REPORTERS ( PETE -3103)

• CIELO, CYRUS FRANZ P.

• ESGUERRA, DANIELE JENNA E.
• MANLAPAZ, RAPHAEL ARRON S.
• MENDOZA, JANINE ROSE G.
• MORALES, YELTZIN M.
• MORTEL, CHRISTINE NICOLE A.
• RAMOS, YLLAN JERVIN A.
• SUAREZ, JOHN REY C.
• VALENCIA, DEAN MARK D.
Metals
PURE METAL AND
ALLOy
Pure Metal Alloy
Pure Metal (99% Aluminum Alloy Wheels
Aluminum)
FERROUS
ALLOY 7
Classification scheme for various ferrous alloys (Calister, 2014) 8
STEEL
Iron–carbon alloys that
may contain appreciable
concentrations of other
alloying elements. 9
10
Steel
11
production
LOW
CARBON contain less than 0.25%C.
it is not very responsive

STEEL to heat treatments and

strengthening is
accomplished by cold
work. 12
High-strength, Low-alloy (HSLA)
steels
• Contains alloying elements such as copper,
vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in combined
concentrations of >10 wt%.
• Stronger than plain Low-C steels.
• Most may be strengthened by heat treatment,
giving tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa
(70,000 psi).
• It provides better mechanical properties or
greater resistance to corrosion than
carbon steel. 13
Medium-Carbon Steels
• Contain 0.25-0.60 wt.% of carbon.
• It is stronger than low-carbon steels but less
ductile and less tough.
• May be heat-treated by austenitizing,
quenching, and then tempering to improve
their mechanical properties.
• Applications include railway wheels and
tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine
parts and high-strength structural
components calling for a combination of high
strength, wear resistance, and toughness. 14
High-Carbon Steels
• Contains carbon between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%.
• It is the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile
of the carbon steels. They are almost always
used in a hardened and tempered condition,
wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp
cutting edge.
• The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys,
usually containing chromium, vanadium,
tungsten, and molybdenum.
• These alloying elements combine with carbon to
form very hard and wear-resistant carbide
compounds (e.g., Cr23C6, V4C3, and WC). 15
16
Stainless steels
• The stainless steels are highly
resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a
variety of environments, especially
the ambient atmosphere.
• Predominant alloying element is
chromium; a concentration of at least
11 wt% Cr is required.
• Corrosion resistance may also be
enhanced by nickel and molybdenum
additions. 17
3 Classes of Stainless Steel
1. Martensitic stainless
steels - capable of being
heat treated in such a way
that martensite is the
prime microconstituent.
Additions of alloying
elements in significant
concentrations produce
dramatic alterations in the
iron–iron carbide phase
diagram.
2. Austenitic 3. Ferritic stainless
stainless steels – steels –
Most corrosion Hardened and
strengthened by cold
resistant because work because they
of the high are not heat
chromium contents treatable. Both
and also the nickel martensitic and
ferritic stainless
additions; and they steels are magnetic;
are produced in the the austenitic
largest quantities. stainless are not. 18
CAST IRONS

19
Cast Iron
• an alloy of iron that contains 2 to 4
percent carbon
• Silicon and Manganese
• Traces of impurities such as Sulfur and
Phosphorus
• The liquid iron is cast, or poured and hardened,
into crude ingots called pigs 20
CastIng
A manufacturing process in which a liquid material is
usually poured into a mold
• Blast Furnace - a vertical shaft furnace that
produces liquid metals by the reaction of a
flow of air introduced under pressure into
the bottom of the furnace with a mixture of
metallic ore, coke, and flux fed into the top
21
Gray Iron
• Known for its grey color and appearance caused by
graphite fractures in the material.
• Graphite flake structure
• Popularity of grey cast iron components is because grey
iron is one of the cheapest types of iron castings to
produce
• Excellent in its ability to dampen vibrations and high
thermal conductivity
• Withstand thermal cycling well 22
COMPOSITION

23
Standard
• ASTM A395 & ASME SA395
• ASTM A439
• ASTM A476 & ASME SA476
• ASTM A536 & SAE J434
• ASTM A571 & ASME SA571
• ASTM A874
• ASTM A897
24
What are Gray Irons used
f o r ? • Gears
• Hydraulic components
• Automotive suspension components
• Plow shares
• Pumps
• Linkages
• Stove parts
• Steering knuckles 25
D uknown
c tfor Iits limpact
e andI rfatigue
o resistance,
n
elongation, and wear resistance

What makes ductile iron “ductile”?

