THE IMPACT OF CULTURE ON

TRANSLATION
Ideology in Translation

JANUARY 15, 2014

TR5002
The integrative approach to culture and language is one of the most postulated views in
modern linguistics. It emphasises that linguistic practice is always embedded in the wider
cultural context. Indeed, if we consider how different world views are contained in the
semantic and pragmatic systems of various languages, the macro- context of acts of
communication starts to play a significant role. The reason behind this is that operating a
language involves an awareness of all the associations, which the expressions give a rise to,
which, in turn are shaped by the cultural reality. Embracing culture in translation thus means
not only working on the translatability of the text but also decoding all culture specific items
(CSI) ‘that are key to social organization, cultural practices, and dispositions constituting the
habitus as a culture, and are central to the question of personal and social identities, as well as
to social cohesion’ (Tymoczko, 2007: 242).

The cultural turn in translation studies of the late 80s resulted in modifying the notion of
translation. It is now widely seen as ‘an act of communication permanently dealing with at least
two languages along with a broad network of elements including cultural, historical, political
and ideological differences’ (Hatim and Mason, 1997: 2). The work of the translator consists of
not merely transferring lexical units from source text (ST) into target text (TT) but most
importantly “rewriting or manipulating original texts” (Lefevere, 1992: 16). As a consequence
translation becomes an ideological activity, which oscillates around the asymmetrical relations
between cultures involved/reflected in the act of transmission.

In this paper we will look into how ideology, as an essential element of cultural context,
influences the process of transfer and how ideology, which resides in texts is rendered into
culturally different environments. The essay is organised as follows: as a departure point we
will present a definition of ideology in a much broader than solely political sense. Next, within
the framework of the descriptive translation studies we will conduct analysis of a variety of
texts, from the purely informative to politically sensitive, with the aim of determining a possible
ideological shift in translated texts. In case studies we will analyse by what means and to what
extent transferring ideology is influenced by socio-cultural context (translating ideology), but
also what impact ideology has on choices made by translators (ideology of translation). For ‘the

1
most important thing is not how words are matched on the page, but why they are matched
that way, what social, literary, ideological considerations let translators translate as they did’
(Herman, 1994: 141).

First and foremost, let us begin with defining ideology. It must be borne in mind that for the
purpose of the paper and recent tendencies in translation studies we take it in a much wider,
semiotic sense. As a departure point we establish the socio-cognitive notion of ideology,
defined by van Dijk as ‘the basis of the social representations’ (van Dijk, 1998: 8). Although it is
very complex, for the sake of brevity and relevancy we will only present its components, that is:
discourse (language use which expresses ideologies in society), cognition (thoughts, personal
and socially shared values) and society (group interests, power and domination).

The definition takes us away from the purely political sense of the word, understood as a
struggle of political or economic ideas and enables us to take up the issue of ideology in the
practice of translation as a two-way system. On one side it imposes the issue of how ideology,
as a part of a socio-cultural context affects the translation and how translators deal with
reproducing (if they do) ideology for different audiences, on the other (Hatim and Mason, 1997:
145). The first issue deals with the norms of translation process, when the translator makes a
particular choice, for instance the ST itself, which is in turn ‘determined by the interests and
objectives of social agents’ (Toury, 1980: 53) as well as the value-driven choices of the mode of
import, influenced by political, social and cultural factors. The latter, brings about the issue of
how ideology is reproduced or challenged through discursive manifestations, which are the
outcome of mediation by translators, who manipulate ST under the constraints of their own
assumptions, beliefs, values and goals. In that sense ideology includes the issue of power
relations in given societies, the instances of various forms of authority and professional and
institutional power, which determines genre, style, register, lexical and grammatical choices in
discourse. To make apparent is the objective of the case studies, conducted below.

As already noted, the ideology consists of discourse, which also includes transitory texts such as
information leaflets or instruction manuals. Since the ST is not tied to a particular culture, it
enjoys the status of original text in the receiving culture. In translation it falls under the

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category of a covert translation, where ‘the translator concentrate exclusively on the envisaged
new target context, employing a cultural filter to cater to the imagined new addressees’
context- derived communicative norms’ ( House, 2008: 151). Thus the changes are being
introduced, according to the target culture (TC) conventions of the text production.

