Professional Documents
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Kennet Granholm
To cite this article: Kennet Granholm (2013) Esoteric currents as discursive complexes,
Religion, 43:1, 46-69, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.742741
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721X.2013.742741
Kennet Granholm*
ABSTRACT While the use of the term discourse is not uncommon in the study of
religion, putting it into practical application in discourse-analytical approaches
is. Similarly, while the esoteric is starting to be acknowledged as a legitimate
field of inquiry, perspectives and approaches derived from the study of esoteri-
cism have thus far not had a big impact on the study of religion in a broader
sense. In this article I will present a discourse-analytical approach to so-called
esoteric currents, demonstrating how discourse analysis can be employed in
the study of religion and the esoteric, as well as how it can be used to make
the study of esotericism more relevant for religious studies in general.
KEY WORDS social constructionism; discourse; esotericism; the Left-Hand
Path; neopaganism; New Age
Introduction
While discourse analysis is common in the social sciences, the method has thus far
not been used extensively in the study of religion. The word ‘discourse’ is quite
common, but it is most often used in vague and unspecified ways with the
actual meaning remaining veiled. Furthermore, when the term is used in more
informed ways, the approach is often abstract, with a focus on impersonal ‘struc-
tures’ and ‘systems’. More practical and empirically grounded approaches are
needed. However, before this can be achieved, some groundwork needs to be
done. Thus, this article does not exemplify a discourse analysis in a strict sense,
but rather it presents an interpretational framework, focused on so-called esoteric
currents, which can be used by others in a more focused analytical capacity.
The field of Western esotericism has gained acceptance and influence in recent
years, but still remains somewhat on the margins of religious studies in a
broader sense. Thus, a secondary aim with this article, beside the primary one of
demonstrating the usefulness of discourse-analytical approaches for the study of
the esoteric, is to try to elucidate why bridging the gap that still exists would be
beneficial, and how this might be done.
In this article I will first provide a brief account of the social-constructionist epis-
temology lying at the core of the theory and method of discourse analysis, as well
as discuss some similarities and differences in a number of different analytical
approaches. Next, I will venture on a general discussion of the concept of the
*Email: kennet.granholm@rel.su.se
esoteric, not providing a detailed account of the many different perspectives and
approaches in the field of Western esotericism, but instead give an overview
focused on the potential benefits of the concept for religious studies more
broadly. I will then discuss the theoretical and methodological foundations of
my discourse-analytical take on esoteric currents, exemplifying the approach in a
cursory examination of a few specific currents as well as looking at the cross-
pollination of different currents. I will also discuss the influence of broader societal
discourses on some esoteric currents, and in this I hope to demonstrate both how
scholars of esotericism could benefit from incorporating sociological perspectives,
and how the study of esotericism can be of more general interest for religious
studies.
1
For a more detailed discussion on social constructionism, see Moberg 2013.
48 K. Granholm
2
On Norman Fairclough, see Taira 2013 and Wijsen 2013.
Religion 49
which both affects and is affected by other forms (Jørgensen and Phillips 2000:
67–68).
Secondly, while most forms of discourse analysis, including discursive psychol-
ogy, are critical by default in that they question taken-for-granted positions, critical
discourse analysis includes an explicit focus on the construction and maintenance
of ideology and power relations (Coupland and Jaworski 1999: 35). The term ‘hege-
monic discourse’, i.e., a discourse which operates as ‘self-evident fact’ effectively
overshadowing competing alternatives, is central to critical-discourse analytical
approaches. A task for the critical discourse analyst is then to expose the con-
structed nature of seemingly self-evident truths, and thus break hegemony. It
should be noted, however, that discursive psychology is in no way devoid of criti-
cal aspects, with Potter and Wetherell (1992: 61–62) noting that ‘discourse and ideo-
logical practice are inseparable from other social practices.’
The two approaches also differ in their general fields of interest. Critical dis-
course analysts often focus on grand-scale, socially transformative discursive prac-
tices (Jørgensen and Phillips 2000: 27), whereas discourse psychologists more often
examine ‘specific cases of language use in concrete social interaction’ (Jørgensen
and Phillips 2000: 13). For example, the former may look at general media dis-
courses hegemonically positioning Islam as ‘a religion not suitable for Western
societies’, where the latter will look at how the same discourses operate in the inter-
action of and rhetorical negotiation by participants in a particular televised debate.
The esoteric
The study of the esoteric is a fairly young field, but it has still been marked by
intense theoretical debate. A result of this is that there are a number of different,
and at times conflicting, definitions of and approaches to the esoteric itself. Later
in this article, in the proper contexts, I will discuss some problematic aspects of
specific perspectives, but this is not the time or place to get into a detailed discus-
sion. Instead, I will focus on some general themes in more recent approaches.
