Earth Science

Lesson 1 (the origin of the universe and solar system)

1. Big Bang Theory

- A cosmological model that explains how the universe began. Says that the universe
started its expansion about 13.8 billion years ago.
- Says that the universe started as a singularity (predicted to be in the core of a black
hole) that has a high temperature and density.
- Asserts that the seconds after explosion its surroundings are at a high temperature
about 10 billion degrees Fahrenheit.
- The first proponent of the big bang theory is Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre.
(A Belgian priest and was the one that suggested the idea of the universe expanding.)
( Universe originated in an explosive act of primeval atom or the “cosmic egg”)
(The primeval atom or cosmic egg is like a huge atomic nucleus)
Nucleosynthesis- A formation of elements (for ex. Hydrogen and helium)
- Because of the presence of these element led the formation of the stars and galaxies.
- The stars formation led to the formation of the cosmic bodies. (planets, comets, and
asteroid)
OTHER TBBT PROPONENTS AND DOINGS
Edwin Powell Hubble
- American astronomer that gave the evidence proving that the universe is not static and
expands.
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
- Also American astronomers that studied cosmic radiation in 1964 and discovered that
microwaves and wavelengths that are present in space are about 7 centimeters.
- (CMB) cosmic microwave background radiation

the universe will expand forever, but more slowly all the time.
2. Steady State Theory
- Says that the universe has been and always will be present.
- Has no beginning and no end.
- Says that the universe will always look the same any time or space but still expands
simultaneously creating matter.
- Says that the death of stars are equal to the birth of stars.
PROPENTS OF SST
- James Jeans
- Fred Hoyle
- Hermann Bondi
- Thomas Gold
3. Oscillating Universe Theory
- Also known as the Pulsating Theory.
- Says that the universe expands but will contract once all the energy after the big bang
has been used up, but will expand again when it reaches the point of singularity.
- Described as the combination of the big bang and the big crunch.
- Says that the universe reverses and attains the point of singularity, another universe
will be born.
PROPONENTS OF OUT
- Richard Tolman
4. Cosmic Inflation Theory
- Was proposed by physicists Alan Guth and Andre Linde.
- The early universe is a rapidly expanding bubble of pure vacuum energy.
- After the expansion and cooling arising from this inflation, the potential energy
converted into kinetic energy
5. Nebular Theory
- There are three major steps on how the solar system was formed.
1. Cloud Collapse- The origin of planets and sun in the solar system is a huge cloud of
molecular gas and dust.
2. Formation of Protoplanetary Disk
Terrestrial Planets- Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
Jovian Planets- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
3. Growth of Planets- The dust and grains that was surrounding the sun eventually
formed clumps that accreted into forming planetesimal.
 PROPENTS OF THE NBT
Can be credited to Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace.

Lesson 2 (why life on earth is possible)

Origin of Planet Earth
Accretion- when the gravity attracts tiny bits of matter towards an object that
gradually increases the object’s size. In relation to the solar system formation, objects
increase its size until it turns into planets and stars.
2 Hypotheses on how the structure of Earth was formed
1. Homogenous Accretion Hypothesis
- States that the formation of Earth began after the condensation of fine particles of the
primitive nebula about 4.6 billion years ago.
- Primary components were iron, magnesium, nickel, silicates, and some radioactive
elements like uranium and thorium.
- Due gravitational contraction and decay of radioactive elements, the temperature of
early Earth increased.
- It took many years for iron and nickel to accumulate and reach the center of about
4000miles deep.
- Iron and nickel accumulated and formed the Earth’s core. A thin layer of solid rock
formed the crust including the continental and ocean basins after cooling down.
Between the core and the crust is the mantle, a layer of semi-molten silicate rocks and
other mineral.
2. Heterogeneous Accretion Hypothesis
- States that the core has formed at the same time as Earth.
- As the nebula cooled down, its particles have condensed depending on their
condensations points.
Lesson 3 (water the medium of life)
- Earth is also known as the blue planet.
- Humans should still conserve and not abuse water resources.
- It’s undeniable that water plays an important role for all living organisms in the planet.
Since the prehistoric stage, human beings depends on water for the development.
Therefore, life is not possible on Earth without water.
- The water environment on Earth is known as the hydrosphere.
- All water on Earth comprise the hydrosphere. (water vapor, liquid water, and ice)
- Includes all bodies of water. (Oceans, lakes, rivers, and marshes. Cloud, snow, glacier,
and rain.)
- Hydrosphere is comprised of 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater.
SALTWATER
- As the name implies, salt water is composed of certain amount of salt.
- Saltwater comprises the oceans and seas.
FRESHWATER
- Contrary to the popular belief that the freshwater is devoid of salt, freshwater still has
small amounts of salts but in very low concentrations.
- Despite the abundance of water on earth, only a small amount of Earth’s water is
accessible as freshwater.
IMPORTANC OF WATER
1. Water could be in the liquid form.
2. Water has neutral pH.
3. Water is good conductor of heat and energy.
4. Water has a high specific heat.
5. Water is universal solvent.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
- Water circulates everywhere on earth.
- Liquid water found on the surface of Earth is converted to vapor when temperature
increases.
- Gaseous water is then collected in clouds and then falls to earth in the form of rain, hail,
sleet or snow.
SUN AS THE MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY
Albedo- is the ability of a material to reflect light.
- A high albedo means that a material can reflect light more than a material with low
albedo.
- The sun is the primary source of energy on Earth. This energy is required for almost all
processes that take place within Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and
biosphere.
- Without the sun, plant cannot perform photosynthesis.
- In addition, sunlight converts molecule precursors in your skin to produce vitamin D.
- Earth’s energy budget ensures that the absorbed solar radiation is balanced to the
radiated ones.
- Keeping Earth’s energy budget ensure that the average temperature on Earth remains
stable and that life continues to exist.
- Thirty percent (30%) of the solar energy that reaches the surface of Earth is reflected
back to space while the remaining 70% of the solar energy is absorbed by Earth’s
surface.
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
- It is the layer of gas surrounding Earth that is a crucial factor in sustaining life on the
planet. The layer of gas is called the atmosphere.
- The Earth is not “too hot” nor “too cold” to sustain life because of the atmosphere.
- It is mostly made up of air, air is made up mostly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%)
gases. The remaining one percent is made up of other gasses such as water vapor,
carbon dioxide, ozone, argon, neon, helium, hydrogen, dust particles, and
chlorofluorocarbons.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1. TROPOSHERE
- This is the closest layer of the atmosphere to Earth.
- Came from a Greek word “tropos” which means change.
- Temperature gets cooler as you go higher in the atmosphere.
- This lowest layer is where humans live.
- This layer nearly holds all water vapor in the Earth’s atmosphere.
- Characterized by a relatively high atmospheric pressure which allow high
concentrations of oxygen ideal for life.
- The top most part of the troposphere is called the tropopause. (The tropopause serves
as a boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere.

