EEN330 ElectromagneticsI Chapter3 Electrostatics

EEN 330
Electromagnetics I
Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh
Chapter 3
Electrostatics
Learning outcomes
 Introduce Cartesian, cylindrical, & spherical coordinate systems
 Discuss vectors, vector addition, dot product, and divergence
 Describe electric field intensity and electric flux density
 Define and utilize Coulomb’s law
 Determine the electric field resulting from charge distributions
 Use Gauss’s law to find electric field
 Describe electric potential & its relation to electric field intensity
 Present Ohm’s law and explain current in conductors
 Describe the features of dielectric materials
 Compare the electric fields across material boundaries
 Define capacitance & calculate it for various geometries
3 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

3.1 Vectors in the Cartesian coordinate system
 Determining the location of a point in a 3-D space can be accomplished
using the Cartesian coordinate system. The Cartesian coordinate system is
a right handed system as shown in figure below.

 The (x, y, z) coordinates define
a point in the Cartesian
coordinate system. E.g.
P(0, 1, 0)
Q(0, 4, 0)
R(3, 4, 0)

 A vector drawn from the origin
O(0,0,0) to point P has a
magnitude of 1 and is pointing in
the positive y direction.
 Since it has a magnitude of 1, it is

known as the unit vector and may
be written as
P = 1a y
or
P = 1â y
 Multiplication: Q = 4P = 4ay.

 A vector from the origin to R(3, 4, 0)
can be written as
R = 3ax +4ay
or
R = |R|aR = RaR
where
R = R = 32 + 4 2 = 5
and
R 3 4
aR = = ax + ay
R 5 5

 The vector from point R(x1, y1, z1) to point P(x2, y2, z2) is
RRP = (x2−x1)ax+(y2−y1)ay+(z2−z1)az
 Addition and subtraction of vectors is done element by element. For

example if
A = x1ax+y1ay+z1az and B = x2ax+y2ay+z2az
A+B = (x1+x2)ax +(y1+y2)ay +(z1+z2)az

A−B = (x1−x2)ax +(y1−y2)ay +(z1−z2)az

 Graphically, for vectors A and B, addition can be visualized by placing the
tail of B at the head of A, or by starting each vector at a common point
and completing the parallelogram
See Example 3.1 in TB

HW: Do Drill 3.1
 In MATLAB, vectors are expressed using brackets. For instance, the vector
A = 5ax+2ay−3az is expressed as A=[5,2,−3] or A=[5 2 −3]
(a regular row vector).
 Addition and subtraction are done as regular row vector addition, as long
as the vectors have the same length.
>> A=[5,2,-3];
>> B=[1,2,3];
>> A+B
ans =
6 4 0
>> A-B
ans =
4 0 -6
>> See MATLAB 3.1

 A differential volume is represented as
dv = dxdydz
 A differential surface requires a

direction, for example
dS = dxdyaz

3.2 Coulomb’s law
 Consider that Q1 and Q2 have charge quantities given in Coulomb [C] (for
example electrons have a charge q = -1.6×10-19 [C]).
 A distance vector R12 = R12a12 of magnitude R12 [m] and direction a12 can
be drawn between the charges. Charge Q1 exerts a vector force F12, in
newtons [N] on charge Q2 that is given by Coulombs law as
Q1Q2
F12 = a12 [N]
4πε0 R12
2
Note: The unit of F12 can be verified by the following conversions: F=C/V, C=J/V, and J=N⋅m

3.2 Coulomb’s law
Example 3.2
 Q1(0, 0, 4 [m]) = 10 [nC] and Q2(0, 4 [m], 0) =
2 [nC]. Find F12.
 Solution:
R=
12 4a y − 4a z
R12 = 4 2
1 1
=
a12 ay − az
2 2
 1 1 
−
10 ×10−9 C 2 × 10−9 C 36π m  2 y z 
a a
2  FV J Nm
F12 =
4π 10−9 F
( )
2
4 2m C CV J
F12 4.0 ( a y − a z ) nN
=

3.2 Coulomb’s law
Example 3.3
 Consider example 3.2. A third charge
Q3(0, 0, -4 [m]) is added. Find total force
exerted on charge Q2 from the charges
Q1 and Q3.
 Solution:
F12 4.0 ( a y − a z ) nN
=
symmetry: F32 = 4.0 ( a y + a z ) nN
∴ FTotal =
8.0a y nN
HW: Do Drill 3.3

3.2 Coulomb’s law
3.2.1 Electric Field Intensity
 Coulomb’s law: Force between two charges Q1 and Q2
Q1Q2
F12 = a12 [N]
4πε0 R12
2
 Electric field intensity: Field from charge Q1 that results from the force
vector F12 for any arbitrarily chosen value for Q2
F12
E1 =
Q2
and in general, the E-field intensity in [V/m] at any point in space resulting
from a fixed charge Q is
Q
E= a [V/m]
4πε0 R 2 R

3.2 Coulomb’s law
Example 3.4
 Consider example 3.2 and 3.3. Find the E-field intensity E1 and Etot.
 Solution:
Resulting form Q1
for E tot , we have

Ftot 8.0a y nN V
E tot = = = 4.0a y Resulting form Q1 and Q3
Q2 2.0nC m
HW: Do Drill 3.4

3.2 Coulomb’s law
3.2.2 Field lines
 The behavior of fields can be visualized by using field lines (also called lines
of force or flux lines).
Fig. 3.10 in TB: (a) Field vectors plotted within a regular grid in 2-D space
surrounding a point charge. Some of these field vectors can easily be joined by field
lines, as shown in (b), that emanate from the positive charge.
3.2 Coulomb’s law
3.2.2 Field lines
Fig. 3.11 in TB: Field lines for a pair of opposite charges

3.3 The spherical coordinate system
Cartesian to spherical: P(x, y, z) to P(r,θ, ϕ)
r= x2 + y 2 + z 2
z
θ = cos −1  
 
r
−1  y 
φ = tan  
x
Spherical to Cartesian: P(r,θ, ϕ) to P(x, y, z)
z = r cos θ
x = r sin θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
 A vector in the spherical coordinate system can be written as
A = Ar a r + Aθ a θ + Aϕ a ϕ
 Converting a Cartesian vector to a spherical vector (and vice versa)

requires that the location of the vector in space in known.
 Check Appendix B for full details.