While there are exceptions, most current scholarly accounts regard the esoteric
not as a ‘tradition’3 consisting of distinct doctrines and practices and situated in
clearly outlined institutions, but as specific approaches to knowledge that
transgress the borders of the religious and the secular. An example is Kocku von
Stuckrad’s discursive approach, which will be discussed in more detail later.
Another is Wouter Hanegraaff’s ideal–typical conceptualisation of the esoteric as
‘direct experiential knowledge’ which is distinct from both faith and reason,
while at the same time existing interleaved with these two other approaches to
knowledge (Hanegraaff 2008). This examination of ‘in between categories’ is one
of the most promising possibilities offered by the study of the esoteric as it proble-
matises the distinction of the secular and the religious in the first place. That there
indeed is much overlap in these seemingly distinct fields is demonstrated by the
3
One notable exception is Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, who in his introduction to the study of Western
esotericism refers to ‘esoteric traditions’ in the plural, but reveals his position when claiming that the
‘perennial characteristics of the esoteric worldview suggest … that this is an enduring tradition which,
though subject to some degree of social legitimacy and cultural coloration, actually reflects an auton-
omous and essential aspect of the relationship between the mind and the cosmos’ (Goodrick-Clarke
2008: 13, my emphasis). This quote also exposes Goodrick-Clarke’s religionist leanings.
50 K. Granholm
examples of such practices as alchemy and astrology – which were often tied to
fields such as science, medicine and politics as much as to religion – and persons
such as Paracelsus (1493–1541) and Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) – who operated
in both ‘secular’ and ‘religious’ domains. (For a discussion of alchemy in particular,
see Hanegraaff 2012: 191–207). Furthermore, as demonstrated by von Stuckrad
(2013) in his discussion of esoteric elements in the life sciences, this overlap is
not limited to pre-Enlightenment times.
Kocku von Stuckrad’s discursive approach is one of the most interesting perspec-
tives on the esoteric to have emerged in the last decade or so. Instead of ‘esoteri-
cism’, von Stuckrad prefers the term ‘the esoteric’. This is due to the esoteric
being an ‘element of cultural processes’ rather than ‘a coherent doctrine or a
clearly identified body of tradition’ (von Stuckrad 2005b: 10; see also von Stuckrad
2010). In contrast to the confined approach of Faivre (1994: 10–15), von Stuckrad’s
approach is flexible, with the esoteric ‘element of discourse’ consisting of ‘claims to
“real” or absolute knowledge and the means of making this knowledge available’
(von Stuckrad 2005b: 10). The ways to access esoteric knowledge vary, although
mediation by ‘higher beings’ and personal experience are commonplace. Esoteric
discourse also operates with the ‘dialectic of the hidden and revealed’, i.e., a rhetoric
centred on the revelation of secret knowledge, rather than the outright existence
of inaccessible or elite knowledge (von Stuckrad 2005b: 10).
In addition to von Stuckrad (2005b: 9), several other influential scholars (e.g.,
Hammer 2004: 445; Hanegraaff 1996: 402; 2004: 489–491) stress the ‘scholarly con-
structed nature’ of esotericism. Going for an approach based on social construction-
ist epistemology thus seems logical. The approach presented by von Stuckrad’s
resolves some problematic issues in earlier approaches to the esoteric. For
example, as a rigid definition is not provided, it is much easier to include phenom-
ena from a broader range of historical periods. This also means that it is easier to
examine historical transformation of the esoteric, the impact of other societal dis-
courses, and transferrals from the esoteric field of discourse to other fields, and
vice versa. The fluidity afforded by constructionist epistemology helps argue for
perspectives of esotericism as a field, while at the same time avoiding presenting
this field in an essentialist manner (i.e., a tradition). A discursive approach also
denies the possibility of distinguishing between ‘real’ and ‘simulacrum-esoteri-
cism’, something which is in itself implied in the Faivrean ‘form of thought’-
approach (see e.g., Bogdan 2007: 20 on the ‘[m]igration of esoteric ideas into
nonesoteric materials’).
