International Baccalaureate:

Extended Essay

Investigating and modeling the effects of air

resistance on paths of the horizontal projectile motion
Subject: Physics

Word Count: 3843

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 Abstract:

This essay investigates horizontal projectile motion with air resistance in an

attempt to answer the question: “how does the air resistance affect the horizontal

distance traveled by various balls with different surface areas in horizontal projectile

motion?” The investigation attempts to answer this question on two levels: first,

modeling or creating the formula that can be used for calculating and drawing out the

theoretical motion paths under the condition of my experiments. Also, drawing

experimental motion paths traveled by various balls. Second, by comparing the ideal

and experimental motion paths and analyzing the effect of air resistance on various

balls with different surface areas, and try to prove the linear relationship between the

radius of the balls and the k of the air resistance. The radius of the balls in the

experiment will be 2cm, 3cm, 4cm, 5cm, and 6cm. The experiment is expected to get

relatively similar results of horizontal projectile motion paths as the ideal paths with

air resistance calculated by the hypothesis, and also calculate out the experimental

fluid viscosity of the air, which will be expected to be similar to the standard value.

The study is merely an attempt to get an understanding of the difference between the

theoretical calculation of air resistance and realistic air resistance. A continuation of

this investigation could figure out some efficient ways to prevent loss of energy

caused by air resistance, and these ways can be applied on planes and cars to burn less

fossil fuel and to be beneficial for the environment.

Word count: 255

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 Table of Contents

1. Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

2. Background information---------------------------------------------------------- 6

2.1 Projectile motion without air resistance---------------------------------------- 7

2.2 Projectile motion with air resistance-------------------------------------------- 7

2.2.1 Stroke’s drag----------------------------------------------------------------- 7

2.2.2 Modeling the paths traveled by balls (with air resistance)------------- 8

3. Experiment---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11

3.1 Apparatus & set-ups--------------------------------------------------------------- 11

3.1.1 Balls and curve track------------------------------------------------------- 11

3.1.2 Data collecting equipment------------------------------------------------- 12

3.2 Pre-test------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 13

3.3 Procedure--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

3.4 Data collecting table(average values)------------------------------------------ 15

4. Path graph analysis------------------------------------------------------------------ 15

4.1 Comparison paths traveled by balls with different radius calculating by path

expression with consideration of air resistance. -------------------------------- 15

4.2 Comparison paths traveled by balls with different radius calculating by paths

expression considering air resistance and paths expression without considering air

resistance.----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

4.3 Experimental paths (with air resistance) traveled by balls with different

radius.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18

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 4.4 Comparison of the experimental path(with air resistance) of each ball of

different radius with its corresponding theoretical path calculated from paths

expression(with consideration of air resistance)-------------------------------- 19

4. Analysis of theoretical k value and experimental k value ------------------ 22

5. Evaluation and conclusion--------------------------------------------------------- 23

6. Appendix 1---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

7. Appendix 2---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32

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1. Introduction:

The horizontal projectile motion of balls seems familiar and simple for all the

high school students, yet one that becomes more complicated when including the

effect of air resistance. Because horizontal projectile motion in the high school

textbook only discusses motion in ideal situations, and when doing the measure for

this motion, it shows that the measurements of horizontal displacements do not fit

with the results calculated by theories. Thus, it came to mind that such a difference is

caused by air resistance. Therefore, investigating the effect of air resistance by

different surface areas and materials on the motion might be interesting.

This essay is an attempt to study the phenomenon of horizontal projectile motion with

consideration of air resistance. Further attention is given to the experiment on

investigating the possible controllable factors that influence the motion such as balls

with different radius, if possible, figuring out the reason behind the difference

between the ideal air resistance and experimental air resistance. The first objective is

to investigate the effect of different variables of balls on air resistance by drawing out

the paths of horizontal projectile motions of the balls. The second objective of this

essay is to determine the factors that influence the difference between the ideal air

resistance and experimental air resistance. An evaluation of the reliability of the

measurements and claims assesses the validity of the conclusions made on this

subject.