 For example, consider the vector
2ax+3ay located once at point P(0,5,0)
P(0,5,0) and once at point Q(4,0,0).
 Looking at Appendix B, first at
P(0,5,0):
Q(4,0,0)
r = 5 =5 2
z 0 π
θ = cos −1   = cos −1   =
r 5 2
 y 5 π
φ = tan −1   = tan −1   =
x 0 2
Ar = Ay = 3
Aφ = − Ax = −2 ⇒ A = 3a r − 2a φ

 Now at Q(4,0,0):
P(0,5,0)
r = 42 = 4
−1 z −1  0  π
θ = cos   = cos   =
r 4 2
Q(4,0,0)
 y
φ = tan −1   = tan −1 (0 ) = 0
x
Ar = Ax = 2
Aφ = − Ay = 3 ⇒ A = 2a r + 3a φ
 So depending on the location of the

vector, its coordinates change.

 Considering a point charge Q located at the origin. The electric field
intensity resulting from this charge can be written for any point charge in
the Cartesian coordinate system as
Q Q (xa x + ya y + za z )
E= a =
4πε0 R 2 R
(
4πε0 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 3 2 )
 In the spherical coordinate system, this can elegantly be written as
Q
E= a
2 r
4πε0 r
where r = x2 + y2 + z 2

 Volume and surface of a differential element in the spherical coordinate

system can be represented as:
dv (=
dr )( rdθ )( r sin θ dφ ) r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
For the shaded surface, dS = r sin θ dr dφ aθ

Example 3.5
 Volume of a sphere:  Surface area of a sphere:
=
vsphere ∫=
dv ∫∫∫ sin θ dr dθ dφ
r 2
ssphere = ∫ dS = ∫ ∫ r 2 sin θdθdφ
R π 2π
π 2π
vsphere = ∫ r dr ∫ sin θ dθ ∫ dφ
2
0 0 0
ssphere = R 2 ∫ sin θdθ ∫ dφ
0 0
 R3  4
vsphere =
  ( 2 )( 2π ) π R 3
ssphere = 4πR 2
 3  3
HW: Do Drill 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7

3.4 Line charges and the cylindrical coordinate system
A = Aρ a ρ + Aφ aφ + Az a z
Cartesian to Cylindrical
ρ
= x2 + y 2
 y
φ = tan  
−1
x
z=z
Cylindrical to Cartesian
x = ρ cos φ
y = ρ sin φ
z=z
 Volume and surface of a differential element in the cylindrical coordinate

system can be represented as:
dv (=
d ρ )( ρ dφ )( dz ) ρ d ρ dφ dz
dS for the shaded surface of the element:
dS = ρ d ρ dφ a z
Example 3.6
 Consider a volume bounded by radius ρ from 3 to 4 cm, height from 0 to 6
cm, and angle from 90-degrees to 135-degrees. Find the volume of this
component.
Note: we have to convert from degrees to radians for calculation
4 3π / 4 6
V = ∫ ∫ ∫ ρdρdφdz = ∫ ρdρ ∫ dφ∫ dz = 16.5 cm 3
3 π/ 2 0
HW: Do Drill 3.8, 3.9
See MATLAB 3.2 Program to

convert from cylindrical to
Cartesian coordinate system

3.4.1 Infinite length line of charge
 Goal  to derive the electric field at any point in space resulting from an
infinite length line of charge placed evenly along the z-axis.
 The linear charge density is the coulombs of charge per meter length and is
given by ρL [C/m] (has nothing to do with the radial distance ρ in the
cylindrical coordinate system).
 Consider figure 3.18 in TB showing the line charge along the z-axis and
choose an arbitrary point P(ρ, ϕ, z) where we want to find the electric field
intensity.

Fixing ρ and ϕ and move up and down along z, or fix ρ and move around
with ϕ, the E-field acts and looks the same to us, because it is infinite.
 The E-field intensity will only vary with the radial distance ρ from the line

E(ρ) = Eρa ρ + Eφa φ + E z a z

An arbitrary dQ element only gives By symmetry, the dEz components cancel,

dEρ and dEz components, so
 ∴E ( ρ ) =
Eρ a ρ
( ρ ) Eρ a ρ + E z a z
E=

 Recall 
Q
E= a
2 R
4πε0 R
 If we consider a collection of such charges
continuously distributed 
dQ
E=∫ a
4πε0 R 2 R
 Figure 3.19 in TB
The differential charge dQ=ρLdz
The vector drawn from the source to the
test point is
ρa ρ − z a z
R = Ra R = ρa ρ − z a z with R = ρ 2 + z 2 and aR =
R
 Replacing in dQ
E=∫ a
4πε0 R 2 R

ρ L dz ρa ρ − za z
E=∫
(
4πε0 ρ 2 + z 2 3 2 )
 Now because no z-component will be
present in the final answer

ρ L ρa ρ +∞
dz
E= ∫
4πε0 −∞ (ρ 2
+z 2
)
3
2
 Solution of integral can be found in Appendix

D, and gives the E-field intensity at any point
ρ away from an infinite length line of charge
as
ρL
E= aρ
2πε0ρ
Example 3.7
 Suppose an infinite length line of charge ρL1 = 4 [nC/m] exists at x = 2m,
z=4 m. We want to find the E-field intensity at the origin.
ρL
• We found E = a ρ at any point
2πε o ρ
for a line charge on the z axis
• For lines off the z axis, we need to

Determine appropriate ρ and aρ

Example 3.7
Cross section clearly shows

ρ aρ = −2 a x − 4 a z
−2 4
∴ ρ= 2 +4 =
2 2
20 and a ρ= ax − az
20 20
4 ×10−9 C m 36π m 1 ( −2a x − 4 a z ) FV

E=
2π 10−9 F 20m 20 C
V
E=
−7.20a x − 14.4 a z
m
HW: Do Drill 3.10 and 3.11

3.4.2 Ring of charge
 Consider a ring of charge with charge density ρL [C/m] centered at the
origin in the xy-plane.
 Goal Determine E at a point on the z-axis (0, 0, h).