The approach is, however, not without its problems. One of these is that von
Stuckrad tends to be rather vague in his use of the term discourse, seldom
stating more than that he uses a ‘Foucauldian approach’ and sees discourse as
‘the totality of certain thought-systems that interact with societal systems in mani-
fold ways’ (von Stuckrad 2008: 221). While he elsewhere has defined discourse as
‘the social organisation of tradition, meaning and matters of knowledge’ (von
Stuckrad 2005a: 85, italics removed), the specific meaning is still elusive. As
noted earlier, Foucault’s use of the term discourse is complicated, and thus describ-
ing an approach to discourse as simply ‘Foucauldian’ is not enough. Secondly, the
very openness of the approach, which makes it such a promising scholarly tool, is
also its worst enemy. A perspective on the esoteric as ‘claims of higher knowledge’
can easily become too broad and in the process lose its analytical usefulness.
Religion 51
While not an issue of central importance in this context, I also wish to shift the
focus from ‘esoteric discourse’ to the broader field of ‘discourse on the esoteric’.
This entails that we, instead of simply focusing on ‘esotericists’, can examine the
whole field which engages with the esoteric in one way or another. The field
then includes practising esotericists and various spokespersons, but also popular
cultural representations, anti-esoteric polemicists, academic commentators, and
so forth, and all these actors are linked and contribute to the order of discourse
(cf. Asprem and Granholm 2013). This is a benefit afforded by a discursive
approach, and one I feel we should embrace. In this context it is also useful to dis-
tinguish between thematic fields and discourses (see Suoninen 1997: 67–68). The-
matic fields are specific areas of communication containing several distinct, and
often competing, discourses. Discourses, then, are the different viewpoints and
ways of approaching the subject matter of the thematic field. For example, ‘Satan-
ism’ can be considered a thematic field, where various representations of what
Satanism is and does, its social and cultural legitimacy and repercussions – i.e.,
discourses – compete for hegemony. This differs from von Stuckrad’s approach,
where a theme like ‘salvation’ would be termed a discourse, and the different
uses and interpretations of this theme in different traditions a field of discourse
(see von Stuckrad 2003: 269; 2005b: 6–7).
of more than one distinct complex, but that it will assume different, though
mutually recognisable and related, forms, functions and rationales. For example,
let us say that we have current X, constituted by the distinct discourses A, B and
C. We also have current Y, constituted by the distinct discourses C, D and
E. Here, both currents have discourse C contained within them, but due to
influence from neighbouring discourses this ‘C’ assumes different shapes in each
current. We can thus identify discourse Cx and discourse Cy.
Important to note is that discourses are, as all human communication, fluid in
nature. Thus, a description of a current is a form of ideal type. It describes the
basic premises of a current, but in actualisation in a specific group or philosophy
it will rarely look exactly like the ideal type. The ‘pure form’ currents described
in the next section are affected by other currents and ‘ancillary discourses’, and
therefore particular expressions of a current assume unique forms. This process
helps explain both the diversity and transformations that occur on the esoteric
field. For example, the neopagan discourse of the primacy of nature can be inter-
preted, produced and reproduced in a great number of different ways in different
historical and social contexts, and by different actors – which means that its
precise implications will vary and may even conflict. Acknowledging this great
diversity is not something which invalidates a discursive approach, quite the
opposite. Human communication and interaction is more often than not unstruc-
tured and confusing, and a discursive approach provides the means to systematise
the chaos. Identifying the ideal–typical discourses that constitute a current
provides a solid framework, from which one can then investigate the whys and
hows in the difference and similarity in specific actualisations of the current.
This discursive approach to esoteric currents is also compatible with historical
ones, not contrary to them as has sometimes been suggested. It is fully conceivable
to trace the occurrences, intermixing and development of both currents and the
individual discourses that constitute them through history. In fact, the discursive
approach proposed here actually facilitates historical investigation by providing
an analytically coherent framework. To again provide an example by way of the
above, rather technical, vocabulary, currents cross-pollinate, and do so more
easily when two discursive complexes have a specific discursive component in
common. For example, currents X and Y discussed above have an increased poten-
tial for cross-pollination due to them both containing discourse C (in the forms of
discourses Cx and Cy). Say that an individual or a group operates primarily within
current X, but draws close to current Y through the appeal of familiarity offered by
discourse C. Over time, elements from current Y are incorporated into this group’s
particular version of current X and slowly grow in influence. At the same time,
specific discourses of current X start to lose their relevance. We then end up with
a new complex of discourses derived from both the preceding currents, but
being unique in its new constellation of discursive interdependency. Let us call
this new discursive complex ‘current Z’, and say that it is constituted by discourses
A, C and E. In various ways, current Z can now cross-pollinate with other currents
creating yet new constellations, introducing increased diversity on the esoteric field
– while still being composed of a scholarly manageable number of building blocks.
Tracing how these transferrals and transformations have occurred is a matter of his-
torical investigation.
