PME 5010 - Analytical Mechanics Non-Holonomic Systems Lagrange Multipliers

PME 5010 – Analytical Mechanics
Non-Holonomic Systems
Lagrange Multipliers
Dr. Renato Maia Matarazzo Orsino, Assistant Professor
1 Holonomic and non-holonomic systems
2 Constraint forces & Lagrange multipliers
3 Lagrange equations with multipliers
4 Canonical equations with multipliers
5 Case study: knife-edge disc
PME 5010 - Lecture #6 Renato Maia Matarazzo Orsino April 1st, 2020 3 / 37
Generalized coordinates
• Set of variables adopted for a parametric description of the motion of a system
in the neighborhood of a given configuration.
• Typically represented as a n-vector:

q1
 q2 
 
q = (q1 , q2 , . . . , qn ) =  . 
 .. 
qn
• For a ν -dof mechanical system S , n ≥ ν always!
• Given a coordinate system E = (O, ê1 , ê2 , ê3 ), attached to a reference
frame of interest, the position of any point P of S can be described as follows:
∑
3
⃗rP|O = ⃗rP|O (t, q) = rk (t, q)êk
k=1
Holonomic systems
Definition
A ν -dof mechanical system S is classified as a holonomic system if one of the
following statements is true:
i. A ν -vector q of generalized coordinates is sufficient for parameterizing the
configurations of S in a given neighborhood.
ii. Whenever a n-vector q of generalized coordinates with c = n − ν > 0 is
adopted, it is possible to obtain a c-vetor h(t, q) of independent motion
invariants that must be satisfied so that no motion described by q violates any
constraint of S :
 
h1 (t, q)
 h2 (t, q) 
 
h(t, q) =  . =0
 . 
.
hc (t, q)
Holonomic systems
~g Example: spherical pendulum

n̂z The system P constituted by a single material point P constrained
n̂x O to move along a spherical surface of radius l is a 2-dof holonomic
n̂y
φ system, since:
i. Any configuration of P can be described by the pair of
θ
generalized coordinates q = (θ, ϕ):
P ⃗rP|O = l(sin θ cos ϕn̂x + sin θ sin ϕn̂y − cos θn̂z )
ii. If Cartesian coordinates q = (x, y, z) are adopted, for

example, one motion invariant in the form h(t, q) must be
satisfied; indeed:
⃗rP|O = xn̂x + y n̂y + z n̂z , with

1
h(t, q) = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 − l2 ) = 0
2
Non-holonomic systems
E Example: knife-edge disc

φ O
~g B n̂y n̂x • A knife-edge rigid disc B rolling without slipping
G n̂z along a planar surface constitutes a 3-dof
non-holonomic system K.
θ
C
N • At least five generalized coordinates are needed to
ê1
ê3 describe a generic configuration of K:
ψ
q = (x, y, ψ, ϕ, θ)
• N = (O, n̂x , n̂y , n̂z ): coordinate system attached to the plane.

• Let E = (C, ê1 , ê2 , ê3 ) be an auxiliary coordinate system whose origin C is
the single point of the plane in contact with B:
– axis Cê1 is tangent to this edge of B;
– axis Cê3 passes through the center G of B.
E
φ
Example: knife-edge disc
B n̂y O
~g n̂x
• (x, y) describe the position of C in the coordinate
G n̂z
system N.
θ
C
N
• (ψ, ϕ) describe the orientation of E in N.
ê1
ê3
• θ describes the relative motion of B in E.
ψ
q = (x, y, ψ, ϕ, θ)
• Pure rolling condition: the point P of the disc that instantly coincides with point
C of the plane must have a zero velocity in N. Since, ⃗ vC|N = ẋn̂x + ẏ n̂y
and ⃗
vP|E = rθ̇ê1 :
{
ẋ + rθ̇ cos ψ = 0
⃗
vP|N = ⃗vP|E + ⃗ vC|N = ⃗0 ⇒
ẏ + rθ̇ sin ψ = 0
• Since these 2 invariants are non-integrable, they cannot be expressed in the
form h(t, q) = 0.
δ Example: Whipple bicycle

GB H
ψ • 4 rigid-bodies:
φ θ GH – rear wheel (R)
– rider & frame (B)
R F
B – fork & handlebar (F)
– front wheel (H)
GR GF
• Each wheel is modeled as a
OH
knife-edge disc.
λ
n̂x
CR(x, y, 0) CF
w c n̂z
For a comprehensive treatment on this model see:

Meijaard et. al (2007) “Linearized dynamics equations for the balance and steer of a
bicycle: a benchmark and review”. Proc. R. Soc. A 463 (2084), 1955–1982. DOI:
10.1098/rspa.2007.1857.
Pfaffian form
Let S be a ν -dof mechanical system for which a n-vector q of generalized

coordinates, with c = n − ν > 0, is adopted. Most of the results presented
henceforth are only valid for both holonomic systems and the so-called simple
non-holonomic systems, whose c independent constraint equations can be
expressed in Pfaffian form:
A(t, q)dq − b(t, q)dt = 0

    
A11 A12 ... A1n dq1 b1
 A21 A22 ... A2n   dq2   b2 
    
 . . .. .  .  −  .  dt = 0
 .. .
. . .
.   ..   .. 
Ac1 Ac2 ... Acn dqn bc
For virtual displacements: A(t, q)δq = 0

Pfaffian form
Particularly for a holonomic system:
∂hi ∂h
Aij (t, q) = (t, q) ⇒ A(t, q) = (t, q)
∂qj ∂q
∂hi ∂h
bi (t, q) = − (t, q) ⇒ b(t, q) = − (t, q)
∂t ∂t
Example: spherical pendulum in Cartesian coordinates

1
h(t, q) = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 − l2 ) = 0
[ 2 ]
A= x y z , b=0
Example: knife-edge disc

{ [ ]
ẋ + rθ̇ cos ψ = 0 1 0 0 0 r cos ψ
⇒ A= , b=0
ẏ + rθ̇ sin ψ = 0 0 1 0 0 r sin ψ
Constraint forces & constraint equations
P0 (0, y0 (t))
Example: double pendulum with top-motion excitation
• 2-dof holonomic system
φ1 • Adopting q = (x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 ), the following constraint
P1 (x1 , y1 )
equations must be satisfied:
[ ]
êx
φ2 P2 (x2 , y2 ) 1 l12 − x21 − (y1 − y0 (t))2
êy h(t, q) = =0
2 l22 − (x2 − x1 )2 − (y2 − y1 )2
[ ]
~1
T −x1 y0 (t) − y1 0 0
φ1 A(t, q) =
P1 x2 − x1 y2 − y1 x1 − x2 y1 − y2
[ ]
~2
−T (y0 (t) − y1 )ẏ0
~2
b(t, q) =
m1~g T 0
φ2 ⃗ 1 = λ1⃗rP |P = λ1 (−x1 êx + (y0 (t) − y1 )êy )
P2 T 0 1
m2~g ⃗ 2 = λ2⃗rP |P = λ2 ((x1 − x2 )êx + (y1 − y2 )êy )

T 1 2
Generalized constraint forces
Proposition
Let S be a ν -dof mechanical system for which a n-vector q of generalized
coordinates, with c = n − ν > 0, is adopted. Assume that the c constraint
equations of S can be expressed in Pfaffian form. For a given state of the system,
there is c-vector λ of Lagrange multipliers so that, the generalized constraint forces
of the system can be expressed as follows:
∑
Cj = Aij λi , j = 1, . . . , n ⇒ C = AT λ
i
Generalized constraint forces
Proof.
Since Aδq = 0, in order to be admissible (compatible with the constraints of the
system), a virtual displacement δq must lie in the kernel of A, whose dimension
must be equal to the number of degrees of freedom of S , i.e. null(A) = ν . Thus,
rank(A) = n − ν = c.
Therefore, at a given state of the system, the rows of A provide a basis for the
c-dimensional subspace of Rn orthogonal to any admissible virtual displacement at
that state. Any constraint force must lie in such subspace, since constraint forces
do no work under admissible virtual displacements. Indeed:
∑
δWC = Cj δqj = δqT C = (δqT AT )λ = 0
j
This completes the proof.