dQ
Inspect symmetry, then start with E = ∫ a
4πε o R 2 R
Then determine dQ and RaR
By symmetry, we see the

dEρ components cancel
Only Ez will be present in the solution

Ra R =
−a a ρ + h a z
ρ L a dφ
E ∫ ( −a a ρ + h az )
4πε o ( a 2 + h 2 )
3
2
Ignoring the dEρ part and integrating,
2π
ρ LLah
aha z
E= a ∫ dφ
( h h) )
3 3 z
24επε
o 0 a+ +
(
a 2 2 2 22 2
0
ρ L aha z Note:
→E= 3
Calculating E off the
2ε 0 (a + h )
2 2 2 z-axis requires
numerical integration
3.5 Surface and volume charge
 Consider an infinite sheet of charge with charge density ρS [C/m2] in the
xy-plane.
 Goal Find E at a point on the z-axis (0, 0, h).
• Surface charge density ρs(C/m2)

• By symmetry, the Ex & Ey
components cancel, and E = Ez a z
dQ
• E=∫ aR
4πε o R 2
ρ s dx dy h a z
= ∫∫
4πε o ( x + y + z )
3
2 2 2 2
• Solve by numerical integration

 Another way to solve the problem  consider that the infinite extent sheet of
charge is broken up into a continuous series of infinite length line charges, such that
a single line of charge in the x-direction would have a value ρL = ρSdy.
ρL
• Line charge: E = aρ
2πε o ρ
here, ρ L = ρ S dy & ρ a ρ =
− ya y + ha z
ρ s dy h a z
• E=∫
2πε o ( y 2 + h 2 )
+∞
ρ ha dy
= s z
2πε o ∫−∞ ( y 2 + h2 )
π
= (see appendix D)
h
Note:
ρS Another way to solve the problem is by
∴ E = a z  Independent of h! considering the sheet to consist of a continuous
2ε o series of concentric rings  see TB
 In general, we have
ρs
E= an
2ε 0
where an is the unit vector normal from the sheet to the test point.

Example 3.8
nC
Given: ρ S = 10.0 2
at y = -2.0 m
m
Find E(0, 2, 1)
ρS
In general, we have E = aN
2ε o
where aN = unit vector from sheet to
test point
HW: Do Drill so we have:
3.12, 3.13 and
3.14. ρS 10 ×10−9 C m 2 36π m FV V
=E = aN = a y 565a y
See MATLAB 3.3 2εo 2 −9
10 F C m
3.5.1 Volume charge
 A volume charge is distributed over a volume and is characterized by its
volume charge density ρV in [C/m3].
 Plasma, a charged gaslike form of matter, can be contained in a magnetic

field and is an example of volume charge.
 The total charge in a volume containing a charge distribution ρV is found by

integrating over the volume:
Q = ∫ ρv dv
 The E-field resulting from a volume charge is found by solving the integral
ρv dv  Solved numerically
E=∫ a
4πε0 R 2 R
Note: if there is sufficient symmetry, we can
solve using Gauss’s Law, an upcoming topic.
Example 3.9
 Consider a spherical collection of charge with density ρV. The total charge
for this sphere of radius a would be (recall section 3.3)
a π 2π
4
Q = ∫ ρv dv = ∫ ρv r 2 sin θdrdθdφ = ρv ∫ r 2 dr ∫ sin θdθ ∫ dφ = πa 3ρv
0 0 0
3
 More often, the charge density will vary with position. Suppose the charge
density for the sphere is a function of the squared radius, or ρV = kr2,
where k is a constant. Then the total charge would be
a π 2π
4
Q = ∫ kr dr ∫ sin θdθ ∫ dφ = πka 5
4
0 0 0
3

Section summary
Point of charge Infinite surface of charge
Charge = Q Q = ∫ ρ S dS
Q
E= a ρS
4πε0 r 2 r E= an
2ε 0
Line of charge Volume of charge
Q = ∫ ρ L dL Q = ∫ ρv dv
ρL ρv dv
E= a ρ (infinite line) E=∫ a
2πε0ρ 4πε0 R 2 R
ρ L aha z
E= 3
(ring) In the next section, we are going to solve
2ε 0 (a + h )
2 2 2
E for a coaxial cable and a sphere of
charge.

3.6 Electric flux density
Faraday’s experiment
 Place charge +Q on the small sphere
 Enclose with large outer sphere
 Briefly ground outer sphere
 Charge –Q will accumulate on the outer
sphere
 We say that an electric flux begins at +Q

charge and terminates at the –Q charge.

Definitions:
 D = electric flux density
ψ
D= a [C/m 2
]
4πr 2 r
 As the electric field E is

Q
E= a [V/m]
4πε0 r 2 r
 In free space, the amount of flux ψ emanating from the inner sphere is equal
to the charge Q on the sphere, then
D = ε 0 E [C/m 2 ]
 So the electric flux density is similar to electric field intensity, except that the
electric flux density relates the number of flux lines emanating from one set of
charge and terminating on the other, independent of the media.
 The amount of flux passing through a surface is given by the product of D
and the amount of the surface normal to D.
ψ = D S cos θ
where θ is the angle between the D vector and S vector. In vector algebra,
this relation is know as the dot product.
 In general
A⋅ B = A B cos θ AB

 In general, the dot product can be found by (see TB for proof)
A⋅ B = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz (Cartesian coord . sys .)
A⋅ B = Ar Br + Aθ Bθ + Aφ Bφ (Spherical coord . sys .)
A⋅ B = Aρ Bρ + Aφ Bφ + Az Bz (Cylindrical coord . sys .)
 Example 3.10
Suppose we have two vectors A = 5ax + 3az and B= 2ay – 4az. The dot
product is
A⋅B = (5)(0) +(0)(2) + (3)(-4) = -12
The dot product A⋅B represent the amount of A that is in the direction of
B, multiplied by the magnitude of B.

