GE 114- ETHICS

Module 2
THE AGENT
Module Overview

In studying Ethics we must first understand that any action, whether moral
or immoral begins with the Human Person as the moral agent. Why do we do the
things we do? Why are we more prone to decide on things in a certain way?
Every person is the result of specific traits brought about by their upbringing,
education, age, gender, culture and so many other factors, which are both unique
to an individual and common in various societal contexts. So, in order to better
understand moral decision making, we first look at the dynamic that is happening
within the moral agent.

Module Outcomes

By the end of this module, we hope to achieve the following objectives:

 Explain why only human beings can be ethical;

 Articulate what culture means to attribute facets of personal behavior to

culture;

 Recognize and appreciate differences in moral behavior of different

cultures;

 Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism:

 Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in their own

experiences to evaluate elements that need to be changed:

 Identify universal values and explain why universal values are necessary
for human survival.

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Lesson 1
Freedom as the Foundation for Moral Acts
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Discuss why only human beings can be ethical;

o Explain why freedom is the foundation of any moral action;
o Understand freedom from various philosophical perspectives.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

“... elevating though man's privilege is, of being

capable of such an idea as freedom of choice - [those
who are accustomed only to physiological
explanations] are stirred up by the proud claims of
speculative reason, which feels its power so strongly
in other fields. They are stirred up just as if they were
allies, leagued in defense of the omnipotence of
theoretical reason and roused by a general call to
arms to resist the idea of freedom of choice and thus
at present, and perhaps for a long time to come
(though ultimately in vain), to attack the moral concept
of freedom and, if possible, render it suspect. (TL 6:
378/34-35).”

- Immanuel Kant

Activity (Let’s Get Started!)

Research on the differences between Human behaviour and animal

behaviour when choosing their partners or mates. Compare and contrast
between their behaviour in choosing their partners.
Analysis (Let’s Think About it!)
Now think about the questions below:
 What are the criteria or considerations used by humans and animals in
finding their partners or mates? Are they the same or different?

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Abstraction (Let’s Explore!)

Human Beings, Freedom, and Being Ethical

Both Humans and animals find mates differently. The next question is:
Why do they do it? This is where the fundamental difference lies. A human being
consciously chooses to pursue an action while animals are driven by instinct.

It may be apparent in your research that the there is a raging debate on

the difference between human and animal behaviour. While many may argue that
we cannot truly know the mind of animals, great thinkers like Immanuel Kant,
René Descartes, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Peter Carruthers among others assert
that human ethics is driven by rational behaviour and animal ethics is driven by
instinctual behaviour.

Note how animals choose their partners based on the availability of a mate
during mating season when their body functions compel them to mate. The urge
is so strong that it is impossible to ignore. Humans behave differently because we
are able to consciously choose when, where and whom sexual relations are done
with according to our upbringing and existing norms. In fact, humans can choose
to live a sexually active lifestyle, choose to abstain from sexual activities for a
period of time or choose to be sexually celibate all their lives. Animals choose
partners who are dominant or superior to others as evidenced through
competition and factors that are in line with reproductive success, which is
termed as kin selection. On the other hand, humans choose partners with extra
care and judgement, with long-term commitment, personality, emotional and
intellectual maturity as well as social and cultural compatibility in mind among
various factors; meaning criteria that go beyond ensuring reproductive success.
The key concept here is conscious choice. Humans have conscious choice tied
to their rationality. While it is true that humans have base instincts like animals,
we are not bound by them. We can choose to go against these urges. Animals
are bound to behave according to their instincts.

Another example in comparing rational and instinctual behaviour is

altruism, the belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well
being of others. Animal scientists have been able to observe altruistic behavior in
the animal kingdom but do not tie this behavior to “belief” but instead attribute it to
preservation and continuity of the species or the fulfillment of basic needs and
urges. Humans, on the other hand, do selfless acts for reasons beyond this.
Similar to our example on choosing a partner, humans choose to do selfless acts
because of conscious beliefs and principles. Although the choices we make
usually conform to our personal beliefs and principles, we can also choose
whether to conform or not. Again, we have a choice. Even when we say we do
not want to choose, we are still making a choice. We have control over the
choices we make and we can choose what to do because we have rationality.
Only humans are capable of rational behavior.