Lagrange equations with multipliers

Let S be a ν -DOF holonomic or simple non-holonomic mechanical system for which
a n-vector q of generalized coordinates, with c = n − ν > 0, is adopted. For this
system, c independent constraint equations can be expressed in Pfaffian form:
A(t, q)dq − b(t, q)dt = 0 ⇒ A δq = 0 (1)
The expression of Extended Hamilton’s Principle for S is:

∫ t1 ∫ t1
δ L(t, q, q̇) dt + δ W̃ dt = 0 (2)
t0 t0
Since constraint forces do no work under admissible virtual displacements, the

following equivalent expression for Extended Hamilton’s Principle can be written:
∫ ∫
t1 t1 ( )
δ L(t, q, q̇) dt + δ W̃ + δWC dt = 0 (3)
t0 t0

Since δWC = δqT AT λ, with λ representing a c-vector of Lagrange multipliers,
after some algebraic manipulations, the Eq. (3) becomes:
∫ t1 ( ( ) )
∂L d ∂L
δqT − + Q̃ + AT λ dt = 0 (4)
t0 ∂q dt ∂ q̇
⇕
∫ t1 n (
∑ ( ) ∑
c )
∂L d ∂L
− + Q̃j + Aij λi δqj dt = 0 (5)
t0 j=1
∂qj dt ∂ q̇j i=1
• Assume that the c multipliers λj are chosen to cancel the coefficients of c

variations δqj in Eq. (5).
• Since S is a ν -dof system, the n − c = ν variations δqj remaining in this
expression can be arbitrarily chosen, which means that Eq. (5) will only be true
if each of the remaining ν coefficients are also zero.
Therefore, the coefficient of all the δqj in Eq. (5) must be zero, which means that the
Lagrange equations for S are given by:
( ) ∑
c
∂L d ∂L
− + Q̃j + Aij λi = 0, for j = 1, 2, . . . , n (6)
∂qj dt ∂ q̇j i=1
⇕
( )
∂L d ∂L
− + Q̃ + AT λ = 0 (7)
∂q dt ∂ q̇
Equation (7) represents the most general form of Lagrange equations for constant
mass holonomic or simple non-holonomic systems.

Alternative derivation for holonomic systems
Let S be a ν -DOF holonomic mechanical system for which a n-vector q of

generalized coordinates, with c = n − ν > 0, is adopted. For this system, c
independent constraint equations can be expressed in the following form:
h(t, q) = 0 (8)
In this case, the Lagrangian of S can be replaced by
∑
c
L′ (t, q, q̇, λ) = L(t, q, q̇) + λT h(t, q) = L(t, q, q̇) + λi hi (t, q) (9)
j=1
in expression of Extended Hamilton’s Principle for S , leading to:

∫ t1 ∫ t1
δ L′ (t, q, q̇, λ) dt + δ W̃ dt = 0 (10)
t0 t0

Alternative derivation for holonomic systems
After some algebraic manipulations, Eq. (10) becomes:

∫ t1 [ ( ( ) ) ]
∂L d ∂L
δq T
− T T
+ Q̃ + A λ + δλ h dt = 0 (11)
t0 ∂q dt ∂ q̇
Now, assuming that all the qj (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) and all the λi (i = 1, 2, . . . , c) can
be treated as independent variables, the corresponding Lagrange equations for S
become:
 ( )

 ∂L − d ∂L + Q̃ + AT λ = 0
∂q dt ∂ q̇ (12)


h(t, q) = 0
Therefore, when the modified Lagrangian L′ defined by Eq. (9) is adopted, the
variational problem following from the Extended Hamilton’s Principle becomes
unconstrained, once the motion invariants h(t, q) = 0 are naturally recovered a
posteriori as the Lagrange equations associated to the multipliers λ.
Canonical equations with multipliers

Let S be a ν -DOF holonomic or simple non-holonomic mechanical system for which
a n-vector q of generalized coordinates, with c = n − ν > 0, is adopted. In order
to obtain the canonical equations of motion for S from the Extended Hamilton’s
Principle, let the modified Lagrangian L∗ be defined as follows [1]:
L∗ (t, q, q̇, p, v) = L(t, q, v) + pT (q̇ − v) (13)
It can be stated that:

∂L∗ ∂L∗ ∂L∗ ∂L∗
δL∗ = δqT + δ q̇T + δpT + δvT (14)
∂q ∂ q̇ ∂p ∂v
with:
∂L∗ ∂L ∂L∗
= =p
∂q ∂q ∂ q̇
(15)
∂L∗ ∂L ∗
∂L
= q̇ − v = −p
∂p ∂v ∂v
Applying Extended Hamilton’s Principle with L∗ replacing L, it can be stated that:

∫ [ ( )
t1
∂L∗
δqT − ṗ + Q̃ + AT λ
t0 ∂q
( )]
( ) ∂L
+ δpT q̇ − v + δvT − p dt = 0 (16)
∂v
Assuming that δp and δv are two n-vectors of independent variables, whose
values can be arbitrarily chosen, the following identities come from Eq. (16):
v = q̇ (17)
∂L
p= (18)
∂v
From Eq. (13), it can be noticed that if v = q̇, then L∗ = L, which proves that
Eq. (16) is indeed the expression of the Extended Hamilton’s Principle for S .