 Applying this on our flux, we can find the flux through a surface by
ψ = D S cos θ = D ⋅ S
 If D varies over the surface for which ψ is defined, finding the total flux is
then a matter of integrating over the surface
ψ = ∫ D ⋅ dS

Example 3.11
 Suppose D = 3xyax + 4xaz [C/m2]. Find ψ through the surface at z = 0,
0 ≤ x ≤ 5m, and 0 ≤ y ≤ 3m.
The differential surface vector is dS = dxdyaz (or dS = dxdy(−az )) and

5 3
ψ = ∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫ (3 xya x + 4 xa z ) ⋅ dxdya z = ∫ 4 xdx ∫ dy = 150 [C]
0 0
Note that the dot product of ax and az is zero, the reason why 3xyax didn’t
factor into the calculation.

Example 3.12
 Given D = 3rar − 9raθ + 6aφ [C/m2]. Find ψ passing through the spherical
surface at r = 2 m.
The differential surface vector

in this case is
dS = r 2 sin θdθdφa r

HW: Do Drill
3.16, 3.17 and
see MATLAB 3.5
π 2π
ψ = ∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫ (3ra r − 9ra θ + 6aφ )⋅ r 2 sin θdθdφa r = 3r 3 ∫ sin θdθ ∫ dφ = 96π [C]
0 0

3.7 Gauss’s law and applications
 If we completely enclose a charge, then the net flux passing through the
enclosing surface must be equal to the charge enclosed, Qenc.
Gauss’s law
“The net electric flux though any closed surface is equal to the total
net charge enclosed by that surface”
ψ = ∫ D ⋅ dS = Qenc
 This is the integral form of Gauss’s law and one of the four Maxwell’s
equations

Example 3.13: Gauss’s law for a point charge
 Let us derive the E-field intensity resulting from a point charge at the
origin.
Problem symmetry: D = Dr (r )a r
Gaussian surface is a sphere, where
dS = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ a r
π 2π
=
QQenc
enc
= ∫
∫=
DD⋅dS Dr r 2
∫ sin θ dθ=∫ d φ 4π r 2
Dr
0 0
Qenc = Q Since the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is Q

Q
∴ Dr = 2 ,
4π r
Q Q
or D = a and E a
4π r 2 r
4πε o r 2 r

Example 3.14: Gauss’s law for a line charge
 Let us derive the E-field intensity resulting from an infinite length line of
charge density ρL on the z-axis.
Problem symmetry: D = Dρ ( ρ )a ρ
Gaussian surface: cylinder of radius

a and height h.
(ddSS side
)side == ρρddρφdz
dz aaρρ
2π h
=
QQ
enc ∫D=
enc=  ∫
D⋅ ddSS Dρ ρ ∫ d=
φ ∫ dz 2πρ Dρ h
0 0
h
Q= ∫ ρ= dz =ρ h = the net charge
h
= ∫
ρ L dz ρ L h
L L
Qenc 0 enclosed by the
Q = Q0enc ⇒ Gaussian surface
ρLh ρL ρL
=
∴ Dρ = , or D aρ ⇒ E = aρ
2πρ h 2πρ 2πε0ρ
Example 3.15: Gauss’s law for a sheet of charge
 Let us derive the E-field intensity resulting from an infinite sheet of charge
density ρS placed on the xy-plane at z = 0.
Problem symmetry: D = Dz a z
Gaussian surface: box (-x to x, -y to
y, arbitrary height)
x y
= = ∫ ρ∫S=
Qenc = ρ S ∫4dx
ρ s dS
dS ρ s ∫xydy = 4ρ S xy
−x −y
Qenc = ∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫ D ⋅ dS + ∫ D ⋅ dS
top buttom
⇒ Qenc = ∫ D z a z ⋅ dxdya z +
top
∫ D (− a )⋅ dxdy(− a )
buttom
z z z
⇒ Qenc = 2(4 xy )D z
Note: instead of a
⇒ Q = Qenc ⇔ 2(4 xy )D z = 4ρ S xy
Gaussian box, a
ρS ρS ρ Gaussian cylinder could
⇒ Dz = or D = an ⇒ E = S an
2 2 2ε 0 have been chosen
3.7.1 Coaxial cable
 Let us derive the flux density for a coaxial cable
Inner conductor has radius a, ρv evenly distributed
Outer conductor is grounded shell of radius b; with +Q
on inner cylinder, -Q accumulates on outer cylinder
By symmetry: D = Dρ a ρ
Choose cylinder of height h for Gaussian Surface

3.7.1 Coaxial cable
 There are three regions where we must calculate the field:
 ρ≤a
 a<ρ≤b
 ρ>b
 The flux through the Gaussian surface is

2π h
∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫ D a
ρ ρ ⋅ ρdφdza ρ = Dρρ ∫ dφ∫ dz = 2πρhDρ
0 0
 This determination of the flux will be valid for all three regions.

3.7.1 Coaxial cable
 The charge enclosed by the first Gaussian surface is found by integration:
ρ 2π h
GS #1: = ∫ v
ρ
= ρ v∫ ρ ρ ∫ ∫
=φ π ρ ρ 2
Qenc dv d d dz h v
0 0 0
ρv
=
so 2πυ hDρ π h ρv ρ
πρhD = 2
, or Dρ ρ for ρ ≤ a
2
ρv a 2
2 : Qenc π h ρv a=
GS #= ,so Dρ2
for a ≤ ρ ≤ b
2 ρ
GS #3=: Qenc 0, =so Dρ 0 for ρ ≥ b
Note: as D=ε0E, the E-field resulting from a coaxial cable (volume of charge) can be extracted.

MATLAB 3.6: Modified program
 Coaxial cable with a= 3 [cm], b = 6 [cm] and ρV = 8 [nc/cm3]. Plot Dρ vs. ρ.
clear
%inital variables
a=3; %cm
b=6; %cm
rhoV=8; %nC/cm^3
rho=[0:0.001:12];
for k=1:length(rho)
if rho(k)<=a %GS#1
D(k)=rhoV*rho(k)/2;
elseif rho(k)<=b %GS#2
D(k)=(rhoV*a^2)/(rho(k)*2);
else
D(k)=0; %GS#3
end
end
plot(rho,D)
ylabel('Magnitude of the electric flux density (nC/cm^2)')
xlabel('rho(cm)')
axis ([0 12 -2 14]) HW: Do Drill 3.18 and writea MATLAB program to plot
grid
the corresponding flux density for sphere radius a = 3 cm
and ρV = 8 nC/cm3.
3.8 Divergence and the point form of Gauss’s law
 The divergence of the flux density D is a scalar quantity that indicates how
much flux is leaving a small closed surface without impairing any
information about the flux direction.
 In other words, the divergence of a vector field at a particular point in

space is a spatial derivative of the field indicating to what degree the field
emanates (or radiates or diverges) from the point.