26
What is in Ductile Iron?
• Iron ~94%
• Carbon 3.2 – 3.60%
• Silicon 2.2 – 2.8%
• Manganese 0.1 – 0.2%
• Magnesium 0.03 – 0.04%
• Phosphorus 0.005 – 0.04%
• Sulfur 0.005 – 0.02%
• Copper <= 0.40% 27
What are Ductile Irons used for?
• Pipe and pipe fittings
• Axles
• Connecting rods
• Crankshafts
• Cylinders
• Disc brake calipers
• Gears and Gear Boxes
• Housings and manifolds
• Hydrostatic Barrels 28
WhIte Iron
• Unalloyed cast iron with low carbon and
silicon content such that the structure is
hard brittle iron carbide with no free
graphite
• It is the iron that displays white fractured
surface due to the presence of cementite
• The cementite which precipitates from the
melt forms as relatively large particles,
usually in a eutectic mixture 29
What are white iron used for?
•wear surfaces of slurry pumps
•shell liners
•lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous
grinding mills
•balls and rings in coal pulverizers
•the teeth of a backhoe’s digging bucket
30
Malleable Iron
• A heat-treated iron-carbon alloy, which
solidifies in the as-cast condition with a
graphite-free structure
•May be produced by taking a white iron
casting and holding it at 950–1000 °C, when
breakdown of the iron carbide occurs: Fe3C ->
3Fe + C
•Less deleterious to the mechanical properties
•The result is a material which possesses a
good measure of strength combined with
ductility 31
 Whiteheart
Malleable
The microstructure of whiteheart
malleable cast iron depends on section
size. Small sections contain pearlite
and temper carbon in ferritic substrate.
• surface zone which contains pure
ferrite,
• intermediate zone which has
pearlite, ferrite and temper carbon,
• core zone containing pearlite,
temper carbon and ferritic
inclusions.
Blackheart and
Pearlitic
The microstructure of blackheart
malleable cast iron has a matrix
essentially of ferrite.
The microstructure of pearlitic
malleable cast iron has a matrix,
according to the grade specified, of
pearlite or other transformation
products of austenite.
32
COMPOSITION

33
ApplIcatIon
• for parts that are to be pierced, coined, or cold
formed,
• for parts requiring maximum machinability,
• for parts that must retain good impact resistance
at low temperatures, and
• for parts requiring wear resistance (martensitic
malleable iron only).
34
Compacted Graphite Iron
•displays very useful properties for a range of
engineering applications with the tensile strength of
75% and elastic modulus of 35%, being considerably
higher than grey cast irons

35
Application
• break discs for high-speed railway
trains
• diesel engine blocks
• manufacturing of V topology diesel engines
• heavy goods vehicles which use diesel
engines with high combustion pressures. 36
37
Non - ferrous
Metals
38
⚫ Have been used since the Copper Age, around
5,000 B.C.
⚫ Any metal including alloys that does not
contain iron in any appreciable amounts
⚫ Generally more expensive than ferrous metals
⚫ Often used in industrial applications such as
gutters, roofing, pipes, and electrical
⚫ Widely used due to its desirable properties
such as low weight, higher conductivity, and
nonmagnetic property 39
Non-Ferrous Pros Non-Ferrous
Corrosion-resistant
⚫
⚫ Rust-resistant
Cons
⚫ Lightweight ⚫ More expensive for
⚫ Malleable (they can be very large castings
pressed or hammered ⚫ Lower tensile
into thin sheets without strength
breaking)
⚫ Non-magnetic
⚫ Will not generate a spark 40
Examples of non-ferrous metals are:
• Aluminum: Lightweight, low-strength, easily
shaped
• Copper: Highly malleable with high electrical
conductivity
• Lead: Heavy, soft, malleable metal; low melting
point, low strength
• Tin: Soft, malleable, low tensile strength metal
often used to coat steel to prevent corrosion
• Zinc: medium-strength metal with low melting point
widely used in galvanizing to prevent rust on iron or steel 41
Copper and
its alloys 42
Copper
◼ discovered way back in prehistoric times
◼ reddish-gold in color and is pretty malleable as well as aluminum
◼ In its unalloyed state, it too is softer, more ductile, and not as strong as carbon
steel.
◼ Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-treating
procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution alloying must be
utilized to improve these mechanical properties.
◼ highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient
atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals.
◼ Applications of pure copper and its alloyed forms include electrical
components such as wires, terminals, and other types of connectors; coins; pipe
43
for plumbing, tooling, and decorative work.
Brasses
⚫ most common copper alloys in which zinc, as a substitutional
impurity, is the predominant alloying element

Bronzes
⚫ alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin, aluminum,
silicon, and nickel
⚫ Types:
⚫ Tin bronze and Phosphor bronze
⚫ Aluminum bronze
⚫ Silicon bronze
⚫ Manganese bronze
⚫ Architectural bronze 44
Beryllium Coppers
⚫ The most common heat-treatable copper alloys
⚫ Tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000 psi)
⚫ Excellent electrical and corrosion properties
⚫ Wear resistance when properly lubricated; they may be cast, hot worked, or
cold worked.
⚫ Applications include jet aircraft landing gear bearings and bushings, springs,
and surgical and dental instruments.