In this way, a discursive approach to the esoteric and esoteric currents is both his-
torically sound, and provides tools for systematising the study of transformations
Religion 53
(and transfers; see von Stuckrad 2013). The approach thus answers to Wouter
Hanegraaff’s (1998: 41) call for sociologically informed approaches to the esoteric
needing to be compatible with historical ones. Of course, the discursive approach
outlined could also be used to examine, discuss and compare strictly typological
similarities and neglect historical relation. Typological similarities are, and this
should go without saying, something different from historical relation, and the
two should not be confused with each other. Still, examining one does not preclude
interest in the other. It is not inconceivable that typologically very similar phenom-
ena develop with no contact to each other, and when this occurs it should be exam-
ined rather than neglected. With the analytical stringency offered by the discursive
approach discussed here we can look at the factors (e.g., historical, social, cultural,
economic, political) at the basis of the formation of two similar but independent
currents, examining how they differ and how they are similar, and how these
differences and similarities shape the currents in specific ways. Furthermore, it is
fully possible that similar currents developed without historical connection meet
at some point and flow into each other, thus forming a single current from two pre-
viously unrelated ones. This is increasingly the case in late, or liquid (see Bauman
2000), modernity characterised by cultural and social fragmentation, transnational
relations, and nearly instant global dissemination of information through compu-
ter-relayed communication (see Granholm 2007; forthcoming a).
Furthermore, it would be a mistake to assume that the historical study of the eso-
teric has always been based on stringent scholarly professionalism. Looking at
earlier research, several problems can be identified. To again exemplify by reference
to Faivre, his approach has increasingly come to be criticised on the grounds of the
definition itself being compromised by its reliance on a fairly limited source
material (von Stuckrad 2005a: 83). Further, as the rationale for the selection of
the material is not made explicit, one easily gets the impression that esotericism
à la Faivre simply represents his personal ‘greatest hits’ in the world of religion
and philosophy. This impression is certainly not dispelled by Faivre, at times,
also having a fairly loose relation to his own rigid definition, including in the
realm of esotericism phenomena that do not conform to his list of ‘necessary charac-
teristics’ which are supposed to be present in order for something to be considered
esoteric, and at other times excluding phenomena that actually fit (see von Stuck-
rad 2005a: 83). Again, little rationale is provided for these choices. The inherent
arbitrariness of the Faivrean approach, in its curious combination with a rather
rigid framework, actually hinders rather than augments historical stringency. The
rigidness of Faivre’s approach makes it less suitable for looking at the esoteric in
periods other than the one which was of primary interest for Faivre, and thus to
trace the transformation of esotericism through history. Simply put, material
from the time and place originally chosen by Faivre will appear ‘more esoteric’,
or at least more properly so, than both earlier and later material. When the defi-
nition itself is based on a sort of circular argument – a phenomenon is esoteric
because it fits the definition, which is due to it being a part of the source material
used in forming the definition in the first place, and which was determined to be
esoteric prior to forming the definition – the approach is problematic. The
discursive approach discussed here provides a different sort of rigidness: analytical
stringency. It can help augment historical analysis and make it more well-
grounded, as it provides solid analytical tools and works with operationalisable
qualities.
54 K. Granholm
universe. This is the primary concern even for people operating in groups, and
organisations are typically likened to schools where the individual magician can
acquire the tools necessary for his/her magical progress. The individual is positioned
in opposition to the collective, and this often results in a form of elitism which posits
the magician as elect. While it could be argued that esoteric discourse throughout
history has contained a strongly individualistic ethos, the Left-Hand Path is distinct
in that it raises individualism to the level of explicit ideology. I will provide a few
examples from the material of the Sweden-originated Left-Hand Path magic order
Dragon Rouge. (For more information on the order see Granholm 2012).
In our course on magic we therefore have many types of magic. It is then up to the
individual to find that which works for him/her. (Dragon Rouge 1996/1: 2 – my
translation)
What is stated here is that it is up to the individual magician to determine the
specific course of his/her magical development. The order does not enforce a par-
ticular approach:
magic does not provide any answers to the question of the meaning of life. This is
because the answer is individual. (Dragon Rouge 1996/1: 3 – my translation)
This quote follows the theme of the first one, but extends the scope of individual
determination. In addition to these brief examples, Dragon Rouge material is
ripe with the running theme of individualism, with the words ‘individual’ and
‘individualism’ among the ones most frequently used.
In the goal of self-deification the aim of the practitioner is to become a creator – or a
god – through initiatory processes. The exact nature and implications of this self-
deification is interpreted in various ways by different individuals (as groups
rarely define it in a singular fashion), but the tropes and rhetorical devices used
are very similar – namely focusing on particularly individual-focused self-deification.