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2. Background information:

Considering a ball going forward and horizontal at V0 as presented by the

diagram 1 below:

Diagram 1: Theoretical horizontal projectile motion of a ball with air resistance.

Where(These parameters will be used later in the derivation of the formula):

Xr: Horizontal distance traveled by the ball with air resistance.

Yr: Vertical distance traveled by the ball with air resistance.

V0: The initial velocity of the ball.

Vx: The speed of the ball in the horizontal direction.

Vy: The speed of the ball in the vertical direction.

v: The resultant velocity of the ball.

Fw: The gravitational force acting on the ball.

Fr : The force acting on the ball from air resistance.

Fry: The force acting on the ball from air resistance in vertical direction.

Frx: The force acting on the ball from air resistance in horizontal direction.

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2.1 Projectile motion under the condition without air resistance:

Without considering air resistance, the force acting in the horizontal direction of balls

will be zero, and force in the vertical direction equals F=mg. Thus, in the horizontal

direction, balls are in uniform motion. In the vertical direction, balls are accelerating

with a=9.81m/s2.

Therefore,
Vx = V0
Vy =− gt
x = V0 t
1
y =− gt2
2
By replacing t with function of x,
−1 x 2 −g 2
y= 2
g V0
= 2V0
x

Where:

x: The horizontal distance traveled by the ball without air resistance.

y: The vertical distance traveled by the ball without air resistance.

2.2 Projectile motion under the condition with air resistance:

2.2.1 Stroke’s law

Stokes Law for a small Reynolds number, the resistance to motion of a spherical body

in a fluid is equal to the product of the radius of the spherical body, its velocity, and

the viscosity of the fluid with 6π. [1] Therefore, air resistance acting on the balls is

proportional to their velocity. This can be presented by the formula:

Fr = -kv = -6πηrv [1]

Where:

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η: fluid viscosity (fluid viscosity of air = 1.81*10−5 kg/ms)

r: radius of the ball

However, this formula can only be used under certain conditions that the object doing

projectile motion should be spherical, and the traveling speed of 300m/s.

2.2.2 Modeling the paths traveled by balls (with air resistance)

According to Stroke’s law,

Frx =− kVx
Fry =− kVy

Where:

Frx : The force acting on the ball in the horizontal direction by air resistance.

Fry : The force acting on the ball in the vertical direction by air resistance.

Considering air resistance, the only force acting on the balls in a horizontal direction

is air resistance. In the vertical direction, the forces acting on the balls include

gravitational force and air resistance (acting in the opposite direction of gravitational

force).

Therefore, according to Newton’s second Law:

Frx = max
mg + Fry = may

Where:

ax : The acceleration of the ball in the horizontal direction.

ay : The acceleration of the ball in the vertical direction.

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 dVx
max = m =− kVx (1)
dt
dVy
may = m = mg − kVy (2)
dt

Calculating Equation (1) :

dVx −k
dt
= m x
V
−m Vx dVx t
k V0 Vx
= t0 d t

−m V
k
ln Vx x
V0
=t
−kt
Vx =V0 *e m (3)

Using the same method to calculate out:

−kt
mg
Vy = k
* (1 − e m )(4)

By integrating Vx and Vy :
−kt
−m
Xr= k
V0 e m +C (5)
mg m −kt
Yr= k
(t+ k
e m )+C (6)

By putting the value of height of the table and the original distance coordinates of the

ball(t=0, x=1.76)
−kt
−m m
Xr= k
V0 e m + 1.76 + k
V0

Therefore (when x=1.76, y=1.04),

mg m −kt m
Yr= 1.04- k
(t+ k
e m ) + k 2g

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Therefore,
m
−m Xr −1.76 − k V0
t= ln m (7)
k − k V0

To determine the function of Yr with respect to Xr:

m m
m Xr−1.76 − k V0 Xr −1.76− k V0 m 2
Yr =1.04 − ( k )2 g( − m
V
− ln( m
− k V0
)) + k
g
k 0