 In the different coordinate systems, the divergence of D is found to be (see
proof in TB)
∂Dx ∂D y ∂Dz
∇ ⋅ Dcart = + + (Cartesian coordinate system)
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ ∂Dz
∇ ⋅ Dcyl = (ρDρ ) + + (Cylindrical coordinate system)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ ∂Dφ
∇ ⋅ D spher = 2 (
r ∂r
)
r Dr +
r sin θ ∂θ
(Dθ sin θ) + 1
r sin θ ∂φ
(Spherical coordinate system)
where the flux density is related to the del operator, which for example for
Cartesian coordinate system is written
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= ax + a y + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

 The differential form of Gauss’s law, also called the point form of Gauss’s
law, since it occurs at some particular point is space, can be shown to be
∇.D = ρv
 The sign of the resulting divergence of electric flux density from a certain
point indicates whether the point is a source of flux (positive charge) or a
sink of charge (negative charge)

 Recalling once again the integral form of Gauss’s law, we can write
∫ D ⋅ dS = Qenc = ∫ ρv dv
 Using the point form of Gauss’s law, ρv can be replace by ∇⋅D, leading to
the divergence theorem:
∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv
 This relation says that integrating the normal component of a vector field
over a closed surface is equivalent to integrating the divergence of the
vector field at every point in the volume enclosed by that surface.

Example 3.16
 Suppose D = ρ2aρ. Find the flux through the surface of a cylinder with
0 ≤ z ≤ h and ρ = a by evaluating
(a) The left side of the divergence theorem ∫ D ⋅ dS
(b) The right side of the divergence theorem ∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv

Example 3.16
 Evaluating the left side
ψ = ∫ D.dS = ∫ D.dS + ∫ D.dS + ∫ D.dS
top side bottom
 Now D = ρ2aρ so the top and bottom surface integrals are each zero, since
aρ⋅az = 0. So we have
h 2π
ψ = ∫ D.dS = ∫ ∫ ρ
ρ 2
a ⋅ ρ d φdz a ρ = 2 πh ρ 3
= 2πha 3 [C]
ρ=a
z =0 φ=0
HW: Do Drill 3.19

Example 3.16
 Evaluating the right side
ψ = ∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv
1 ∂
∇ ⋅ Dcyl = (ρDρ ) = 1 ∂ ρ3 = 3ρ
( )
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ
a 2π h
⇒ ψ = ∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv = ∫ (3ρ)ρdρdφdz = 3∫ ρ dρ ∫ dφ∫ dz = 2πha 3 [C] = ∫ D.dS
2
vol 0 0 0

3.9 Electric potential
 Electric potential is equivalent to voltage in circuit analysis.
 Goal  To develop a concept of electric potential and show its relationship
to electric field.
 When force is applied to move an object, work is the product of the force
and the distance the object travels in the direction of the force.
Mathematically, in moving the object from point a to point b, the work can
be expressed as
b
W = ∫ F ⋅ dL [J]
a
where dL = differential length vector along some portion of the path

between a and b.

 We know from Coulomb’s law that the force exerted on a charge Q by an
electric field E is F = QE.
 The work done by the E-field in moving charge from point a to b is then
b
WE − field = Q ∫ E ⋅ dL [J]
a
 If an external force moves the charge against the field, the work done is
the negative of WE-field
b
W = −Q ∫ E ⋅ dL [J]
a

Example 3.17
 Calculate the work required to move Q = 10 [nC] from origin to P(1,1,0)
against the static field E = 5ax [V/m]
 Path “i” provides easiest integration 

1m 1m
W = −(10nC ) ∫ 5a x [V/m] ⋅ dya y − (10nC ) ∫ 5a x [V/m] ⋅ dxa x
0 0
 Now ax⋅ay = 0 
W = −(10 nC)(5 V m)(1 m) = −50 [nJ]
where J =C⋅V
 Here work is negative, indicating that the external force that is moving the
charge receives energy.

 Definition: Electrostatic potential difference:
The potential difference V is the work done (by an external source) in moving a unit
charge from one point to another in an electric field. Thus, when moving charge Q
from point a to b in an electric field, work per unit charge against the E-field is
equal to:
b
W
Vba = Vb − Va = = − ∫ E ⋅ dL [J/C] = [V]
Q a
 So when we write Vba, a is the initial point and b is the final point.
 The sign of Vba is taken care of by the limits on the integral.

 The potential difference can also be related to the absolute potentials, or
electrostatic potentials at points a and b
Vba = Vb − Va [V]
where finding the absolute potential at some point requires that we have a
reference potential (e.g. ground). In case of coaxial cable, the zero potential
reference is chose to be the grounded outer conductor.
 Note that if a closed path is chosen

law)
∫ E ⋅ dL = 0 (Kirchhoff’s voltage

Example 3.18
 Find the potential difference VPO between the origin and point P of example
3.17. (Work per unit charge required to move Q = 10 [nC] from origin to
P(1,1,0) against the static field E = 5ax [V/m])
 The potential difference VPO is calculated as

− 50nJ
VPO = = −5 [J/C = V]
10nC
 If we know that the absolute potential at the origin is for example 8 V, or VO =

8V, then VP = VPO + VO = 3V.
 If the absolute potential at the origin is ground (= 0V), then VP = VPO + 0 = -5 V.

Electric potential due to a point charge
 Consider we have a point charge Q at the origin.
 The potential difference between two points at distances a and b from Q in
space resulting from the E-field of this point charge is
b b
Q
Vba = − ∫ E ⋅ dL = − ∫ a r ⋅ dra r
a a
4πε 0 r 2
r =b
Q Q 1 1
Vba = =  −  = Vb − Va
4πε 0 r r =a
4πε 0  b a 
Note: Vba is only a function or r.