I will again provide a few examples from Dragon Rouge material.
There is no heaven, no Nirvana, no union with God. One is oneself and becomes
the god. The goal is to find and be able to carry out one’s true will. (Dragon Rouge
1996/1: 6 – my translation)
The magical power is the power of the own spirit, the power over oneself. (Dragon
Rouge 1996/1: 3 – my translation)
These quotes demonstrate the essential goal of Dragon Rouge magical practice. It is
explicitly stated that the aim is to become a god, at the same time as all other salvific
paths are dismissed. Furthermore, the true realm of magical power is one’s self, a
theme clarified in the following quote:
The suggestive power of magic is enticing to many people, not least of all young-
sters. It seems appealing to make life easier through secret rituals. … If one seeks
magic to flee into a fake world of rituals and all sorts of hocus pocus due to being
too weak to deal with the real world, one should definitively avoid the worlds of
magic. … By learning the foundations of magic the student learns to wake up the
power and direct his/her will, thus being able to cause any changes and realize all
dreams. (Dragon Rouge 1996/1: 2 – my translation)
A result of the Left-Hand Path focus on self-deification is that more mundane uses
of magic, such as ‘love spells’ and the seeking of fortune, are dismissed as less
important. Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of the Left-Hand Path is its
Religion 57
Neopaganism
Neopaganism is an esoteric current which displays much diversity. It is also a
current which has multiple ‘points of origin’, where historical relation often
amounts simply to different expressions being informed by similar societal
trends. Furthermore, the neopagan current demonstrates the strong impact of a
wide variety of ancillary discourses, sometimes to the degree where they have
become interwoven with the current at a most intimate level. This explains how
we can find variants of neopaganism displaying such contrasting and even contra-
dicting mores. This diversity on the neopagan field could be used as an argument
for it not actually comprising a current, and this is certainly an argument used by
both neopagan practitioners and neopagans-cum-scholars who wish to distance
themselves from politically dubious expressions of heathenism. However, two
basic discourses seem to be in common for all expressions of neopaganism: the
primacy of nature and a desire to revive (mostly, though not exclusively, European)
pre-Christian religion, tradition and values. (For scholarly depictions stressing
these components, see e.g., Hardman 1995: ix; Pearson 2005: 828; Pike 2005:
6470). The former asserts the pivotal role of nature as the realm of the divine, posit-
ing it as having a significance and value in itself without recourse to its role as a
‘resource for human use’ and informs the sorts of relationships one has with it.
The latter expresses a longing for an imagined ‘more authentic’ religiosity and
‘way of life’ in a long-ago-time. As with all currents, the deep mutual dependency
of these discourses is of central importance. Varying emphasis is given to the two
discourses in different groups and ‘sub-currents’. For example, Asatrú – as a ‘sub-
current’ focused on the Old Norse/Germanic Æsir cast of gods – primacy is placed
on the revival of pre-Christian tradition. Conversely, in most forms of Wicca – par-
ticularly since the idea of Wicca representing ‘the Old Religion’ has been subjected
to internal critique (Harvey 1997: 52; Hutton 1999a: 65) – the focus is predominantly
on nature-orientedness. However, when going for a more deep-level analysis it
becomes clear that both discourses are at play in both Asatrú and Wicca. The
two discourses come together in their interpretations of contemporary society
and hegemonic Christianity. Without (much) variance, Christianity – as well as
the ‘post-pre-modern society’ it is seen to represent – is regarded as much less
nature-oriented and ‘organic’ than ‘that which came before’. Thus, Wicca –
although largely having abandoned the notion of representing an authentic
pre-Christian religion, still involves notions of representing a basic ethos of
‘pre-modernity’. In the same way, Asatrú may be focused on the revival-aspect,
but operates with a notion of the pre-Christian being characterised by an alterna-
tive, more organic relation to the natural world.