The distance traveled by the ball in the horizontal direction with air resistance is

smaller than that under the ideal condition. Under the condition of the projectile

motion, the speed of the ball is so small that the air resistance is proportional to the

speed of the ball. Thus, according to the theory for calculating the air resistance, an

expression for the horizontal distance of the motion with respect to the vertical

distance traveled by the ball can be derived. Thus, the theoretical equation for

modeling the paths of balls are formulated:

m m
m 2 Xr − 1.76 − k V0 Xr − 1.76 − k V0 m2
Yr = 1.04 − ( ) g( − m − ln( m )) + g
k V0 − V0
k
k k
Fr =− k v =− 6πηrv

This theory can be used as the prediction for the path of the horizontal projectile

motion of the ball with air resistance. In order to verify the effectiveness of the

expression above, experiments should be done to be compared with the theoretical

results. Concerning the second objective, k in the equation of Yr is proportional to the

radius of the ball. In this case, we need to collect the experimental data and research

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results to prove this relationship. The next part of the essay therefore focuses on the

experiments performed and the analysis of the data collected.

3. Experiment

3.1 Apparatus&Set-ups:
3.1.1 Balls and the curve track

The experiment is designed to study the horizontal projectile motion of the

ball with air resistance. The balls are divided into five groups with radius of

2.00cm ±0.05cm, 3.00cm ±0.05cm, 4.00cm ±0.05cm, 5.00cm ±0.05cm, and

6.00cm ±0.05cm and their weights of 6.3g ±0.1g. To keep the five balls of the same

mass, four of the balls had hollow parts of different volumes inside.

Diagram 2: balls with different radius

The experiment requires the use of curved track. For the experiment, to

eliminate the effect of friction between the ball and the curved track and control the

initial speed (V0) of ball (1) doing the horizontal projectile motion, the experiment

chooses to use the same iron ball (2) to collide with the ball, and the photo gate (A)

connected to the computer to measure the initial speed of the ball (1) at the end of the

curve track. Diagram 3 below represents the experiment setup and apparatus used:

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 Diagram 3: The apparatus and setup:

In addition, the experiment also uses the camera on the computer, which is

placed parallel to the plane of the motion, to record the complete horizontal projectile

motion paths.

3.1.2 Data collecting equipment

The equipment used to collect data include: a digital motion detector, a

graphing calculator (Logger Pro) and analysis software.

In the diagram above, the motion detector is placed at the end of the curved

track in order to measure the instant velocity of the Ball (1). It is a device that works

by measuring the time that the Ball (1) blocks waves sending between the detecting
∆S
points on both sides of the detector, and the instant speed can be calculated by v = ∆t
.

The details about measurement done by the detector are shown:

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 Diagram 4: Photo gate

The ∆s is always the radius of the ball. The smaller ∆t is, the more accurate

the instantaneous velocity of the Ball (1) will be. Therefore, for the data collection,

the time interval is always chosen to be as small as possible. There is, however, a

limit to how small ∆t can become, and the minimum ∆t can be 0.0179s. Then, the

data collected by the detector will transfer to the computer by the analysis software

connecting, and it will automatically calculate out the speed of the ball on the

computer.

The camera recording on the computer and a graphing calculator (Logger Pro)

is necessary in the experiment. By inserting the record into the graphing calculator,

clicking the position of the ball in the record, it will automatically form a graph

showing the relationship between the horizontal distance and vertical distance

traveled by the ball.

3.2 Pre-test

Before collecting the data, it is important to confirm the range of the radius of

the balls. Because of the limitation of the detector, balls with a larger radius than 6cm

cannot pass through the detector successfully. Thus, using the range of radius from

2cm to 6cm of balls is most suitable.

To make sure that the force acting on the Ball (1) by Ball (2) is at the center of

the ball, use the iron balls with different radius to collide with every Ball (1) and

observe whether iron balls hit at the center of the Ball (1). Eventually, the iron ball

with the most suitable radius is chosen for the experiment.