If a or b move only in ϕ, the potential difference
does not change, as no work is done against the E-
field.

Electric potential due to a point charge
 If we set a reference voltage of zero at an infinite radius, then the absolute
potential at some finite radius from a point charge fixed at the origin is
r r
Q
Vr∞ = − ∫ E ⋅ dL = − ∫ a ⋅ dra r
∞ ∞
4πε0 r 2 r
r
Q Q
Vr∞ = = = V (r )
4πε0 r ∞
4πε0 r
 Q
V=
4πε0 r
 This can be defined as the work per coulomb required to pull a charge
from infinity to the radius r.

Electric potential due to a charge distribution
 If we have a collection of N charges, the total potential can be found by
adding the potential for each charge,
N
Qi
V =∑
i =1 4πε0 ri
 To find the potential due to a collection of charges, we use the principle of

superposition and add the potentials due to the individual charges. Because
the potential is a scalar, and not a vector, we just have to add numbers.
 If the collection of charges becomes a continuous distribution, the total

potential is found by integrating
dQ HW: Do Drill 3.20
V =∫
4πε0 r and 3.21
See MATLAB 3.7
3.9.1 Gradient
 Just as we described the electric field around a charged object by field lines,
we can also describe the electric potential pictorially with equipotential
surfaces (contour plots). Each surface corresponds to a different fixed value
of the potential. Equipotential lines are lines connecting points of the same
potential.
 Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to
field lines, and therefore perpendicular to the
force experienced by a charge in the field. If a
charge moves along an equipotential line, no
work is done; if a charge moves between
equipotential lines, work is done.

3.9.1 Gradient
 The E-field can be determined by finding the maximum rate and direction
of spatial change of the potential field  The gradient equation
E = −∇V
where

3.9.1 Gradient
Example 3.19: Finite surface (disk) of charge
 Consider a disk of charge density ρS extending to
a radius a. The potential at point h on the z-axis:
dQ
dQ=ρs ρ dρ dφ=, r h +ρ ,V =∫ 2 2
4πε0 r
ρ s a ρ d ρ 2π ρs a ρ d ρ
V = ∫
4πε o 0 h + ρ 0
2 2 ∫ dφ =
2ε o ∫0 h 2 + ρ 2
let u = h2+ρ2 and du = 2ρ dρ,
Note:
∫u
−1 2
so du , then Recall E-
field for an
ρ =a infinite
=
V
ρs
2ε o
h 2 + ρ 2=
ρ =0
ρs
2ε o
( h2 + a2 − h . ) sheet of
charge
Now replace h with z, then ρS
E= an
2ε 0
∂V ρ 1 2z  ρ  z 
E = −∇V = − az = − s  − 1 a z = s 1 −  az .
∂z 2ε o 2 z2 + a2  2ε o  z2 + a2 
79 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE HW: Do Drill 3.22
See MATLAB 3.8
3.9.1 Gradient
MATLAB 3.8: E and V of a point charge
Q
V=
4πε0 r
V Q
E= = a
2 r
r 4πε0 r

3.9.1 Gradient
Example 3.20: Electric dipole
 An electric dipole consists of a pair of point charges of opposite sign, +Q
and −Q, in close proximity to each other, separated by a distance d.
 Goal Find the electric potential and E-field of such a dipole at a distance
r >> d.
+Q −Q +Q  R − − R +  Qd cos θ
For r>>d, VP = + =  + − 
. so V p =
4πε o R +
4πε o R −
4πε o  R R  4πε o r 2

3.9.1 Gradient
Example 3.20: Electric dipole
E = −∇V p
−∂V p −1 ∂V p
ar + aθ
∂r r ∂θ
−1 ∂V p
+ aφ
r sin θ ∂φ
Vp only varies with r and θ, leading to
Qd
3 (
E 2 cos θ a r + sin θ aθ ) .
4πε o r
Fig. 3.43 in TB: Electric dipole E-field
lines and lines of constant potential
(equipotential lines) for r >> d.

3.10 Conductor and Ohm’s law
 In electromagnetics, materials are defined by their constitutive parameters:
 Dielectrics are characterized by their permittivity ε [F/m]

 Magnetic materials are characterized by material permeability µ [H/m]
 Conductors are characterized by their conductivity σ [Siemens/m] or [S/m] or
[1/Ω-m].
 Good conductors have σ > 104 [S/m]

 Good dielectrics have σ < 10−4 [S/m]
 Semiconductors have a medium conductivity between conductors and

dielectrics  Control! Used for integrated circuits (ICs), e.g. transistors,
LEDs, etc…

Fig. 3.44 in TB:

Conductivity chart at
room temperature

3.10.1 Current and current density
 An ampere (A) of current is the amount of charge (in coulomb) that passes
through a reference plane in a given amount of time (in seconds) 
1 [A] = 1 [C/s]
 The current density J [A/m2] is the current per unit of area though which it
passes
I = ∫ J.dS
 For example, if an evenly distributed current passing though a cross

sectional area S in the +z-direction, then
I
J = az
S
 Three types of current density:
 Displacement  is a time-varying field phenomenon that allows current to flow
between the plates of a capacitor (details in chapter 5)
 Convection due to movement of charged particles though vacuum, air or non-

conductive media
J = ρvu
where u = velocity vector
 Conduction  due to movement of electrons through conductive media in

response to an applied E-field (point form of Ohm’s law)
J = σE

 Inside perfect conductors (σ = ∞), E = 0 as charges repel each other and
accumulate very near to the conductor surface. Therefore, the potential
difference between any two points a and b in the conductor is also equal to
zero: b
Vba = − ∫ E ⋅ dL = 0
a
 Real conductors, however, are resistive and will encounter a potential

difference and current is given by Ohm’s law
V
I=
R

 For example, consider a cylindrical conductor with
conductivity σ, length L, and cross-sectional area S.
 A potential difference Vab between the two ends

will establish an E-field
Vab
E= az
L
 The current density
I Vab I
J = σE = a z ⇒ σ =
S L S
a
Resistance
− ∫ E ⋅ dL