As indicated above, neopaganism is a current within which one can identify
more or less clear ‘sub-currents’. The existence of clearly distinguishable variants
does not, however, invalidate the notion of neopaganism as a single current. This
is also demonstrated by the common feature of ‘pagan unitarianism’, with
groups such as the British Pagan Federation and the Finnish Pakanaverkko func-
tioning as networks for a multitude of neopagans of different persuasions. Interest-
ingly, some expressions of both self-described and externally labelled Satanism can
in fact be part of this neopagan complex. Some unified neopagan networks, such as
the previously mentioned Pakanaverkko, include ‘Satanism’ (although rarely
‘Devil worship’) as one of their categories of neopagan religion. This is supported
Religion 59
New Age
The concept of the New Age, whether it be termed ‘New Age movement’ (e.g.,
Heelas 1996), ‘New Age religion’ (e.g., Hanegraaff 1996) or simply ‘New Age’
(Kemp and Lewis 2007), is riddled with problems. Firstly, New Age has proven
to be particularly difficult to define, and few scholars seem to be in agreement as
to what the New Age actually is. This difficulty is evident in George
D. Chryssides’ article in the Handbook of New Age, which although going by the
title ‘Defining the New Age’ provides no real definition. Instead, the author
approaches the issue first from the perspective of what New Age is not (e.g., a reli-
gion, a new religious movement or a cluster of new religious movements), secondly
from the perspective of what New Age rejects (Christianity), and then finally goes
to describe New Age as a ‘counter-cultural Zeitgeist’ (Chryssides 2007: 19–22).
Often attempts to delineate New Age take the approach of introducing lists of Witt-
gensteinian ‘family resemblances’, where particular manifestations of New Age
may display some, but rarely all, traits on the list. Different manifestations are
then related in the same way as ‘two members of the family may bear almost no
resemblance to each other, although they both resemble a third member’ (Eileen
Barker, quoted in Lewis 1992: 6). These kinds of definitions based on family resem-
blance are extremely inclusive, often introducing lists of such broadness that
60 K. Granholm
essentially anything could be labelled New Age. For example, in the work of Paul
Heelas (1996) and George D. Chryssides (1999: 315) such diverse phenomena as
alternative therapies (e.g., Reiki and Zone-therapy), borrowed and reinterpreted
religious practices of indigenous peoples (particularly shamanic practices), divina-
tory techniques (e.g., astrology, tarot reading and I Ching), channelling, beliefs and
practices pertaining to UFOs and parapsychology, business training (e.g., Erhard
Seminars Training), alternative science and spiritual approaches to various fields
of life, such as diets (e.g., macrobiotic), education, art (‘New Age’ music and the
novels of James Redfield) and home furnishing (e.g., Feng Shui), are identified as
some of the possible ingredients of New Age spiritualities. There seems to be no
scholarly consensus as to what exactly New Age is, and there is little substance
to all the various conceptualisations that are presented. There exist only external
attributes and no scholar has been able to show in a satisfactory manner how
these attributes are related (or even that they are related).
Another problem, closely related to the above one – and very likely a result of it,
is the fact that many scholars refrain from discussing what the New Age is and
simply let it remain implicit. In short, ‘New Agers’ are often described as ‘those
people who frequent New Age shops’, which is, of course, a ‘definition’ based
on circular arguments: a shop is ‘New Age’ because it has a clientele which is
‘New Age’, and this clientele is ‘New Age’ because it visits a ‘New Age’ shop.
This is clearly not a satisfactory resolution to problems of definition. A good (or
rather, bad) example is Miquel Farias and Pehr Granqvist’s article on the
psychology of New Agers. The authors arrive at the conclusion that individuals
adhering to the New Age are psychologically characterised by left temporal lobe
dysfunction, individualist rather than collectivist goals, schizotypical and sugges-
tible personalities, inclination towards magical thinking, dissociative mental
states, elevated subjective suffering, ‘bursts’ of feelings and creativity, as well as
having backgrounds of parental insensitivity to their needs as children and/or
experiences of traumatic loss and/or abuse (Farias and Granqvist 2007: 144). The
whole study is made unusable by the authors’ complete inability to define who
and what it is they are studying.
It could, however, be claimed that there did exist a New Age movement, and a
discursive approach provides the means to delineate it. Drawing on older dis-
courses, this movement came into existence in the 1970s, gained impressive popu-
larity in the 1980s, and was past its heyday in the mid 1990s when scholars started
to investigate it. (For a variation of this view see Melton 2007: 77). In essence, the
New Age movement was what Hanegraaff describes as ‘New Age sensu stricto’
(Hanegraaff 1996: 98–103). This movement played an important role in the mass-
popularisation of esoteric discourse, and it is this mass-popularised general esoteric
discourse – rather than a specific current – that scholars examine under the label
New Age.