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To construct an ideal environment for the experiment, it is done within the laboratory,

which is the closed room. Also, make sure that all the windows, doors, and air

conditioners are closed to prevent much flowing of air, which will affect the relative

speed between the ball and the air, leading to inaccurate experiments.

3.3 Procedure:

- Independent: the radius of the balls

- Dependent: the horizontal distance traveled by the balls

- Controls: the mass of the balls; the temperature and pressure inside the lab; The

force acting on the balls(initial speed of the balls)

The idea of this experiment is to vary the radius of the balls and to determine

the relationship between the radius of the ball and the constant (k) of air resistance.

Experiment process:

- Setting up the equipment includes putting the curved track on the table, setting the

computer on the chair where the camera can capture the complete motion paths, and

using another computer to connect with the detector to measure the instant speed of

the Ball (1).

- Clicking on the recording button to start recording, releasing the iron ball to collide

with the Ball (1). However, before releasing the ball, operator needs to hold a meter

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ruler in front of the camera, which helps the computer to determine the scale of

objects in video and objects in the real experiment.

- Clicking on the recording button to stop recording.

- Repeat the experiment for the ball with the same radius three times.

- Repeat all the procedures above for balls with the radius of 2cm, 3cm, 4cm, 5cm,

and 6cm.

3.4 Data collecting

Table height: 105.00cm ± 0.05cm
Mass of wooden ball: 6.3g ±0.1g.
Velocity of wooden ball: 1.1m/s

Table 1: Average values of vertical displacements at the same horizontal

displacement by experiments.
Radius 2cm± 0.05cm 3cm± 0.05cm 4cm± 0.05cm 5cm± 0.05cm 6cm± 0.05cm
of the

balls

Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical

displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m

1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04
1.68 0.99 1.69 1.03 1.69 1.02 1.68 1.02 1.67 1.02
1.57 0.88 1.63 0.99 1.63 0.99 1.57 0.90 1.61 0.97
1.5 0.76 1.56 0.93 1.57 0.92 1.5 0.79 1.58 0.95
1.45 0.64 1.49 0.79 1.52 0.84 1.45 0.68 1.52 0.85
1.39 0.51 1.42 0.64 1.46 0.72 1.39 0.53 1.48 0.76
1.36 0.40 1.35 0.45 1.41 0.58 1.36 0.44 1.44 0.67
1.32 0.25 1.30 0.23 1.38 0.49 1.32 0.31 1.39 0.52
1.31 0.27 1.28 0.14 1.32 0.31 1.31 0.26 1.34 0.36

(Raw data has to be checked in Appendix 1)

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4. Path graph analysis

4.1 Comparison paths traveled by balls with different radius calculating by path

expression with consideration of air resistance.

m m
m Xr−1.76 − k V0 Xr−1.76− k V0
By using the expression of Yr =1.04 − ( k )2 g( − m
V
− ln( m
− k V0
)) +
k 0
m 2
k
g, theoretical paths considering air resistance are drawn in Logger Pro.

Graph 1. Theoretical paths traveled by balls with radius of 2cm, 3cm, 4cm, 5cm,
and 6cm.

（Check Appendix 1 for data)

Where red line represents paths of the ball with a radius of 2cm, the blue line

represents paths of the ball with a radius of 3cm, the yellow line represents paths of

the ball with a radius of 4cm, the green line represents paths of the ball with a radius

of 5cm, and the black line represents paths of the ball with a radius of 6cm.

In graph 1, the horizontal distance traveled by the ball becomes bigger when the

radius of the ball increases. Paths of different balls in graph 1 betray the common

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thoughts that if the radius of the ball gets bigger, the air resistance will increase,

leading to the decrease in horizontal displacement. However, according to the

hypothesis, as the radius increases, the coefficient of the air resistance will increase as

well. Thus, as the air resistance increases, balls with a larger radius will suffer a

bigger air resistance in the horizontal direction, but at the same time, they suffer larger

air resistance in the vertical direction, which leads to the longer time taken remaining

in the air. This may allow them to travel further in the horizontal direction compared

to other balls.