2. STRATOSPHERE
- The stratosphere is 35 km thick.
- The temperature gets warmer as you go higher (in this layer).
- The ozone layer is a special region which protects Earth from the harmful rays from the
sun, is found in the stratosphere.
- Ozone- is a form of oxygen which absorbs the UV rays from the sun, which eventually
releases heat. The layer where most ozone accumulates makes up the ozone layer.
- The boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere (the third layer of the
atmosphere) is called the stratopause (is about 50 km above the surface of the earth).

3. MESOSPHERE
- Came from the word “meso” which means middle.
- Third layer of the atmosphere
- (In this layer) temperature decreases as altitude increases.
- Doesn’t have gases that can absorb UV rays from the sun.
- This layer is characterizes as a very cold layer at an average of -90 degrees Celsius
- The topmost layer is called the mesopause.
4. THERMOSPHERE
- Came from the word “thermo” which means heat.
- (this layer) Roughly 600 km thick that has a temperature that can reach about 1500
degrees Celsius.
- The biggest layer of the atmosphere.
- A layer in the thermosphere is called ionosphere

5. EXOSPHERE
- Came from the word “exo” which means outside.
- It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.
- More than 700 km, maybe up to 10,000 km from the surface of the earth with no clear
boundary.
- This layer absorbs some radiation and protects the layers underneath
 INTRODUCTION TO EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE

- Earth Systems Science (ESS) is an integration of different of the different scientific fields.
It is the study of Earth as an integrated system.
- This connects physical and natural sciences while incorporating humanities fields, such
as Sociology, Philosophy, and Psychology.
NOTABLE SCIENTISTS
There are several prominent people who greatly contributed in establishing the current
theories and principles that we acknowledge as part of Earth System Science.
1. Vladimir Vernadsky
- A Russian mineralogist and geochemist.
- Popularized the term noosphere.
- Theorized that the noosphere is the last of many stages in evolution of organisms.
- When human reason will provide further sustainable development of both humanity
and the global environment.
2. Alexander von Humboldt
- German geographer and naturalist
- Helped establish the foundation for Earth System Science through his observations of
nature.
- Studied the transfer of heat around Earth through ocean currents influences greatly
affects the types of organism living certain areas.
3. James Hutton
- Father of modern geology
- A Scottish farmer and naturalist
- Conceptualized the process of weathering.
- Introduced the concept of uniformitarianism.
4. James Lovelock
- British environmentalist
- Proposed the Gaia hypothesis or Gaia principle.
5. Lynn Margulis
- An American biologist and evolutionary theorist
- Developed Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis.
NASA Involvement
- In 1983, national aeronautics and space administration (NASA) formed Earth System
Science Committee.
- NASA scientist aim to understand Earth’s systems.
Relevance to Society
- All things around us are built upon the subsystem of Earth.
- All parts of the human history happened on the earth’s crust.
- (understanding) physical and chemical attributes of Earth is highly essential for the
advancement of human lives in the planets.
THE FOUR SUBSYSTEM OF EARTH
- Earth is a complex self-regulating system that is consists of four major subsystem
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Geosphere
4. Biosphere