In a discourse-analytical approach we have to examine the source material and
look for defining discourses. The most central and significant of the New Age dis-
courses is without a doubt the narrative of the imminence of a revolutionary shift in
consciousness, on a personal, societal or even planetary level – the coming of a
‘New Age’. If this idea is not present, it is – or at least should be – nonsensical to
describe a group or a spokesperson as part of ‘the New Age movement’. The sec-
ondary discourses concern the human potential for extraordinary, even supernatural,
feats, and New Thought-discourses on the human mind producing reality. Together
Religion 61
these discourses flesh out a world where a new glorious, spiritually enlightened
age of humanity is on the verge of emerging, where both the world and individual
humans reach new levels of being, and this new world is ushered by human realis-
ation that we ourselves create our phenomenal world. Certain individuals are also
‘prophets’ of this new age, being in possession of knowledge and powers which
will help the rest of humanity reach the new stage. In addition, the New Age
current includes an overall ‘holistic’ discourse. Not only is body and spirit regarded
as united (albeit often with ‘the mind creating the material’), but a general conver-
gence of disparate fields such as science and religion, different religious traditions
etc., is posited. While this might appear as an overly strict, and possibly ‘moder-
nist’, interpretation of ‘New Age’, it brings with it an analytical clarity and consist-
ency which has been missing. As discussed above, the description here is not
intended as the ‘final word’ on what ‘New Age’ is.
I will exemplify the key New Age discourses by examples from possibly the most
influential text in the milieu, and the one which brought the ‘movement’ into the
mainstream: Marilyn Ferguson’s The Aquarian Conspiracy (1980).
For the first time in history, humankind has come upon the control panel of
change – an understanding of how transformation occurs. We are living in the
change of change, the time in which we can intentionally align ourselves with
nature for rapid remaking of ourselves and our collapsing institutions. (Ferguson
1980: 29)
The quote clearly posits that a new age is dawning, one which will have immense
consequences for all of humanity. This notion is also combined with the holistic
convergence discourse, as evident in the quote below:
we are in the midst of a knowledge revolution that shows signs of breakthrough:
that researchers in the human sciences are moving independently in converging
lines toward common targets; that they are discarding traditional models of the
cosmos and ourselves … for the first time an American renaissance is taking
place in all the disciplines, breaking the boundaries between them, transforming
them at their farthest reaches—where they all converge. (Ferguson 1980: 12)
Not only is a new age dawning and disparate fields converging; this is the result of
the power of the mind itself:
Believing in a world of fixity, we will fight change; knowing a world of fluidity, we
will cooperate with change. (Ferguson 1980: 146)
Furthermore, the power of the human mind, evident in the transformations and
convergence, demonstrates the inherent human potential for the extraordinary:
If we try to live as closed systems, we are doomed to regress. If we enlarge our
awareness, admit new information, and take advantage of the brain’s brilliant
capacity to integrate and reconcile, we can leap forward. (Ferguson 1980: 169)
The impact of feminism on neopaganism is more recent, naturally due to the later
societal impact of feminism in general (even though Mary Wollstonecraft’s proto-
feminist A Vindication for the Rights of Women was published already in 1792).
Wicca, when created by Gerald Gardner in the 1950s, was certainly not a ‘feminist
religion’. Rather, the inclusion of the feminine divine as a central aspect made the
later cross-pollination with feminism easy and logical. Explicitly feminist variants
of neopaganism were developed from the late 1960s, with the formation of
W.I.T.C.H. (Women’s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell) in 1968, Zsuzsanna
Budapest’s (1940–) Dianic Wicca – representing the first women-only groups, and
Goddess Worship – where the Horned God of Gardnerian Wicca is discarded and
all attention given to the Goddess (Hutton 1999a: 60–65; 1999b: 340–368). One of
the best-known examples is the US author Starhawk (Miriam Simos, 1951–),
famous particularly for her book The Spiral Dance (1979), and her Reclaiming Collec-
tive. One of the primary tasks of the Reclaiming groups is to create a space for
women who feel subjugated by patriarchal religion and society. Although not being
unique in this regard, Starhawk’s historiography builds on the idea of an original
matriarchy which was violently overthrown by patriarchy. The Reclaiming groups,
and Starhawk in her books, attempt to revive this original order. Just as racialism
within Germanic neopaganism, the projection of matriarchy is a part of a feminist
discourse much discussed in the field of Wicca and Goddess Worship.