4.2 Comparison paths traveled by balls with different radius calculating by paths

expression considering air resistance and paths expression without considering

air resistance.

Graph 2. Ideal paths traveled by balls without air resistance

In comparison, according to the function, the ideal path without

considering air resistance shows that the paths traveled by balls with different radius

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are the same since it does not matter with the radius of the balls. The horizontal

displacement under the ideal condition is not the largest when compared to paths in

graph 1 since there is no air resistance in the vertical direction, so the time taken

remaining in the air under this ideal condition is shorter. Therefore, it is reasonable

that horizontal displacement of balls under the ideal condition without considering air

resistance is not the maximum.

4.3 Experimental paths (with air resistance) traveled by balls with different

radius.
Graph 3. Experimental paths traveled by balls (with air resistance)

The graph includes experimental paths by different balls with radius from 2cm,

3cm, 4cm, 5cm, and 6cm with consideration of air resistance. Where blue line

represents the experimental path traveled by the ball with radius of 2cm, the gray line

represents the experimental path traveled by the ball with radius of 3cm, the red line

represents the experimental path traveled by the ball with radius of 4cm, the green

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line represents the experimental path traveled by the ball with radius of 5cm, and the

orange line represents the experimental path traveled by the ball with radius of 6cm.

The graph indicates that the overall trend of horizontal distance traveled by

balls is increasing with a bigger radius, which is the same trend shown by theoretical

data(with consideration of air resistance). Because hypothesis function does not show

a clear relationship between vertical displacement and horizontal displacement of

different balls, but it indicates that the air resistance suffered by the balls from vertical

direction will influence the displacement in the horizontal direction, it is reasonable

that when radius gets bigger, the horizontal distance traveled by the ball is further.

Therefore, the experimental data are quite convincing, and in the next section, each

experimental path of balls with a different radius will be compared with each

theoretical path of balls with a different radius.

4.4 Comparison of the experimental path(with air resistance) of each ball of

different radius with its corresponding theoretical path calculated from paths

expression(with consideration of air resistance)

Graph of comparison between ideal paths with air resistance(purple colored

lines) and experimental paths (black lines) with different surface area.

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Graph 4. Paths of a ball with radius of 2cm

Graph 5. Paths of a ball with radius of 3cm

Graph 6. Paths of a ball with radius of 4cm

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 Graph 7. Paths of a ball with radius of 5cm

Graph 8. Paths of a ball with radius of 6cm

All the graphs above show the comparisons between ideal paths calculated

from the hypothesis with consideration of air resistance and experimental paths

traveled by balls. Curves of both ideal paths with air resistance and experimental

paths are perfect arcs, which means readings from these two methods are both

convincing.

From the graphs, the paths calculated by the hypothesis of balls with different

radius match with their experimental paths since the purple-colored curves

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(theoretical paths with air resistance) overlap with the black curve(experimental

paths), but there is still a quite big difference in some cases. At this stage, the factors

that cause the difference cannot be figured out, which will be discussed in the

evaluation part. However, these five graphs still prove the effectiveness of the

function calculating the paths of projectile motion since the difference in vertical

displacement between each point calculated by hypothesis and from experiments are

among 0.01cm to 0.05cm, which is quite a small value and acceptable.

5. Analysis of theoretical k value and experimental k value

Graph 9. Coefficient of air resistance(k)with respect to radius of different balls

(Data can be checked in Appendix 2)

Where the purple colored line represents coefficient(k) of air resistance calculated

from Stroke’s law changing with balls with different radius. The black line represents

the coefficient(k) calculated from experimental data changing with balls with different

radius.

This graph compares the theoretical relationship between the radius of balls

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and the coefficient of air resistance that is the air resistance coefficient is proportional

to the radius of balls and coefficient calculated from experimental data, which also

indicates the proportion relationship with a radius of balls.

