chromosome
Meiosis – division error?!!

Chromosome pair
Meiosis error -
fertilization

Should the gamete with the

chromosome pair be fertilized
then the offspring will not be
‘normal’.

In humans this often occurs

with the 21st pair – producing
a child with Downs Syndrome
- was identified by French researchers in
1959
21 trisomy – Downs Syndrome

Can you see the

extra 21st
chromosome?

Is this person male

or female?
 4.3: Stem cells

Introduction – What is a stem cells?

• All stem cells, no matter their source, are

unspecialized cells that give rise to more specialized
cells.

• Stem cells can become one of more than 200

specialized cells in the body.

• They serve as the body’s repair system by renewing

themselves and replenishing more specialized cells in
the body
Stem cells are mother cells that have the potential to become
any type of cell in the body.

One of the main characteristics of stem cells is their

ability to self-renew
TWO TYPES OF STEM CELLS
ADULT STEM CELL -
Undifferentiated cells of tissue/organ – eg:
Bone marrow, sperm-producing mother cells
(spermatogonia)

EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS -

Undifferentiated cells of embryos produced
from fertilization (in-vivo, in-vitro)
 Embryonic stem cells
• not implanted into the uterus
• used to study development
• may be mixed with chemicals to help
the cells take on different properties
• ultimately may be able to introduce
these cells into an adults
Definition…

Embryonic stem cells - Stem cells are often

associated with embryos and fetal development, as stem
cells are abundant during this period. Research on the use
of embryonic stem cells has been controversial.

Adult or somatic stem cells - Stem cells

present after birth. Even adults have stem cells in their
bodies, though the concentration declines with age.

Induced stem cells - researchers have been

able to modify mature cells so that they can specialize into
other types of cells.
• Pros and Cons of Stem Cell Therapy
and Research..hot issues!!!
The pros
• …to treat a range of diseases and disorders, from
various types of cancer to spinal cord injuries
• … to regenerate and repairing damaged or
diseased tissues
• …to curing such degenerative diseases such as
Alzheimer’s disease.
• … it holds the key to reversing the effects of
aging and prolonging our lives… possible “cure”
for aging altogether.

help us all live longer, healthier lives.

• Pros and Cons of Stem Cell Therapy
and Research..hot issues!!!
The cons
• …mostly refer to issues with embryonic stem cell
research. Those who oppose stem cell research
oppose the use of embryonic stem cells
• … whether or not a human life is being lost when
the embryonic stem cells are extracted.
• …To use these cells for research, the embryo
must be destroyed, and some feel that this is an
ethical issue.
Research on the use of embryonic stem cells has been controversialal.
cleaving zygote