[ST.] PARACETAMOL 1000 MG TABLETS. PACKAGE LEAFLET: INFORMATION FOR THE USER
Read all of this leaflet carefully before you start taking this medicine
Keep this leaflet. You may need to read it again.
If you have further questions, please ask your doctor or pharmacist.
Always take Paracetamol 1000mg Tablets exactly as your doctor or pharmacist has told you.
You should check with your doctor or pharmacist if you are not sure.
Do not exceed the stated dose.
Paracetamol 1000 mg Tablets should not be given to children under 16 years of age.
DO NOT TAKE IF:
You are pregnant or breast feeding

[TT.] Ulotka dołączona do opakowania: informacja dla użytkownika

Paracetamol 1000mg, tabletki
Należy uważnie zapoznać się z treścią ulotki przed zastosowaniem leku, ponieważ zawiera ona
informacje ważne dla pacjenta.
Należy zachować tę ulotkę, aby w razie potrzeby móc ją ponownie przeczytać.
Należy zwrócić się do farmaceuty, jeśli potrzebna jest rada lub dodatkowa informacja.
Ten lek należy zawsze stosować zgodnie z opisem w ulotce dla pacjenta lub według wskazań
lekarza lub farmaceuty.
Nie stosować dawki większej niż zalecana.
Nie stosować u dzieci w wieku poniżej 15 lat.
Przeciwskazania:
Leku nie należy stosować w czasie ciąży lub karmienia piersią.

[BT.] Leaflet attached to the package: information for user.

It is required to carefully read the content of the leaflet before taking medicine, because it
contains important information for the patient.
It is required to keep the leaflet in case of need to read it again.
It is required to approach the pharmacist, if additional information or advice is needed.
How to take medicine Paracetamol
This medicine is always required be taken according to the description in the leaflet or according
to the indications of doctor or pharmacist.
Not to use more than the recommended dose.
Not to give to children below 15 years old.
Contraindications:
The medicine is not to be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding.

3
The mediating role of a translator is clearly visible - in order to preserve the functional
equivalence of the ST, significant linguistic modifications have been introduced. With the use of
a strategy called ‘cultural filter […] the translator can make systematic allowances for
accommodating differences in text production’ (House, 2008: 153), particularly in regards to
the register. Special attention should be paid to the tenor, which represents the interpersonal
function of the language, revolving around the power relation between text producer and text
recipient, and is often realised by use of pronouns. The ST operates within the second person
direct pronoun you. Its currency differs significantly in TL, where both singular (ty) and plural
(wy) expresses very close familiarity with the reader. In TC, following the genre requirements,
this form of address must be avoided, hence various procedures have been implemented. First
of all, the personal pronoun of the ST is replaced by the noun patient in the TT, creating
distance between participants in the act of communication. Moreover, the implementation of
passive structures (is always required, is not to be used) as well as nominalization, where the ST
agent-verb sequence (if you are pregnant) is converted into a single noun (pregnancy) results in
agentless clauses. The passivation and nominalization of the ST’ structures along with style
shifting to a very formal is serving here an ideological stance to exploit the variables of power
and distance, which according to van Dijk’s are part and parcel of ideology. By use of
transitivity, i.e. ‘the way we view reality and represent it in the arrangements of the clause in
terms of participants, process and circumstances’ (Hatim and Mason,1993: 23) we are
presented with the power-orientated TT, in which people are subjected to the authority in
contrast to actively involved agents in the ST. The cultural filter employed by the translator can
be justified here in terms of, what Chesterman calls expectancy norms, when the text is
adopted according to ‘expectancies of the readers of a translation (of a given type) concerning
what translation (of this type) should be like.’ (Chesterman, 1997: 64). This study case
accentuates how ideology can be implicitly embedded in the discourse, even such a seemingly
simple text as an information leaflet reflects the social distance and power relations in a given
society. For ideology shapes discourse and manifests itself through the conventions of language
usage for text production typical for a particular culture.