According to the hypothesis, Fr =− k v =− 6πηrv , so gradient of the

function= 6πη. The standard value of fluid viscosity of air = 1.81* 10−5kg/ms , and

by taking in the gradient of experimental function,

gradient 3.169∗10−4
η= 6π
= 6π
=1.68* 10−5 kg/ms , which is 1.2* 10−6 smaller than standard

value. This is because there are other factors affecting differences in theoretical paths

and experimental paths, which will accordingly affect the final value of fluid viscosity

of air calculated from experimental data. However, the value of 1.2* 10−6 is

1.2∗10−6
relatively small, which is about 1.81∗10−5
= 6% difference of its standard value. This

is acceptable and proves the effectiveness of formula for horizontal projectile motion

with air resistance.

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6. Evaluation and conclusion:

Evaluation:

There is still airflow inside the lab, which is caused by when others are walking

in the lab. Especially, the balls chosen for the experiment is extremely light, which is

about 6.3g, the air resistance varies significantly to the ball. This can only be solved

by doing the experiment alone in the lab, and making sure that windows and doors are

closed is also important.

When the ball is falling away from the curved track, it may not move in the

straightforward direction, which will cause some influence on the horizontal direction

it traveled. This can only be minimized by reducing the airflow inside the lab and

making sure that the force acting on the ball is at the center of the ball.

When analyzing the data collected by the video, the speed of the ball is so fast

that the operator could not clearly see the ball on the computer screen, but only a very

faint shadow could be seen. Thus, it is hard for operator to click on the precise

position of the ball to collect data, leading to a more manual error during the analysis

of the data.

However, the overall experiments are relatively accurate since most factors

that will cause some unpredictable influence on the air resistance are controlled, such

as the temperature, pressure, air flowing in all kinds of directions...In addition, the

data of experiments are collected directly through the software on a computer, which

eliminates manual measuring uncertainties. Therefore, under this standard condition,

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results from the model for calculating the paths of horizontal projectile motion match

with experimental paths.

Conclusion:

This investigation has led to several interesting observations.

First of all, we noticed that the phenomenon of horizontal projectile motion that

generally balls with larger radius can travel further in horizontal direction under the

condition with air resistance since the horizontal displacement of the balls is affected

by the air resistance suffering in the vertical direction. According to the theory, Fr =

− k v =− 6πηrv, as the radius of the balls become bigger, the air resistance acting on

the balls becomes bigger. Thus, the time for the ball remaining in the air becomes

shorter. According to the formula for calculating the horizontal distance, s=vt, though

the velocity of the balls with a larger radius gets smaller, the time taken for traveling

becomes longer. As a result, it is possible that balls with larger radius ranged from

2cm to 6cm traveling further than smaller ones.

Secondly, the deduction of the equation with consideration of air resistance is

successfully applied to this experiment, which can be shown by the little difference

between horizontal projectile motion paths (with air resistance) calculated by the

hypothesis and experimental data. In addition, the linear relationship between the

radius of the balls and k is proved in this experiment, and the value of fluid viscosity

of air is calculated out(1.68*10−5 kg/ms), which is slightly different from the

standard value, but it is still a relatively accurate value.

The equation for calculating the air resistance is only an approximation, but the

25
experiments prove that under the standard condition, the formula is a relatively

accurate approximation. Thus, under different conditions, the equation should be

improved or varied accordingly with consideration of the realistic situation.

More experiments can be done related to this topic—air resistance can be done,

like different shapes, air density, or fluid viscosity affecting the air resistance. After

combing all this research, people are more likely to find the most efficient method to

reduce the effect of air resistance.

In conclusion, the model of this projectile can be applied in real life when

combined with further research mentioned above. That is, after combing with further

research, it helps the military figure out how much energy is needed to launch a

low-speed missile, and how much fuel is needed in advance.