Rational behavior is a decision making process where the person acts in

ways that best achieves his/ her needs in conformity to personal morals,

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principles, beliefs, preferences, and priorities. Being capable of rational behavior

gives us freedom to control our actions by consciously choosing how to act.
Freedom, or having free will means being able to choose and do things on our
own with or without the guidance or undue control of external forces or
influences.

Freedom as the Foundation of Moral Acts

In the previous section we talked about freedom. This begs the question,
“So are we really free?”

Many people would say no because they are subject to the control of
rules. To some extent this is a valid point, because if we were really free, we
should be free to do whatever we wanted. Thinking of freedom in terms of just
“being able to do whatever we want” is a very limited view of what freedom really
is. Imagine if you could in fact do whatever you wanted, and you kill a person just
because you felt like it, would it be acceptable if someone did the same to you or
a loved one just because he was free to do so?

All our actions stem from our freedom of choice. We can, in fact, choose to
kill whenever we want except we choose not to because we believe that killing is
bad. Freedom is the foundation of morality because it means choosing the good
instead of the bad, the right instead of the wrong, whenever me are choosing
what to do. One of the best metaphors to describe the dynamic of freedom and
morality comes from C.S. Lewis who is best known for his Chronicles of Narnia
novels and also a lay theologian, lecturer and essayist. Lewis observed that
many people viewed morality as something that took away human freedom and
saw moralists as “kill joys” intent on controlling others from doing what they really
wanted to do. To this, Lewis offers an analogy, which asks us to imagine each
human beings as boats on the sea travelling together. Imagine all these ships just
did what they want, without coordination with other ships. Each ship is capable of
sailing on its own and reaching its destination but without consciously sailing in
reference to others, the ship runs the risk of blocking one another’s path, delaying
them from reaching their ultimate destination. It also puts the ship in danger of
colliding with others; causing the ships to sustain damage or worse, sink and
never reach their destination. In contrast, if each ship consciously coordinated
with other ships, with common reference points and sailing behaviour, the
chances of smooth sailing and reaching the destination safely is increased
exponentially.

The analogy offered by Lewis offers us wonderful insight into how we use
our freedom and living morally. Freedom should be exercised morally with
thought of one’s self, others and our ultimate purpose.

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The analogy forces us to look at viewing freedom from three aspects,

namely:

Personal Aspect. A person uses his freedom towards seeking and

attaining virtue so that they make moral choices by habit. Virtue is thought or
behaviour that display high moral standards. Living a moral life means that the
person has internalized moral standards to live by and put them into practice.
Take note that doing the right thing because you believe in your mind and in your
heart that it is right is very different from doing the right thing just because you
are told to do it.

In a film entitled “Clockwork Orange” by award winning author Stanley

Kubrick, the lead character Alex lives a violent life where he engages in all sorts
of violent crimes. One night, he gets arrested for breaking into a house. While he
is incarcerated, he becomes one of the subjects in a government project that
entails brainwashing people to “be good” by programming them to have severe
physical reactions to acts of violence. After being brainwashed, Alex is declared
to be cured from his “badness” and is released from prison. On one occasion,
Alex encounters friends from his past who beat him up severely. Having been
stripped of his of his free will, Alex cannot defend himself because it will entail
him having to engage in a type of violent behaviour in order to defend himself. He
gets beaten up because he cannot choose to fight back. In the end, the
“goodness” that was programmed into him does more harm than good, causing
him to be so unhappy with his life that he even contemplates committing suicide.
The film ends with Alex being injured in a failed suicide attempt and showing
signs that the brainwashing is wearing off and that he will revert to his old violent
ways. The film outlines one very important aspect of freedom and morality from a
personal aspect.

Before a person can be moral, he must first be free. In order for one to be
a truly good person, he or she does the right thing because it is right thing to do
and not because of any other undue influence such as brainwashing or any type
of force. Making moral choices that stem from one’s own freedom allows us to be
able to be happy and content with the choices we make. Choosing to do the right
thing against your will causes feelings of discontentment and dissatisfaction and
ultimately unhappiness. This defeats the purpose of doing good. The excellence
of character is achieved through an organic process of conscious growth,
learning and practice.