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Other interesting instances of ideology can be found in children’s literary texts seen broadly as
culturally formative (Hollindale, 1988: 38) conveyors of the world. The ideological content is
expressed through clear morals or ethical principles. ‘The power of ideology is inscribed within
the words, the rule-systems, and codes which constitute the text. It tries, as it were, to force
language into conveying only those meanings reinforced by the dominant values of our society.’
(Hunt, 1994: 10) Since the didacticism of children’s literature is very prominent, it allows the
translator to render ST in various ways through manipulations to the extent of completely
changing the ST ‘in order to have the revised version serve ideological purposes’ (Hunt, 1994:
11). Indeed, that is the case in the following translation of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
(Alice).
The excerpt itself is quite challenging due to its richness in CSI’s, which usually impose a
difficulty on the translator. By comprising the idioms, we will investigate how the translator
approached the text in terms of ideology, narrowed here to one of the van Dijk’s components,
i.e. cognition.

[ST.]. ‘The game’s going on rather better now,’ she said, by way of keeping up the
conversation a little.
“Tis so,’ said the Duchess: ’and the moral of this is – “Oh, ‘tis love, ‘tis love, that makes the
world go round!”’
‘Somebody said,’ Alice whispered, ‘that it’s done by everybody minding their own business!’
‘Ah, well! It means much the same thing,’ said the Duchess […]
‘How found she is of finding morals in things!’ Alice thought to herself […]
Flamingos and mustard both bite. And the moral of that is – “Birds of a feather flock
together.” ‘
‘Only mustard isn’t a bird’, Alice remarked.
‘Right as usual,’ said the Duchess: ‘what a clear way you have of putting things!’
‘It’s a mineral, I think,’ said Alice […]
‘I quite agree with you,’ said the Duchess; ‘and the moral of that is – “Be what you would
seem to be” – or if you’d like it put more simply – “Never imagine yourself not to be
otherwise than what it might appear to others that what you were or might have been was
not otherwise than what you had been would have appeared to them to be otherwise.”

[TT.]: Gra robi się coraz bardziej interesująca- odezwała się, aby podtrzymać rozmowę.
- Niewątpliwie -odrzekła Księżna. -A stąd płynie morał, że „na pochyłe drzewo każda koza
skacze”.
- Gdyby nie skakała - rzekła Alicja, aby coś powiedzieć – to by nóżki nie złamała.

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-To prawda -rzekła Księżna - masz zupełną rację. […]
Alicja pomyślała sobie, że Księżna musi mieć bzika na punkcie morałów.[…]
-Oczywiście, flamingi i musztarda gryzą. A stąd płynie morał, że „lepszy wróbel w ręku niż
dzięcioł na sęku”.
-Tylko, że musztarda nie jest ptakiem- zauważyła Alicja […]
- Zgadzam się z tobą w zupełności, a stąd płynie morał, że „oszczędnością i pracą ludzie się
bogacą”.
Mogę wytłumaczyć ci to przystępnie: ludzie, którzy nie są skłonni oddawać się lenistwu i
uważają za stosowne nie hołdować zbytniej rozrzutności, byliby niewątpliwie ubożsi, względnie
nie byliby tak zamożni, gdyby nie przyświecała im stale i niezmiennie dewiza stosowania się do
wyżej wyszczególnionych zasad.

[BT]: The game is becoming more interesting – said [Alice] in order to maintain the
conversation.
-Undoubtedly, said the Duchess. And the moral of this is, that “on a sloping tree every goat
jumps”
- If she didn’t jump – said Alice, just to say something, she wouldn’t break a leg”
- That’s true – said the Duchess – you are absolutely right […]
Alice thought to herself, that the Duchess must be crazy about the morals. […]
Of course, flamingos and mustard bite.
And the moral is, that “better sparrow in hand than a woodpecker on a snag”
Only that the mustard isn’t a bird – noticed Alice […]
- I agree with you totally, and the moral is, that “by thriftiness and work people are getting
rich”. I can explain it to you more plainly: people, who don’t devote themselves to laziness and
they think appropriate not to subject themselves to extravaganza would be undoubtedly poorer,
relatively not as rich, if they weren’t following constantly and unchangeably the motto of
applying themselves to the above mentioned rules.