26
 Appendix 1

Data for calculating the theoretical paths of balls with different radius
Radius 2cm 3cm 4cm 5cm 6cm
of the

balls

Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical

displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m displacement/m

1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04 1.76 1.04
1.68 1.01 1.69 1.02 1.69 1.02 1.69 1.02 1.67 1.01
1.57 0.89 1.63 0.97 1.63 0.97 1.61 0.94 1.61 0.95
1.50 0.77 1.56 0.88 1.57 0.89 1.56 0.88 1.58 0.91
1.45 0.65 1.49 0.74 1.52 0.81 1.53 0.82 1.52 0.81
1.39 0.49 1.42 0.57 1.46 0.68 1.46 0.68 1.48 0.72
1.36 0.39 1.35 0.43 1.41 0.54 1.43 0.60 1.44 0.63
1.32 0.26 1.3 0.28 1.38 0.45 1.39 0.49 1.39 0.49
1.31 0.21 1.28 0.21 1.32 0.26 1.35 0.36 1.34 0.29

27
 Appendix 2

Raw experimental data for paths traveled by balls with different radius

Table 1. Raw data for ball with radius of 2cm

Values for experiment 1, 2,3 Average value

vertical Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal

displacement/m displacement/m displacement displacement/m displacement/m

1.76 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04

1.68 1.01 1 0.97 0.99

1.57 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.88

1.5 0.75 0.77 0.76 0.76

1.45 0.64 0.65 0.64 0.64

1.39 0.49 0.53 0.51 0.51

1.36 0.43 0.41 0.36 0.4

1.32 0.25 0.24 0.26 0.25

1.31 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.17

28
 Table 2. Raw data for ball with radius of 3cm

Values for experiment 1, 2,3 Average value

vertical Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal

displacement/m displacement/m displacement displacement/m displacement/m

1.76 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04

1.69 1.03 1.02 1.03 1.03

1.63 1.03 0.97 0.98 0.99

1.56 0.93 0.94 0.92 0.93

1.49 0.81 0.78 0.78 0.79

1.42 0.63 0.67 0.61 0.64

1.35 0.47 0.46 0.42 0.45

1.3 0.22 0.25 0.22 0.23

1.28 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.14

29
 Table 3. Raw data for ball with radius of 4cm

Values for experiment 1, 2,3 Average value

vertical Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal

displacement/m displacement/m displacement displacement/m displacement/m

1.76 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04

1.69 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.02

1.63 1.01 0.95 1.01 0.99

1.57 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92

1.52 0.81 0.82 0.89 0.84

1.46 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.72

1.41 0.6 0.54 0.60 0.58

1.38 0.47 0.51 0.49 0.49

1.32 0.35 0.27 0.30 0.31

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 Table 4. Raw data for ball with radius of 5cm

Values for experiment 1, 2,3 Average value

vertical Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal

displacement/m displacement/m displacement displacement/m displacement/m

1.76 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04

1.68 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02

1.57 0.93 0.9 0.87 0.9

1.5 0.79 0.79 0.80 0.79

1.45 0.67 0.65 0.71 0.68

1.39 0.55 0.54 0.51 0.53

1.36 0.43 0.43 0.46 0.44

1.32 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.31

1.31 0.28 0.27 0.23 0.26

31
 Table 5. Raw data for ball with radius of 6cm

Values for experiment 1, 2,3 Average value

vertical Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal

displacement/m displacement/m displacement displacement/m displacement/m

1.76 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04

1.67 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02

1.61 0.99 0.98 0.94 0.97

1.58 0.97 0.93 0.94 0.95

1.52 0.86 0.86 0.83 0.85

1.48 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.76

1.44 0.69 0.65 0.67 0.67

1.39 0.54 0.50 0.51 0.52

1.34 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.36

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 Appendix 2:

Data for both average experimental coefficient(k) of air resistance and ideal

coefficient(k) of air resistance

Theoretical Experimental

Radius of the Value of k Radius of the Average value of k

ball/m ball/m

0.02 0.00000637 0.02 0.00000682

0.03 0.00000960 0.03 0.00001023

0.04 0.00001281 0.04 0.00001364

0.05 0.00001580 0.05 0.00001705

0.06 0.00001890 0.06 0.00002047

21. Works and program cited

Reference:

[1] Fowler, M. (2006). Dropping the Ball (Slowly)-- Stroke's law. Retrieved October

28, 2021, from

https://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/152.mf1i.spring02/Stokes_Law.pdf.

33