Vab 1 L and in general  Vab

R [Ω] = = R [Ω] = = b
I σS I ∫ σE ⋅ dS
88 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE HW: Do Drill 3.24
Example 3.21
 Let’s find the resistance between the inner conductive shell (radius a) and
the outer conductive shell (radius b) of a length L coaxial cable filled with
material of conductivity σ.
 Assuming a charge Q on the inner shell, we have by Gauss’s law a field for
a ≤ ρ ≤ b (GS#2, with ρv=Q/Vcylinder= ρv=Q/πa2L [C/m3]), equal to:
Q
E= aρ
2πε0ρL
b
a a
Q Q
→ Vab = − ∫ E ⋅ dL = − ∫ a ρ ⋅ dρa ρ = ln 
b b
2πε0ρL 2πε0 L  a 
2π
σQ
L
Q Q
→ I = ∫ J ⋅ dS = ∫ σE ⋅ dS = ∫σ a ρ ⋅ ρdφdza ρ = ∫ dφ∫ dz =
side 2πε0ρL 2πε0 L 0 0 ε0
Vab 1 b
→R= = ln 
I 2πσL  a 
3.10.2 Joule’s law
 E-field does work in moving charges through a material.
 Some of the energy is given up in collision with atoms of the material
 dissipated power
 Joule’s law (see TB for derivation)
P = ∫ E ⋅ Jdv
 In conductive media J = σE 
P = ∫ E ⋅ Jdv = ∫ σE 2 dv

3.10.2 Joule’s law
 In our cylindrical conductor with conductivity σ, length L, and cross-
sectional area S.
Vab
E= az and
L
I
J = σE = az
S

 Vab L  I S 
P = ∫ E ⋅ Jdv =  ∫ dz  ∫ dS  = VI
 L 0  S 0 

Example 3.22
 Cylinder with d = 10 cm, σ = 10-3 S/m, E = 12ρaz V/cm, L =1 m. Find P.
• σ = 10-3 S/m = 10-5 S/cm
2π
( )
5 cm 100 cm
54
P = ∫ σE 2 dv = σ ∫ (12ρ
2
) ρd ρ ∫ ∫
d φ dz = 10 −5
(144) (2π)(100) = 140 [W]
0 0 0
4
HW: Do Drill 3.25

3.11 Dielectrics
 Dielectrics have very few free charges
available for conduction.
 Atoms of dielectrics form dipoles in the
presence of an E-field
 atoms will be polarized by the E-field
 meaning dipoles are aligned.
 The degree and direction of alignment is given

by the polarization vector
P = χeε0E
with χe is the material’s electric susceptibility,

which gives the degree to which a material is
susceptible (prone) to polarization.

3.11 Dielectrics
 Polarization creates an opposing electric field within the material, where
the net effect is a decrease of the field.
 The flux density is related to polarization by the equation
D = ε0E + P
 Rearranging we get
D = ε 0 (1 + χ e )E = ε r ε 0 E = εE
where
ε r = 1 + χ e = relative permitiviy
Note: Recall section 3.6: D=ε0E in free space. HW: Do Drill 3.26

3.11 Dielectrics
 Application of strong E-field can strip the electrons from the parent atom
and allow conduction in the dielectric  breakdown voltage.
 The dielectric strength is the maximum electric field a dielectric can handle
before breakdown. A common example of dielectric breakdown is the
lightning bolt, where sufficient charge has accumulated to overcome the
dielectric strength in air (about 3 MV/m).
 In the design of capacitors, care must be taken not to exceed the

dielectric’s breakdown voltage  see example 3.23

3.12 Boundary conditions
 Goal  Study how a fields behave at the boundary between two dielectrics
or a dielectric and a conductor.
1. Boundary between two dielectrics

 We perform a line integral of E in each medium along with their normal
and tangential components.We can find the first boundary condition by
solving E ⋅ dL = 0 around the path abcda
∫

 Summing the results for each segment (see TB for proof) we see that the
normal components cancel and we have
E T1 = E T 2
First boundary condition:

“The tangential component of the E-field must be continuous across the
boundary of two dielectrics”

 ∫
We can get a second boundary condition applying Gauss’s law D ⋅ dS = Qenc
over a very small coin shaped Gaussian surface  top, bottom, sides

 Summing the results for each segment (see TB for proof) we get the second
boundary condition
D N1 − D N 2 = ρ S
 If there is no surface charge, i.e ρS = 0  DN1 = DN2
Second boundary condition:

“If there is no surface charge, the normal components of the flux density must be
continuous across the surface”
 In general, we can write

a 21⋅ (D1 − D 2 ) = ρ S
where a21 is the unit vector normal from medium 2 to medium 1, and the dot
product ensures that we consider only the normal components of D1 and D2.

 If the boundary between two dielectrics is not normal to the field, we can
use the two boundary condition equations to relate the field components
on each side and determine how much the field bends from one medium
to the other.
2. Boundary between a dielectric and a good conductor

 Realizing that in a good conductor E = 0, we see that the first boundary
condition becomes
ET = 0
 There is no tangential E-field intensity at the boundary of a good

conductor. For the second boundary condition, the electric flux density is
also zero inside the conductor, so
DN = ρS
Example 3.24
 Consider that the field E1 is known for one pair of dielectrics, and we wish
to find the field E2 in the other dielectric and also the angles that the fields
in each dielectric make with a normal to the surface.
E N 2 = D N 2 / ε r 2 ε 0 = 2a z
HW: Drill 3.29 and

101 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE 3.30
3.13 Boundary value problem
 Recall  point form of Gauss’s law
∇.D = ρv
 But D = εE 
ρv
∇.E =
ε
 Recall  gradient equation

E = −∇V
 Rearranging  Poisson’s equation

ρv
∇ ⋅ ∇V = ∇ V = − 2
∇2 = Laplacian operator
ε
 For a charge-free medium  Laplace’s equation
∇ 2V = 0
 The Laplacian operator can be expanded to give
 Solution of Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations to determine the potential

field requires that we know the potential on the boundaries (i.e. the
boundary conditions).