Secularism and post-secularism are two contrasted discursive constructs that
impact society in major ways. The former can be regarded as post-Enlightenment
discourses that posit religion and religiosity as ‘a thing of the past’, as something
the enlightened modern man no longer has (or should have) need for. Secularist
discourses influenced sociology and the study of religion from the very start, and
its influence can be clearly discerned in secularisation theory even today (see
e.g., Bruce 2002; Dobbelaere 2008. For a discussion see Granholm 2013). The
impact of secularism was (and continues to be) immense, but can most clearly be
seen in the ‘meta-current’ occultism.4 ‘Religion’ in secularism commonly amounts
to Christianity in its conventional and institutional forms (and sometimes other
monotheistic doctrines such as Islam and Judaism), and consequently foreign reli-
gious expressions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, European pre-Christian tra-
ditions, and non-European tribal religion, elicited deep fascination more often
than outright loathing. Consequently, groups such as the Theosophical Society
(formed in New York in 1875) adopted a polemical attitude towards Christianity
while approaching Indian religion. As secularism projected a scientific worldview
to replace a religious one, another strategy for esotericists was to present their phil-
osophies and teachings as ‘scientific’ (see Hammer 2001: 201–330). This is demon-
strated in the evolutionary approach to spiritual progress found in e.g., Theosophy,
the replacement of organic notions of correspondences with mechanistic causality-
based models, and psychologised interpretations of spiritual worlds and higher
beings (Hanegraaff 1996: 462–513).
4
The term ‘meta-current’ refers to the notion that while occultism could, depending on definition, be
identified as a current of its own, with distinctive discursive components that distinguish it from
other forms of esotericism in its historical context, it can in turn be divided into a number of more or
less distinct discursive complexes, e.g., Spiritualism, Theosophy and Ceremonial Magic (to only name
a few). Thus, it might be analytically more useful to regard it as a ‘meta-current’, or collective category
of a number of related but distinct currents, rather than a current of its own.
Religion 65
The post-secular,5 then, can be described as discourses that are critical towards,
though ultimately dependent on the awareness of the earlier hegemonic status of,
secularism. Thus post-secular discourses, which, similarly to secularist discourses,
are advanced by academics as well as the general population, endeavour to
‘re-enchant’ the experiential world which is seen to have been ‘disenchanted’ by
secularism. In short, post-secularism accords a more positive societal role for the
religious, at least potentially. Furthermore, post-secularism involves new perspec-
tives on what religion is and does, which in itself helps make the esoteric more
respectable, and in the process making it more popular and permeating than it
has ever been before (see Partridge 2004/2005; 2013. For discussion on the post-
secular and the esoteric see Granholm 2008; 2013).
Conclusion
In this article I have discussed some basic tenets of discourse-analytical theory and
method as well as its grounding in social-constructionist epistemology, and then
demonstrated and exemplified a practical application of this framework in a dis-
cussion of esoteric currents as discursive complexes. I have also briefly discussed
the basic premises of some recent approaches to the study of the esoteric, with a
focus on Kocku von Stuckrad’s discursive approach, all the while trying to show
glimpses of how both the study of the esoteric and broader religious studies
could benefit from closer cooperation.
In regard to the study of the esoteric, this article has – while not making it fully
explicit before now – dealt with how sociological perspectives can be integrated
into historical research, and vice versa. Rather than being incompatible, both can
greatly benefit from each other. The analytical stringency of discourse-analytical
approaches can provide a way to focus historical studies, while sociological
studies could often do with an enhanced historical awareness.
I have also discussed how my approach, as presented here, can be combined
with Kocku von Stuckrad’s discursive understanding of the esoteric, and thus
ground his more general approach in practical applicability. There is, however, a
potential problem here which I have thus far not mentioned. Von Stuckrad’s
model and mine operate with a different understanding of the concept of discourse.
Von Stuckrad works with a broader, more grand-scale model – regarding discourse
as the ‘the totality of certain thought-systems that interact with societal systems in
manifold ways’ (von Stuckrad 2008: 221) – whereas my approach operates at the
5
It should be noted that my use of the term post-secular differs somewhat from the one established by
Jürgen Habermas. For Habermas, a society being post-secular refers to ‘a change in consciousness’ in
relation to religion within it, which is mainly due to the role religion plays in global conflicts which
‘undermines the secularistic belief in the foreseeable disappearance of religion and robs the secular under-
standing of the world of any triumphal zest’, the growing influence of religion in national public spheres
where religious actors continue to influence public opinion and participate in public debate, and the
‘pluralism of ways of life’ introduced by increasing immigration from non-European localities (Habermas
2008: 20). A post-secular society is essentially a secularised one, but with an awareness that it ‘has to
“adjust itself to the continued existence of religious communities in an increasingly secularized environ-
ment”’ (Habermas 2008: 19). Thus, the post-secular does not really deal with religion ‘returned to a pos-
ition of renewed public prominence’, but more with ‘a revision of a previously over-confidently
secularist outlook’ (Harrington 2007: 547), and theorising the post-secular thus deals with ‘the limits
of the secularization thesis’ (Beaumont 2010: 6).
66 K. Granholm
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