It is necessary to introduce preliminary notes regarding the extra-textual features, such as place
and time of the ST production and reception of the TT. Alice, written by Lewis Carroll, was
published in 1865 in Victorian England, which then stood as a symbol of prosperity and progress
for the rest of the world. On the other hand, the chosen translation into Polish, by Antoni
Marianowicz, was published in 1955, when Poland was in the manacle of communism. This
issue of asymmetry of cultures has a great impact on strategies employed by the translator with
domestication of the ST as the leading one. This particular excerpt exposes in a satiric manner,
by the means of literary nonsense, the values shared by the Victorian society. In the encounter
with Alice, the Duchess voices those values and in some instances refers to the prominent
English writer, Charles Dickens. The phrase Oh, ‘tis love, ‘tis love, that makes the world go

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round, popularised by Dickens in his Our Mutual Friend (Dickens, 1864) is now widely
recognisable by the British readership. The underlying meaning of the phrase is that life is more
pleasant when people treat each other lovingly, that the values of mutual appreciation and
respect should stand as a fundamental principle of any society. In TT, transmutation realised by
the substitution of the ST expression with TL idiom results not only in the loss of intertextuality,
but also brings about an ideational shift. The translator rendered the ST by introducing TL
idiom, Na pochyłe drzewo każda koza skacze, which according to Słownik idiomów polskich
(Dictionary of Polish Idioms, 2006: 315) is associated with practical values, with method, and
with the difficulty of reaching one’s goal. Although the target language (TL) has a cultural
equivalent of the ST idiom, the latter has been replaced with another TL idiom. By substitution
the translator reverses the ideology of the text and creates TC-specific imagery in accordance to
dominant ideological currents of Poland in the late 1950s. For the sake of brevity, we merely
present the remaining idiomatic expressions of the ST without deeper analysis, for the same
strategy of substitution is consequently applied to all, as shown in the table below:

ST term TL cultural equivalent TT term

To mind one’s own businessPilnować swojego nosa (BT: Gdyby kózka nie skakała, to
To mind one’s own nose) by nóżki nie złamała
Birds of a feather flock Ciągnie swój do swego (BT: Lepszy wróbel w ręku niż
together one attracts one’s own dzięcioł na sęku
people
Be what you would seem to Bądź tym, kim jesteś (BT: Be Oszczędnością i pracą ludzie
be who you are) się bogacą

The maximal degree of mediation, required when ‘acceptability usually prevails over adequacy,
as the final product must conform to the target culture’ s educational values ‘ (Hatim and
Mason, 1997: 153) is conducted here by strategy of domesticating the ST for the sake of the TC.
Domestication/ foreignization has been described by Venutti (1995) as a dominating trend in
the practice of translation. The essence of domesticating a ST revolves around a normalising or
neutralising effect, ‘depriving ST producers of their voice and re-expressing foreign cultural
values in terms of what is familiar (and therefore unchallenging) to the target readership’
(Hatim, 1997: 145). Indeed, having investigated the procedures applied in the chosen

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translation of the text into Polish, it is undoubtable that the ST has been filtered through the
dominant ideology and then domesticated in order to express and serve the values of Polish
society at the time. The concept of Alice as a symbol of progressive values, such as
individualism or protecting one’s own identity against the expectations of society has been lost
in translation as a result of the translator’s choices. Indeed, for

‘ideology resides not simply in the text translated, but in voicing and
stance of the translator, and its relevance to the receiving audience.
These latter features are affected by the place of enunciation of the
translator, they are part of what we mean by the ‘place’ of enunciation,
for that place is an ideological positioning as well as geographical or
temporal one‘ (Tymoczko, 2003: 183).