Define the Hamiltonian of S , by the following expression:
H(t, q, p) = pT q̇ − L∗ (t, q, q̇, p, v) (19)
Comparing the values of the partial derivatives of L∗ computed by its definition in

Eq. (13) and by Eq. (19), it can be stated that:
∂L∗ ∂L ∂H ∂L∗
= =− =p
∂q ∂q ∂q ∂ q̇
(20)
∂L∗ ∂H ∂L ∗
∂L
= q̇ − v = q̇ − = −p=0
∂p ∂p ∂v ∂v
Considering that from the variational problem stated in Eq. (16), v = q̇, two
identities follow from the equations above:
∂L ∂H ∂H
=− and q̇ = (21)
∂q ∂q ∂p
Thus, the expression of Extended Hamilton’s Principle in Eq. (16) can be simplified to
the form:
∫ t1 ( )
∂H
δqT − − ṗ + Q̃ + AT λ dt = 0 (22)
t0 ∂q
Following the same reasoning as in the derivation of Lagrange equations with
multipliers, it can be stated that the canonical equations of motion for S are [2]:
∂H
q̇ = (23)
∂p
∂H
ṗ = − + Q̃ + AT λ (24)
∂q
• Notice that the n-vector v of auxiliary variables was only introduced for the
sake of performing the derivations.
• Taking the conventional expression of the Lagrangian of S , L(t, q, q̇), the
generalized momenta p can be directly defined as follows:
∂L
p= (25)
∂ q̇
• Moreover, the Hamiltonian of S can be defined simply as:
H = H(t, q, p) = pT q̇ − L(t, q, q̇(t, q, p)) (26)
with q̇(t, q, p) representing a solution of the system of equations (25) in terms

of q̇.
Kinematics
• N = (O, n̂x , n̂y , n̂z ): coordinate system E
attached to the plane. φ O
~g B n̂y n̂x
• Let E = (C, ê1 , ê2 , ê3 ) be an auxiliary
G n̂z
coordinate system whose origin C is the
single point of the plane in contact with B: θ
– axis Cê1 is tangent to this edge of B; C
ê1 N
– axis Cê3 passes through the center G of B. ê3
• Adopt a 6-vector of generalized coordinates ψ
for this system:
q = (x, y, z, ψ, ϕ, θ)
• (x, y, z) are the Cartesian coordinates of the ⃗
vG|N = ẋn̂x + ẏ n̂y + ż n̂z
center G of the disc in the system N. ⃗ B|N = ϕ̇ê1 + (θ̇ + sϕ ψ̇)ê2 + cϕ ψ̇ê3
ω
• (ψ, ϕ) describe the orientation of E in N.
• θ describes the relative motion of B in E.
Kinematics
• Pure rolling condition: the point P of the disc
E
that instantly coincides with point C of the φ
B n̂y O
plane must have a zero velocity in N. ~g n̂x
G n̂z
⃗ ⃗ B|N × (rê3 ) = 0
vG|N + ω
θ
 ( ) C

 ẋ + rcψ θ̇ + ψ̇sϕ + rϕ̇cϕ sψ = 0 ê1 N
 ( ) ê3
ẏ − rϕ̇cψ cϕ + rsψ θ̇ + ψ̇sϕ = 0 ψ



ż − rϕ̇sϕ = 0 integrable
• Constraints in Pfaffian form: Aq̇ − b = 0

 
1 0 0 rcψ sϕ rcϕ sψ rcψ
A =  0 1 0 rsψ sϕ −rcψ cϕ rsψ  and b=0
0 0 1 0 −rsϕ 0
Hamiltonian Formulation
• Lagrangian of the system:

1[ ( )]
L= vG|N · ⃗
m⃗ vG|N + ω ⃗ B|N · ĪB|G · ω⃗ B|N + (mg n̂z ) · ⃗rP|O
2
1[ ( ) ( ) ]
= m ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 + I ψ̇ 2 c2ϕ + I ϕ̇2 + J θ̇ + ψ̇sϕ 2 + mgz
2
• Time derivatives of the generalized coordinates (q̇) expressed in terms of the
generalized momenta (p):
px pψ p θ sϕ
ẋ = ψ̇ = −
m Ic2ϕ Ic2ϕ
py pϕ
ẏ = ϕ̇ =
m I
pz pθ (c2ϕ (I − J) + I + J) p ψ sϕ
ż = θ̇ = −
m 2IJc2ϕ Ic2ϕ

• Hamiltonian of the system:
( )
p2x + p2y + p2z p2ψ − 2pθ pψ sϕ p2ϕ p2θ I + (J − I)s2ϕ
H= + + + − mgz
2m 2Ic2ϕ 2I 2IJc2ϕ
• Canonical equations for the system:
∂H
ṗ = − + Q̃ + AT λ
∂q


 ṗx = λ1





 ṗy = λ2



 ṗz = λ3 + mg

 ṗψ = rsϕ (λ1 cψ + λ2 sψ )



 2sϕ (p2 2
ψ +pθ )−(3−c2ϕ )pθ pψ

 ṗϕ = rcϕ (λ1 sψ − λ2 cψ ) − rλ3 sϕ −

 2Ic3


ϕ
ṗθ = r (λ1 cψ + λ2 sψ )
Elimination of the multipliers
• Constraint equations written in terms of the generalized momenta:

 mrcψ pθ mrcϕ pϕ sψ

 px = − −

 J I

 mrcψ cϕ pϕ mrpθ sψ
py = −

 I J



 pz = mrpϕ sϕ
I
• Explicit expressions for the multipliers:


 λ1 = ṗx

λ2 = ṗy


 λ3 = ṗz − mg
Equations of motion

 ẋ = −r (Jcϕ pϕ sψ + Icψ pθ )/(IJ)





 ẏ = rcψ cϕ pϕ /I − rpθ sψ /J





 ψ̇ = (pψ − pθ sϕ )/(Ic2ϕ )







 ϕ̇ = pϕ /I



 pθ (I + (I − J)c2ϕ + J) − 2Jpψ sϕ
 θ̇ =
2IJc2ϕ




 ṗ = Jmr pϕ sϕ (pθ sϕ − pψ )
2




ψ
I 2 cϕ (J + mr2 )

 ( ( ) )



 Imgrsϕ (pθ sϕ − pψ ) pθ 2J + mr2 c2ϕ + mr2 − 2Jpψ sϕ

 ṗϕ = −

 I + mr2 2J (I + mr2 ) c3ϕ





 Jmr2 pϕ (pθ sϕ − pψ )
 ṗθ =
I 2 cϕ (J + mr2 )
Equations of motion – non-dimensional form (m = g = r = 1)



 ẋ = −(νcϕ pϕ sψ + µcψ pθ )/(µν)





 ẏ = cψ cϕ pϕ /µ − pθ sψ /ν





 ψ̇ = (pψ − pθ sϕ )/(µc2ϕ )





 ϕ̇ = pϕ /µ





 pθ (µ + (µ − ν)c2ϕ + ν) − 2νpψ sϕ
θ̇ =
 2µνc2ϕ



 νpϕ sϕ (pθ sϕ − pψ )

 ṗψ =

 µ2 cϕ (ν + 1)





 µsϕ (pθ sϕ − pψ ) (pθ (2ν + c2ϕ + 1) − 2νpψ sϕ )

 ṗϕ = −

 µ+1 2ν (µ + 1) c3ϕ





 νpϕ (pθ sϕ − pψ )
 ṗθ =
µ2 cϕ (ν + 1)
Circular motion solution – non-dimensional form

• In a circular motion solution:
 φ0
 x(t) = sin(κvt)/κ ~g
y(t) = − cos(κvt)/κ 1/κ

z(t) = − cos ϕ0
G
with v , κ and ϕ0 constants.
C
• From the constraint equations:
  ( ) ê2 ê3
n̂z
 ψ̇ = κv  pψ = v κµc2ϕ0 − νsϕ0
ϕ̇ = 0 ( ⇔ pϕ = 0
 ) 
θ̇ = −v 1 + κsϕ0 pθ = −νv
• According to the equations of motion of the system, a
circular motion solution exists if and only if:
tan ϕ0
v2 =
κ(κµ sin ϕ0 + ν + 1)
Alternative derivation using the Angular Momentum Theorem