Gunmetals
⚫ alloys of copper with tin, zinc and lead
⚫ have been used for at least 2,000 years due to their ease of casting, and good
strength and corrosion resistance
45
⚫ Early uses: brooches, mirror cases, church doors, fonts and statues
aluminum and
its alloys
46
Aluminum
⚫ Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low
density (2.7 g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel)
⚫ high electrical and thermal conductivities
⚫ resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including
the ambient atmosphere.
⚫ Many of these alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility;
this is evidenced by the thin aluminum foil sheet into which the
relatively pure material may be rolled.
⚫ The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature
660 C.
o
47
⚫ Principal alloying elements:
⚫ Copper
⚫ Magnesium
⚫ Silicon
⚫ Manganese
⚫ Zinc

⚫ Generally, aluminum alloys are classified as either cast or

wrought.
⚫ Common applications of aluminum alloys include:
aircraft structural parts, beverage cans, bus bodies, and
automotive parts (engine blocks, pistons, and manifolds) 48
Magnesium and its alloys
⚫ Most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7
g/cm3, which is the lowest of all the structural metals.
⚫ Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure
⚫ relatively soft and has a low elastic modulus: 45 GPa.
⚫ Consequently, most fabrication is by casting or hot working at
temperatures between 200 and 350 oC
⚫ has a moderately low melting temperature 651 oC.
⚫ used in aircraft and missile applications, as well as in luggage.
⚫ magnesium alloys have replaced engineering plastics
49
Titanium and its alloys
⚫Titanium and its alloys are relatively new
engineering materials that possess an
extraordinary combination of properties.

Titanium
⚫has a relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3),
⚫a high melting point [1668 C ], and
o

⚫an elastic modulus of 107 GPa ( psi). 50

TITANIUM ALLOYS
⚫ are extremely strong
⚫ room temperature tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000
psi) are attainable, yielding remarkable specific strengths.

⚫ Major limitation of titanium: its chemical reactivity with other

materials at elevated temperatures and quite expensive.
⚫ Corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is
unusually high
⚫ Virtually immune to air, marine, and a variety of industrial
environments
⚫ Commonly utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles, surgical
implants, and in the petroleum and chemical industries. 51
Refractory metals
- are widely used in various applications because of their unique
and desirable properties and behaviors, not least of which is their
resistance to corrosion. This group of metals also has
extraordinary resistance to wear and heat.
• Tungsten
• Molybdenum
• Tantalum
• Niobium
• Rhenium 52
Super alloys
- A superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy with
the ability to operate at a high fraction of its melting point. Several
key characteristics of a superalloy are excellent mechanical
strength, resistance to thermal creep deformation, good surface
stability, and resistance to corrosion or oxidation.
PROPERTIES OF SUPER ALLOY
- superalloys are intended for use in high-temperature
applications, which means they need to maintain their shape at
elevated temperatures close to their melting points 53
• NICKEL BASED SUPER ALLOYS
- machinability
- shape memory
- low coefficient of thermal expansion
• COBALT BASED SUPER ALLOYS
- Superior hot corrosion resistance
- Higher thermal fatigue resistance and weldability
• IRON BASED SUPER ALLOYS
- High strength at room temperature
- High resistance to creep, oxidation, corrosion and wear 54
Noble metals
- The noble metals are a group of metals that resist oxidation
and corrosion in moist air. The noble metals are not easily attacked by
acids. They are the opposite of the base metals, which more readily
oxidize and corrode.
• Ruthenium • Osmium
• Rhodium • Iridium
• Palladium • Platinum
• Silver • Gold 55
MISCELLANEOUS NONFERROUS METALS
NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS - are very resistant
to oxidation and corrosion and when heated form
a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer, protecting
them from further attack.
TIN, LEAD AND ITS ALLOYS - Alloys that
combine tin and lead have a number of different
names and applications. 56
MISCELLANEOUS NONFERROUS METALS
UNALLOYED ZINC – it is prone to corrosion in a different
environment. It is relatively soft metal with low melting
temperature