It may be the case that the personal stance of the translator, as a member of Polish United
Worker’s Party played a role in rendering the ST. Although literal translation would be wholly
inadequate here, considering the genre of literary nonsense and occurrence of the idiomatic
expressions, implementing the cultural equivalents would enable the translator to preserve the
ideational meaning of the ST. Domestication and maximal mediation in this case prove how
deeply translation strategies are affected by the distance in time and socio-cultural ideologies,
addressing different audiences and conforming to different norms. It should be considered that
the intellectual life of Poland was determined by the concept of socio-realism, as an official
policy, which put immense pressure on writers and translators to promote communist doctrine
under the eye of the censorship.

Venutti (1995) links the domestication with the ethnocentrism of the culture, which functions
without any additions from the foreign, which may be the case in Polish culture of the 1950s,
closed - as a result of the totalitarian character of communism - to western influences.
Moreover, If we take into consideration the fact that this translation was commissioned by
Nasza księgarnia, the publishing house, which then was an instrument for the Communist
propaganda, the dramatic ideological shift in the TT may be justified in terms of accountability
norm, ‘which governed the practice of translation in terms of loyalty with regard to the
commissioner of the translation, the translator himself or herself, the prospective readership
and any other relevant parties’ (Chesterman 1997: 68). On the one hand, this case study shows

8
how discourse helps to reinforce and maintain contemporaneous dominant ideology, and on
the other, how those dominant values may influence the translator’s decisions, making ‘the
extent of the translator’s mediation itself an ideological issue’(Hatim and Mason,1997: 141).

Finally, we arrived at the case of the politically sensitive text, with ‘ideology in its purest, or
crudest, form’ (Munday, 2008: 151). The macro-context of the text is the imbalanced
relationship between Latin America and USA, specifically the implications of foreign policy of
the latter for Latin American countries. The speech was given by Hugo Chávez, left-wing
president of Venezuela, at the United Nations in 2006. As an enemy of the US system, he
condemned American politics as a form of imperialism.

[ST]: El discurso del Presidente “tirano” mundial, lleno de cinismos, lleno de hipocresía, es la
hipocresía imperial, el intento de controlar todo, ellos quieren imponernos el modelo
democrático como lo conciben, la falsa democracia de las elites, y además un modelo
democrático muy original, el que se impone a punta de marines, de invasiones, de agresiones
y de bombas.
Dice el presidente de los Estados Unidos ayer, en esta misma sala lo siguiente, cito: “Hacia
dónde quiera que usted mira, oye a extremistas que le dicen que puede escapar de la miseria
y recuperar su dignidad a través de la violencia, el terror y el martirio”. Por todos lados ven
extremistas los imperialistas. No, no es que somos extremistas, lo que pasa es que el mundo
está despertando y por todos lados insurgimos los pueblos. Yo tengo la impresión señor
dictador imperialista que usted va a vivir el resto de sus días con una pesadilla, porque por
dondequiera que vea vamos a surgir nosotros, los que insurgimos contra el imperialismo
norteamericano. Los que clamamos por la libertad plena del mundo, por la igualdad de los
pueblos, por el respeto a la soberanía de las naciones.

[BT]: The speech of President-tyrant of the world, full of cynicism, full of hypocrisy, the imperial
hypocrisy, an intention to control everything, they want to impose a democratic model as they
see it, the false democracy of elites, and also a very original democratic model, which imposes
itself through marines, invasions, aggressions and bombs.
Says the president of the United States yesterday, in this very room the following, I quote:
"Wherever you look, you hear extremists saying you can escape misery and regain your dignity
through violence, terror and martyrdom." Everywhere he looks he sees extremists. Everywhere
the imperialists see extremists. No, it’s not that we are extremists, what happens is that the
world is waking up and everywhere we, the peoples are rising up. I have an impression, Mr
imperialistic dictator that you are going to live the rest of your days as a nightmare, because
wherever you look, we are going to stand up, we who are rising up against North American
imperialism. We, who cry out for full freedom of the world, equality of the peoples, respect for
the sovereignty of nations.