1. ATMOSPHERE
- Makes up all the gases on Earth
- Came from a Greek word called “atmos” that means gas.
- No specific boundary
- Has an imaginary line called “Karman line”, separates the atmosphere and outer space.
- Has 5 different layers. (Troposphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, thermosphere, and
exosphere)

2. GEOSPHERE
- Came from a Greek word “geo” that means ground.
- Includes all soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of Earth.
- Has 3 layers (Crust, Mantle, and Core)

Crust - the outermost layer of the geosphere

- Mostly made of silicate materials
- Has two different types of crust (oceanic and continental)
- Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho is the boundary between the crust and mantle.
(named after a Croatian scientist, Andria Mohorovicic.
Mantle- mostly made up of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron.
- 2,900 km thick layer below the crust
- Has 2 layers ( Lithosphere and Asthenosphere)
Lithosphere- uppermost mantle and it is cold and brittle
Asthenosphere- is the layer directly beneath the lithosphere
- Is hot enough to flow and minimally melt, allowing the lithospheric or tectonic plates
above to move.

Core- innermost layer of the Earth.

- Has a radius of 3480 km.
- Made up of iron and nickel.
- Has two layers called the outer core and inner core.
- Bullen discontinuity is the boundary that separates the two regions of the core.

3. HYDROSPHERE
- Came from a Greek word “hydro” that means water.
- Composed of all water on earth ( Water vapor, liquid water, and ice)
- Comprised of 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% fresh water
- Includes oceans, lakes, rivers, marshes.
- Clouds and rain are also apart.
4. BIOSPHERE
- Biosphere come from Greek word “bio” which means life.
- Comprised of all living things. (Microbes, plants, and animals.)
- Extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere where insects and birds can be found.
- Reaches the deep parts of the oceans where marine organisms can survive.
- Organisms interact with other organisms and the physical environment.
- They form communities called biomes.
EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM
- Weather is the fluctuating state of the atmosphere over a short period of time.
- Climate is the average weather over a certain period and area.
Factors that affect the weather and climate on Earth
1. Atmosphere is considered the most uneven, unstable, and fast-changing part of climate
change.
- Nitrogen (N2) is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere followed by oxygen (O2)
2. Hydrosphere influences the climate system by storing and transporting large amounts of
energy.
- Oceans (which covers 70% of Earth’s surface) acts as climate regulator.
- Oceans absorbs majority of the sunlight that reaches the Earth’s surface.
3. Soil and Vegetation- the land surface of the geosphere affect climate by controlling how
much energy received from the sun is returned to the environment.
4. Biosphere- has the significant effect on the atmosphere’s composition.
- Photosynthesis allows the release of oxygen and uptake of carbon dioxide
- Organisms take part in the exchange of greenhouse gases.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
- A biochemical cycle is a complete path an element or a compound take through the four
subsystem of Earth.
- The name “biochemical” implies the involvement of life (bio-), Earth’s surface (geo), and
substances (chemical) present on earth.
- Include water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen cycles.
1. Water Cycle
- Movement of water from ocean to the atmosphere to land and back to the ocean is
called the water or hydrologic cycle.
- The water undergoes evaporation. (Transforms from liquid to gas. Also, plants release
water vapor through the pores under the leaves in the process known as transpiration.
- When it reaches a certain altitude the lighter water vapor cools and tiny floating
droplets
- Precipitation is the release of the water from clouds in the form of rain, sleet, hail or
snow.
- Around 60% of precipitation on land evaporates back to the atmosphere each while 40%
2. NItrogren Cycle
- Is the movement of nitrogen between the four sphered
- Involves the conversion of nitrogen into various forms
- Nitrogen makes up approximately 78% of the atmosphere, is essential to life’s protein
synthesis.
- Involves nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, and denitrication.
1. Nitrogen Fixation
- The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into biologically available nitrogen
(ammonium compounds).
- Only a selected group of prokaryotes can carry out reactions the break such bond.
- These prokaryotes are called nitrogen- fixing bacteria.
2. Nitrification
- A process that converts ammonia and ammonium compounds into nitrite and then
nitrate.
- Occurs aerobically and is carried out exclusively by prokaryotes.
- Nitrite and nitrates are utilized by land plants and algae in water bodies.
- Algae, plants, and bacteria convert the inorganic forms of nitrogen compounds through
different chemical reactions.
3. Ammonification
- It is process where fungi and prokaryotes decompose the dead tissue of organism and
release the inorganic nitrogen back to the ecosystem as ammonia/
- Also known as nitrogen mineralization.
4. Denitrification
- Involves the process of releasing nitrogen back to the atmosphere.
- Denitrifying bacteria, organic compounds from dead organisms are converted back to
ammonia, nitrate, or molecular nitrogen.