ZIRCONIUM AND ITS ALLOYS - Zirconium alloys are solid

solutions of zirconium or other metals, a common subgroup having
the trade mark Zircaloy. Zirconium has very low absorption cross-
section of thermal neutrons, high hardness, ductility and corrosion
resistance. 57
Fabrication of
Metals preceded by refining, alloying, and often
heat-treating processes that produce
alloys with the desired characteristics. 58
Classification scheme of metal fabrication techniques (Calister, 2014) 59
FORMING OPERATIONS
60
ForgIng
mechanically working or deforming a
single piece of a normally hot metal; this
may be accomplished by the application of
successive blows or by continuous
squeezing.
61
 2 types of forging:
⩥ closed die - a force is ⩥ open die -two dies
brought to bear on having simple
two or more die geometric shapes
halves having the (e.g., parallel flat,
finished shape such semicircular) are
that the metal is employed, normally
deformed in the on large workpieces.
cavity between them. 62
63
RollIng

The most widely used deformation process, consists of passing

a piece of metal between two rolls; a reduction in thickness
results from compressive stresses exerted by the rolls.
64
ExtrusIon

For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a

compressive force that is applied to a ram; the extruded piece that
emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional area.
65
DrawIng

The pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a
tensile force that is applied on the exit side. A reduction in cross section results,
with a corresponding increase in length. Rod, wire, and tubing products are
commonly fabricated in this way. 66
CASTING
67
SAND CASTING
• Also known as SAND MOLDED CASTING
• A metal casting process characterized by using
sand as the mold material.
• “Sand Casting" can also refer to an object
produced via the sand casting process. Sand
castings are produced in specialized factories
called foundries. Over 60% of all metal castings
are produced via sand casting process. 68
D I E C A S T I N G
• A metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal
under high pressure into a mold cavity.
• The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which
have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection
mold during the process.
• Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically
zinc, copper, aluminum, magnesium, lead, pewter, and tin-based
alloys.
• Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber
machine is used.
70
• Cast Metal
• Zinc
• Aluminum
• Magnesium
• Copper
• Silicon tombac
• Lead and tin
INVESTMENTCASTING
• Use gravity to fill the mold.
• Mold is destroyed to remove casting
• Metal flow is slow
• Walls are much thicker than in die casting.
• Cycle time is longer than die casting because of inability of mold
material to remove heat.
• The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of
investment casting wax. 72
LOST FOAM CASTING
• A type of evaporative-pattern casting process
that is similar to investment casting except
foam is used for the pattern instead of wax.

• This process takes advantage of the low boiling

point of polymer foams to simplify the
investment casting process by removing the
need to melt the wax out of the mold. 73
CONTINUOUS CASTING
• Also known as STRAND CASTING.
• the process where a metal is heated until it liquefies.
• The molten metal is then allowed to solidify until it
becomes a semi-finished slab that is later rolled in the
finishing mill.
• It is used to cast metals of uninterrupted lengths.
• In this process, the molten metal is continuously supplied
to the mold.
74
Miscellaneous
Techniques
75
POWDER METALLURGY

This method is especially suitable for metals

having low ductility, since only small plastic
deformation of the powder particles need occur.
76
WeldIng

In welding, two or more metal parts are

joined to form a single piece when one-part
fabrication is expensive or inconvenient. 77
 Heat
Treatment 78
 Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing
the strength of material, but it can also be used to alter
certain manufacturability objectives such as improve
machining, improve formability, restore ductility after a
cold working operation. 79
Heat Treatment
Methods
80
AnnealIng

A heat treatment process in which a material is

exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended
time period and then slowly cooled. 81
ANNEALING PROCESS CONSISTS
OF THREE STAGES:

(1) heating to the desired temperature,

(2) holding or “soaking” at that
temperature, and
(3) cooling, usually to room temperature.
82
NormalIzIng

Used to refine the grains and produce a more

uniform and desirable size distribution. 83
HARDENING

The process for making material harder. 84

Ageing or Precipitation
Hardening

a heat treatment method mostly used to increase the

yield strength of malleable metals. 85
TEMPERING

Used to reduce the brittleness of quenched steel. 86

Case hardening

The process of hardening the surface of steel while

87
leaving the interior unchanged.
The principal
forms of case
hardening are:
88
CarburIzIng

It is process of increasing the carbon content on

89
the surface of steel.
CyanIdIng

It is a process of that helps to maintain bright finish

90
of the metals.
NItrIdIng

It is a process of diffusing the nitrogen in to the

91
surface of steel.
What Metals Are
Suitable for Heat
Treating? 92
thanks!
Any questions?

93