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[TT]: The world parent's statement - cynical, hypocritical, full of this imperial hypocrisy from the
need they have to control everything. They say they want to impose a democratic model. But
that's their democratic model. It's the false democracy of elites, and, I would say, a very original
democratic model. What type of democracy do you impose with marines and bombs? What a
strange democracy.
The president of the United States, yesterday, said to us, right here, in this room, and I'm
quoting, "Anywhere you look, you hear extremists telling you can escape from poverty and
recover your dignity through violence, terror and martyrdom." Wherever he looks, he sees
extremists.
The imperialists see extremists everywhere. It's not that we are extremists. It's that the world is
waking up. It's waking up all over. And people are standing up.
I have the feeling, dear world dictator that you are going to live the rest of your days as a
nightmare because people are standing up, all those who are rising up against American
imperialism, who are shouting for equality, for respect, for the sovereignty of nations.

First of all let us analyse the modifications made in terms of the naming, which have a great
significance in the reception of the message. As suggested by Simpson ‘naming strategies are of
particular importance, since a choice of one type of name over another can encode important
information about the attitude to the individual referred to in text’ (Simpson, 1993: 141).
Critical references to the President of the US have been omitted on several occasions; for
instance, the phrase Presidente “tirano” mundial was rendered as parent of the world, the
mocking tone of the address señor dictador imperialista was translated as a paternalistic dear
world dictator. Although the partial mediation in form of the omission of both lexical items,
(tyrant, imperialistic) has not distorted the main message of the ST, it has resulted in ideological
shift on the micro-level, when the strongly negative attitude of the text producer towards the
US President was somehow sanitised.

A very important feature of the ST oscillates around interpersonal relations. Chávez identifies
himself with the rest of Latin America, by using the first person plural (indicated by the
morpheme – imos), as in the clause insurgimos los pueblos. The noun pueblos refers to the
nations of the Latin American countries, of which the majority is indigenous or of indigenous
heritage. Translating it as people are standing up rather than we, the peoples are standing up
resulted in the significant distortion of strong link between the Venezuelan president and the
Latin American nations, as well as the character of those who rise up against the US
imperialism. For those, who suffer the most consequences of US foreign policy are not

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individuals, but the whole nations of the poorest ethnic Latin Americans. Such lexical choices,
made by the translator serve in favour of dominant ideology and variables of distance. Chávez’s
intention to emphasize strong association with his people is somehow missing in TT. Bearing in
mind that, ‘behind every one of translator’s choice there is a voluntary act that reveals his
history and the socio- political milieu that surrounds him, in other words, his own ideology’
(Álvarez and Vidal, 1996: 5) we can assume that such significant modifications in the ideological
content of the ST were a result of the translator’s conscious decision to manipulate the text,
according to the dominating ideological currents of his culture. It should be added that this
translation was published on an American website and differ from an official and more accurate
translation provided by the United Nations. This fact may serve as confirmation of our
assumptions about the value-driven choices made by the translator (determined by their
cultural background) as well as the way location affects the TT that is produced.

As widely acknowledged by the scholars, language and communication are deeply embedded
in the cultural context. Therefore translation, seen as an instance of a communicating act,
depends upon many socio-cultural factors. ’Translation is never innocent. There is always a
context in which the translation takes place, always a history from which a text emerges and
into which a text is transposed.’ (Álvarez and Vidal, 1996: 7). The impact of culture on
translation is particularly visible in the case of ideology. By this we mean both ideology of
translation and translating ideology, the way that the dominant values of a particular culture
influence the choices made by the translator but also the way culture enforces itself in
ideological shifts. Through the case studies carried out above we explored various means
employed for translating ideology (cultural filter, expectancy and accountability norms,
domestication), the extent to which ideology of the ST has been maintained or challenged in
produced TT (maximal and partial mediation) and the impact that ideology, as a part of the
translators’ cultural background has on their choices. We showed how many facets of ideology,
in van Dijk’s sense of the word, were presented textually in translation and modified under the
constraints of translators own beliefs, the rules governing the language, dominant socio-
cultural values and expectations of the TR. The shifts which occurred during the translation of
the leaflet uncovered the power relationships encoded in the text, translating Alice revealed

11
modifications in terms of dominant values of a given society, whereas transmutations in
Chávez’s speech disclosed a degree of manipulation possible through rendering politically
sensitive text. All these transformations are direct implications of the way, in which culture
influences the whole process of translation.

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