Interpersonal Aspect. Exercising one’s freedom and living a moral life

also has an interpersonal aspect. Going back to the ship analogy, we choose
proper action in terms of how they affect others. On many instances, wrong
actions do not just affect us but extend to people around us such as causing
offense or hurt whether physical or emotional or it may cause conflict to happen.
When viewed from an interpersonal aspect, we see that our freedom ends when
it interferes with the ability of others to enjoy their freedom. The interpersonal
aspect is also the social aspect of freedom. Morality is social because it is
concerned with being fair to others and achieving harmony between people. If the
personal aspect allows us to live with our own choices, the interpersonal aspects
allow us to make choices that you and those around you can live with. If we want

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to truly flourish as a society, we need act towards avoiding harming others and
not just ourselves.

Aspect of the Ultimate End. This aspect allows us to view freedom and
morality in line with the overall purpose of human life- the destination which Lewis
refers to in his analogy. Living a moral life gives not only direction to our lives but
also a purpose. The answers to the questions “Why am I here?” and “What is the
purpose of my life” are questions that are not limited to moral philosophers and
theologians but also to every individual who seeks to find fulfilment and
happiness. The answer to these questions may vary among people because of
their different cultural, sociological and religious beliefs, but one whatever we
may think the answer is, exercising free will is important towards achieving our
ultimate end. Without morality, our actions become aimless, random actions. In
the same manner, the belief that life has no purpose makes our actions pointless
endeavours. If we believe that the purpose of our life is for us to be happy, fruitful
and productive, living at peace with ourselves and harmony with others and our
surroundings, then aspiring for moral excellence helps us achieve that end.

The Human Person as a Free Being

In the module overview we discussed that any action, whether moral or

immoral begins with the Human Person- the moral agent. We also discussed how
humans differ from animals. Philosophy looks at humans beyond the
physiological and biological components, hence the term human being, which
also views spiritual and rational components. Aristotle’s idea of a “being”
suggests the actual condition of humans, their actuality or existence. Another way
of viewing this would be circumstance or totality which encompasses properties
both inborn and acquired that he or she uses to direct his or her own
development toward self- fulfilment. Humans are born as free beings.

Philosophical Understanding of Freedom

Since Philosophy examines the actuality of human beings, philosophers

throughout the ages have discussed the concept of freedom comprehensively.
Let us discuss these philosophical views on freedom as well as the philosophers
who help us in gaining a more rounded understanding of what freedom is.

Freedom is a Gift. Gabriel Marcel, who is often regarded as the first

French Existentialist saw freedom a a God- given gift which allows humans to be
who they are by making choices that are important to their self- actualization. He
said that being free meant being able to choose according to what we think is
right for us and towards achieving the life we hope to have. This insight is
significant because what is the point of doing something if it does not matter to us
anyway? Our freedom allows us to make choices that impact us in one way or
another.

Freedom is complementary to reason. The classical Greek Philosopher,

Aristotle, who is perhaps one of the most influential philosophers of all time also
discussed freedom extensively in his ethical doctrines. He said that practical
rationality not only enhances, but emphasizes freedom. Aristotle asserted that

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freedom and reason are necessary for consciously making sense of things and
that human ability for self-direction allows us to pursue and achieve our ultimate
end.

Freedom is absolute. Jean Paul Sartre, also one of the great French
philosophers, states that freedom in humans goes beyond freedom from
restrictions. According to him, unlike animals, “Humans are absolutely free” which
goes beyond primitive freedom for survival. Humans have freedom in terms of
their ability to think, to make changes to themselves and their lives and pursue
self-actualization and fulfilment. Sartre uses the example of a person serving time
in prison to explain his view. While a person in jail is confined to the premises of a
prison cell, he is still free because he can choose the way he spends his time in
prison. He can also choose to reform his ways while incarcerated. Humans have
the freedom to ultimately decide the direction their life takes by attaining goals
that go beyond just mere survival.

Freedom demands responsibility. Jean Paul Sartre also asserted that

having freedom meant taking responsibility for how our freedom is used. As
mentioned previously, we are constantly making choices with the knowledge that
these choices have consequences. This is where responsibility comes in. When
choices are made we have the responsibility of being held accountable for the
actions we have chosen. Yes we can choose to hurt others. The next question is,
are we prepared to live with the consequences of the hurt we have caused,
including the offense or hurt we have caused others? Or the guilt we feel that
could possibly arise as a result of it?