• Angular momentum with respect to point C:
⃗ B|C = ĪB|C · ω
H ⃗ B|N = (I + mr2 )ϕ̇ê1 + (J + mr2 )(θ̇ + ψ̇sϕ )ê2 + I ψ̇cϕ ê3
• Angular momentum theorem:
( )
⃗˙ B|C + ⃗
H vC|N × m⃗
vG|N = mgrsϕ ê1
• Equations of motion:

 ψ̈ = − θ̇J ϕ̇ − ψ̇ ϕ̇(J − 2I)sϕ



 Icϕ Icϕ



 ( ) ( )
θ̇ψ̇cϕ J + mr 2
ψ̇ 2 cϕ sϕ −I + J + mr2 mgrsϕ
ϕ̈ = + +

 I + mr 2 I + mr 2 I + mr2

 ( )

 ( )
 ψ̇ ϕ̇ Jcϕ I − J − mr
2 2

 θ̈ = − 2I + J +
θ̇J ϕ̇sϕ
Icϕ J + mr2 Icϕ
References
Lanczos, C.: The variational principles of mechanics.

Dover Publications, New York (1986)
Orsino, R.M.M.: A contribution on modeling methodologies for multibody
systems.
Ph.D. thesis, Universidade de São Paulo (2016)
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reorsino@usp.br

PME 5010 - Analytical Mechanics Non-Holonomic Systems Lagrange Multipliers

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PME 5010 - Analytical Mechanics Non-Holonomic Systems Lagrange Multipliers

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PME 5010 – Analytical Mechanics

~g Example: spherical pendulum

P ⃗rP|O = l(sin θ cos ϕn̂x + sin θ sin ϕn̂y − cos θn̂z )

ii. If Cartesian coordinates q = (x, y, z) are adopted, for

⃗rP|O = xn̂x + y n̂y + z n̂z , with

E Example: knife-edge disc

• N = (O, n̂x , n̂y , n̂z ): coordinate system attached to the plane.

δ Example: Whipple bicycle

For a comprehensive treatment on this model see:

Let S be a ν -dof mechanical system for which a n-vector q of generalized

A(t, q)dq − b(t, q)dt = 0

For virtual displacements: A(t, q)δq = 0

Example: spherical pendulum in Cartesian coordinates

Example: knife-edge disc

Constraint forces & constraint equations

m2~g ⃗ 2 = λ2⃗rP |P = λ2 ((x1 − x2 )êx + (y1 − y2 )êy )

Generalized constraint forces

Generalized constraint forces

This completes the proof.

Lagrange equations with multipliers

A(t, q)dq − b(t, q)dt = 0 ⇒ A δq = 0 (1)

The expression of Extended Hamilton’s Principle for S is:

Since constraint forces do no work under admissible virtual displacements, the

Lagrange equations with multipliers

• Assume that the c multipliers λj are chosen to cancel the coefﬁcients of c

Lagrange equations with multipliers

Lagrange equations with multipliers

Let S be a ν -DOF holonomic mechanical system for which a n-vector q of

In this case, the Lagrangian of S can be replaced by

in expression of Extended Hamilton’s Principle for S , leading to:

Lagrange equations with multipliers

After some algebraic manipulations, Eq. (10) becomes:

Canonical equations with multipliers

L∗ (t, q, q̇, p, v) = L(t, q, v) + pT (q̇ − v) (13)

It can be stated that:

Canonical equations with multipliers

Applying Extended Hamilton’s Principle with L∗ replacing L, it can be stated that:

Canonical equations with multipliers

H(t, q, p) = pT q̇ − L∗ (t, q, q̇, p, v) (19)

Comparing the values of the partial derivatives of L∗ computed by its deﬁnition in

Canonical equations with multipliers

Canonical equations with multipliers

H = H(t, q, p) = pT q̇ − L(t, q, q̇(t, q, p)) (26)

with q̇(t, q, p) representing a solution of the system of equations (25) in terms

for this system:

• Constraints in Pfafﬁan form: Aq̇ − b = 0

• Lagrangian of the system:

Canonical equations with multipliers

Elimination of the multipliers

• Constraint equations written in terms of the generalized momenta:

Equations of motion – non-dimensional form (m = g = r = 1)

Circular motion solution – non-dimensional form

Alternative derivation using the Angular Momentum Theorem

Lanczos, C.: The variational principles of mechanics.

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