Example 3.25
 Let’s derive the resistance of a material with conductivity σ, length d, and
cross-sectional area S.
∂ 2V ( z ) ∂V ( z )
= 0, so = A,
∂z 2
∂z
and V ( z=
) Az + B
V (=
z 0) = 0, so B= 0
V (= ) Vd so A = Vd d
z d=
Vd
Thus, V ( z ) = z.
d
∂  Vd  −Vd
E = −∇V = −  z  az =
az
∂z  d d 
σS Vd Vd 1 d
= ∫ σ EdS =
II = σE ⋅ dS Vd , R=
= = as expected
d I σ S σ S
V d
d
Example 3.26
 Determine the electric potential in the dielectric region between the pair
of concentric spheres with potential difference Vab.
1 d  2 dV  d  2 dV  2 dV −A
= r  0,= so r  0 , r = A, = V +B
r dr  dr 
2
dr  dr  dr r
−A A
V (r = b) = 0 = + B, B =
b b
−A A
V (=r a= ) V= a + ,
a b
V
V
A == aa
1 1
−
ab ba
 a  b 
∴V Vab   1 − 
 a − b  r HW: Drill 3.31 and 3.32 (important)
3.14 Capacitance
 Consider that a potential difference is
applied across a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric (εr).
 +Q will accumulate on the top plate
 -Q will accumulate on the bottom
plate
 The amount of charge that
accumulates as a function of potential
difference is called capacitance
Q
C = [C/V] or [F]
V
 A device used to store charge, and
hence energy, is known as a capacitor.
3.14 Capacitance
 There are two basic methods to determine the capacitance:
Q-Method: 1. assume +Q on plate a, -Q on plate b

2. find E between the plates
aa
−∫ E
= −
3. find VVabab =
∫
bb
E⋅ddLL
Q
4. C = (the assumed Q divides out)
Vab
V-Method: 1. assume Vab between the plates

2. find E , then D, by Laplace’s Eqn: ∇2V = 0
3. find ρs, then Q, using boundary condition DN = ρs
Q
4. C = (the assumed Vab divides out)
Vab
3.14 Capacitance
Example 3.27: //-plate capacitor, Q-Method
 Charge density: ρS = Q/S
 D = Q/S (-az)  E = D/ε0εr = -Qaz/εS
a d
Q Qd
Vab = − ∫ E ⋅ dL = − ∫ − a z ⋅ dza z =
b 0
εS εS
 Finally, we divide Q by Vab to get C:

Q Q εS
C= = =
Vab Qd d
εS
 Additionally, we know that the resistance between the plates is R=d/σS
 ε
RC = (general)
σ

3.14 Capacitance
Example 3.28: Coaxial cable, V-Method
From LaPlace: V =
−Vab ln ρ( b)
( a)
ln b
Vab ε rε oVab
E = −∇V = aρ , D = ε E =
( a) ( )
aρ
ρ ln b ρ ln b a
ε rε oVab 2επr εL0εVrεaboVab
ρ= D= Q = ρ=
,= (2πaL )
s n
a ln b
a ( ) sS
S S=
aaln
ln b b
aa
(( ) )
QQ 22ππLLεεrrεε0o
C = ==
=
C
VVabab alnlnbb(( ) )
aa
HW: Drill 3.33 and 3.34 (important)

3.14 Capacitance
3.14.1 Electrostatic potential energy
Definition:
 Work to assemble a collection of like charges  electrostatic potential
energy
1 1
WE = ∫ D ⋅ Edv = ∫ ε r ε 0 E 2 dv
2 2
 For a parallel plate capacitor, the field is constant over Sd volume 

2
1 1 V  1 S 2
WE = ε r ε 0 E Sd = ε r ε 0   Sd = ε r ε 0 V
2
2 2 d  2 d
 1
WE = CV 2
2
Note: this expression holds also for any capacitor configuration.

3.14 Capacitance
Example 3.29
 Parallel plate capacitor has a plate area of 4 m2 and a separation distance of
0.01 m and is filled with a dielectric of εr = 10 and σ = 10-8 S/m.
Apply 12 V on top plate and ground the bottom plate.
With 12 V applied across 0.01 m, we know E = 1.2 kV/m, and we can get
the amount of dissipated power
HW: Drill 3.35


EEN330 ElectromagneticsI Chapter3 Electrostatics

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EEN 330

3 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

4 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

5 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 Since it has a magnitude of 1, it is

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 Addition and subtraction of vectors is done element by element. For

A = x1ax+y1ay+z1az and B = x2ax+y2ay+z2az

A+B = (x1+x2)ax +(y1+y2)ay +(z1+z2)az

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See Example 3.1 in TB

>> See MATLAB 3.1

 A differential surface requires a

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HW: Do Drill 3.3

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for E tot , we have

HW: Do Drill 3.4

Fig. 3.11 in TB: Field lines for a pair of opposite charges

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Spherical to Cartesian: P(r,θ, ϕ) to P(x, y, z)

 Converting a Cartesian vector to a spherical vector (and vice versa)

 Check Appendix B for full details.

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 So depending on the location of the

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 Volume and surface of a differential element in the spherical coordinate

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HW: Do Drill 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7

 Volume and surface of a differential element in the cylindrical coordinate

dS for the shaded surface of the element:

Note: we have to convert from degrees to radians for calculation

HW: Do Drill 3.8, 3.9

See MATLAB 3.2 Program to

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An arbitrary dQ element only gives By symmetry, the dEz components cancel,

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 Solution of integral can be found in Appendix

• For lines off the z axis, we need to

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Cross section clearly shows

4 ×10−9 C m 36π m 1 ( −2a x − 4 a z ) FV

HW: Do Drill 3.10 and 3.11

 Goal Determine E at a point on the z-axis (0, 0, h).

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Then determine dQ and RaR

By symmetry, we see the

Only Ez will be present in the solution

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Ignoring the dEρ part and integrating,

• Surface charge density ρs(C/m2)

• Solve by numerical integration

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 Plasma, a charged gaslike form of matter, can be contained in a magnetic