Lao Tzu, a prominent Chinese philosopher, also spoke of responsibility in

exercising our freedom. He said that our responsibility in exercising our freedom
lies in choosing actions that result in peaceful coexistence with others. To him,
this meant that check and balance of individual freedom was necessary for
society to flourish because the imbalances resulted to social injustice. Consider
what happens when an individual uses his freedom without thought for the rights
of others. Ultimately, someone suffers or is victimized. Exercising one’s freedom
is accompanied by the care for the welfare of others.

Now that you have finished the discussion, try applying your learning by
answering the Learner Activity on the next page.

Application

Read the story of Odysseus and the Sirens. The ancient writer, Homer
tells the story of Odysseus—also known as Ulysses—a respected warrior who is
returning home, to the island of Ithaca, from the Trojan War in the epic the
Odyssey, believed to have been written in the late 8th Century B.C. Odysseus
(Ulysses) is a sympathetic, complex man who tries to do the right thing and
usually pays attention to what the gods tell him. He is also a leader among men
who is aware that his decisions affect the lives and welfare of his crewmembers.
Odysseus and his crew travel all over the Ancient Mediterranean, a world fraught

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with supernatural beings, monsters, obstacles and dangers. After reading the
story answer the analysis questions that follow then answer Learner Worksheet
4.
Odysseus and the Sirens
Retold from Homer’s “The Odyssey”

One experience during his journey is Odysseus’ encounter with the Sirens.
These two creatures, pretended to be beautiful women with amazing voices, try
to assure sailors, who passed their island, that they just want to entertain them
with beautiful melodies. What they really want, however, is to kill them. The allure
of the Sirens was so strong that many sailors could not resist them. Upon hearing
their beautiful voices, sailors passing their island would lose their senses and
want nothing more than to be the sirens, which would lead them to their doom
and destruction.
Odysseus heard of the Sirens from the goddess Circe who warns him
saying, “First you will come to the Sirens who enchant all who come near them. If
any one unwarily draws in too close and hears the singing of the Sirens, his wife
and children will never welcome him home again, for they sit in a green field and
warble him to death with the sweetness of their song. There is a great heap of
dead men's bones lying all around, with the flesh still rotting off them. Therefore
pass these Sirens by, and stop your men's ears with wax that none of them may
hear; but if you like you can listen yourself, for you may get the men to bind you
as you stand upright on a cross-piece half way up the mast, and they must lash
the rope's ends to the mast itself, that you may have the pleasure of listening. If
you beg and pray the men to unloose you, then they must bind you faster. (See
Samuel Butler’s translation of The Odyssey, Book XII, online via MIT.)”
This warning triggers fear in Odysseus. He heeds Circe’s warning, taking
care to completely block his men’s ears with bees’ wax. Soon their ship passes
the beautiful island of the Sirens. It looks like paradise. They also see the Sirens
sitting beside the ocean combing their long golden hair and bewitching sailors
with the sweetness of their song.
Taking a large block of beeswax, a gift from Circe, Odysseus breaks it into
small pieces and gives one to each of his men. He tells them to soften it and put
it into their ears. In this way, they will not hear the song of the Sirens. But
Odysseus wants to hear that famous song and still survive. Circe has told him
how to do it. He orders his sailors to tie him firmly to the ship’s mast. When he is
firmly tied, and his men have the beeswax in their ears, they row their ship
alongside the island. Then Odysseus hears the magical song of the Sirens as it
floats over the summertime waters:

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Odysseus, bravest of heroes,

Draw near to us, on our green island,
Odysseus, we’ll teach you wisdom,
We’ll give you love, sweeter than honey.
The songs we sing, soothe away sorrow,
And in our arms, you will be happy.
Odysseus, bravest of heroes,
The songs we sing will bring you peace.

When he hears the words and the music, the song enchants Odysseus’
heart. He longs to plunge into the waves and to swim to the island. He wants to
embrace the Sirens. He strains against the bonds, which hold him to the ship’s
mast. He strains so hard that the bonds cut deeply into the flesh of his back and
arms. Nodding and scowling at his ear-plugged men, he urges them to free him.
Expecting this reaction, the men row harder and harder with their oars.

To Odysseus, who is bewitched by the song, the Sirens look as beautiful

as Helen of Troy. To his crew, made deaf with beeswax, the Sirens seem like
hungry monsters with vicious, crooked claws. The ship speeds forward and soon
the song of the Sirens is an echo of an echo. Only then do the crewmembers
stop rowing and unplug their ears. Eurylochus, a trusted crewmember unbinds
Odysseus, who has now come to his senses. By heeding the advice of the
goddess Circe, Odysseus has avoided a catastrophe. He and his crew go on to
face many more trials and temptations before they reach home and their families.

When answering Learner Worksheet 4 consider the following:

 What is the end goal of your journey? This can be your dream or ambition
for yourself in the future.

 What are the Sirens or temptations you might encounter on your journey
that keep you from achieving your end goal? How do you plan on avoiding
these? What conscious choices will you make to protect yourself? Who will
help you in preventing doing something that could possibly lead to your
ruin?

 Be creative in doing your mind map. You may use figures or symbols to
represent these figures. Make your mind map clear in outlining how you
envision your personal odyssey.

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Learner Worksheet 4
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Map out your own personal Odyssey in the space below containing all the
considerations outlined in the guide questions.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 1, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module. You may now move on to the next lesson.

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Lesson 2
Culture & Moral Behaviour
Learning Outcomes

Now let us move on to the aspect of culture, which is one of the driving
influences of human behaviour. By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Explain what culture is, its elements and how it affects human behaviour;
o Discuss why culture should not be the ultimate determinant of values;
o Attribute facets of personal behaviour to culture;

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

Humans are social creatures. It is natural for humans to want to form

relationships with others in one way or another. It is also natural for human
beings to want to gain social acceptance and respect and as a result, human
tend to modify their behaviour to gain social favour.

“Whenever a populace crowds together at any public

gathering, in the Assembly, the law- courts, the theater, or the
camp, and sits there clamoring its approval and disapproval,
both alike and excessive, of whatever is being said or done;
booing and clapping till the rocks ring and the whole palaces
redoubles the noise of their applause and outcries. In such
scene, what do you suppose will be a young man’s state of
mind? What sort of private instruction will have given himthe
strength to hold out against the force of such a torrent, or will
save him from being swept away down the stream, until he
accepts all their notions of right and wrong. Does as they do
and comes to be just suhc a man as they are. And have I said
nothing of the most poweful engines of persuasionwhich the
masters in this school of wisdom bring to bear when word
have no effect. As you know they punish the recalcitrant with
disenfranchisement, fines and death.”
-Plato
(from the Republic, as translated by F.M. Cornford, 1996)

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Activity
 Research on the term “Bandwagon Effect” and herd mentality.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

 Recall an experience with the Bandwagon Effect or herd mentality. This

could be an experience where you changed your own beliefs in order to
match popular belief just because it was popular and not necessarily
because it was in line with your own opinion.
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Analysis
 From your experience why is it easy to give in to herd mentality? Why is it
so difficult to resist?
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

 From your experience, what are the advantages of going with the
bandwagon? What are the disadvantages?
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

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Abstraction
Understanding Culture as a Phenomenon
There are many ways of defining culture. Generally, culture refers to the
“way of life” a particular group of people. The term culture encompasses so many
aspects from traditions, customs, beliefs, and values, to history, all forms of art,
knowledge, religions and even power dynamics among others. Culture or “our
way of life is very powerful in shaping social and personal decisions, behaviour
and practice because it provides the basis how and why things are done in a
particular way.

Basic Elements of Culture

Now let us discuss the five basic elements of culture.

Symbols. The word symbol comes from the Greek term “symbolon” which
means “token” or “watchword”. A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates,
signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship in which
people of a particular culture find significant meaning. People who belong to
specific cultures share in ascribing meaning to particular symbols while people
who do not share in that culture may ascribe a different meaning to the object.
For example, the cross is a symbol of salvation for Christians because it
represents the ordeal of Christ on the cross and his sacrifice. Non- Christians

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however look at the exact same image and not find significance in it. Another
example would be wedding rings, which are symbols of marital commitment in
most cultures. These symbols of wedding vows of love, fidelity and honoring
one’s partner are not the same in all cultures. In fact, the exchange of rings
during a wedding ceremony is not done in all cultures. The flag of a nation is
symbolic because it represents the sovereignty of that nation as well as its
identity as a country. Notice how flags are prominently on display during
international events such as the Olympics. The display of the flags shows the
participating nations and are usually displayed side by side in order to symbolize
the camaraderie that these events try to foster. Further, the colors and objects on
the flags of different nations also have their own symbolization which people of
that nation find significant.

Some religious symbols from around the world.

Language. One important aspect in culture is shared language, which is a

complex symbol system that enables members of a shared culture to
communicate verbally whether orally or in writing. Dialects and sub-dialects are
also shared by certain groups of people for the exact same purpose. Languages
have common letter systems that represent spoken language.

Left to Right: The English Alphabet, The Cyrillic Alphabet & The Alibata

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Beliefs. Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an

individual or group of people. Beliefs are grounded in the shared confidence on
the truth or existence of something without necessarily requiring proof for it. One
good example of this in ancient cultures were the belief in spirits, deities
supernatural beings. Beliefs also include superstitious beliefs. Beliefs also
provide basis for many practices within particular cultures. In the Philippine
culture few refer to beliefs as “paniniwala at pamahiin”. For example, when there
is death in the family, certain practices are performed in order to prevent any
further death in the family such as “pagtawid sa usok”, and “pagpag”. Beliefs are
usually passed on through teaching or acquired naturally in cultural
environments.

During Holy Week, many Christian believers engage in one form of “penitensya” or
penitence, which is believed to be a form of contrition and purging of one’s sins.

Values. Values are principles or standards of behavior. They are one's

judgment of what is important in life and thus guide and motivate attitudes or
actions. Values describe the personal qualities we choose to embody to guide
our actions; the sort of person we want to be; the manner in which we treat
ourselves and others, and our interaction with the world around us. They provide
the general guidelines for conduct. Values are what people in shared cultures
deem as good, desirable and worth emulating, pursuing and being. Cultural
values are values accepted by religions or societies and reflect what is important
in each context.

The “Bayanihan” Tradition exemplifies the Filipino value of being “matulungin” or helpful to others.

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Norm. Cultural norms are the standards we live by. They are the shared
expectations and rules that guide behaviour of people within social groups.
Cultural norms are learned and reinforced from parents, friends, teachers and
others while growing up in a society. For example, in some countries, dressing is
conservatively is the norm where females are expected to cover up as much as
possible while in other cultures this is not practiced. When a person violates the
norm their behaviour is frowned upon by people belonging to that culture or in
some cases behaviour is sanctioned. In some cultures kissing and hugging a
member of the opposite sex is perfectly acceptable while in other cultures this
may be considered as a gross violation of their norms. Being aware of the norms
of a society allow a person to tailor their actions so that they can act within the
norm and avoid social censure or causing offense.

The practice of “pagmamano” is an important norm in Philippine culture, which entails showing
respect to elders.

Culture and Moral Behaviour

Cultural variations in morality within societies can vary as much as cultural

variations in morality between societies. Just as people belong to specific
cultures so their behaviours in terms of their moral judgement and moral
behaviour vary as well. Since culture is such a powerful force in the life of an
individually, it is also a powerful influence on one’s moral behaviour. When
considering what action to take, culture is on of the factors that weigh heavily on
an individual’s decision. The influence of community and society is very powerful
in motivating our actions. People will usually safely align their actions to popular
belief for example, going with the herd mentality without necessarily examining
the issue properly out of fear of the implications of going against what is held to
be right by the majority. This is because cultural beliefs are conditioned by
external and material elements around us that, in turn, provide the basis for
principles that orient our judgment and valuation of things. Notice how we would
generally not want to go against cultural beliefs because we don’t want to
disappoint our parents and elders or we want to avoid the resulting community
gossip that results from our actions. In some instances however, a person might
choose to against culture especially if these come in conflict with their own
personal beliefs and values.

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Application (Let’s Do It!)

Learner Worksheet 5
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Think about the beliefs outlined in the column on the left. In the center
column write a statement of the belief surrounding the statement. Then in the last
column write how you adjust your behaviour in accordance to that belief. The first
one is done for you as an example.

Cultural Beliefs & Values

Situation Involved Resulting Behavior

Black cat crossing your It is bad luck when a Avoid black cats.
path. black cat crosses your
path. Something bad will
happen.

Making noise and using

firecrackers to usher in the
new year.

Saying “tabi po” when

entering wooded areas at
night.

Removing one’s slippers

when entering the homes of
other people.

Choosing one’s clothing for

going to mass.

Speaking to an older
person or a superior.

Observing Good Friday and

Black Saturday.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

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Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

Now that you have completed Lesson 2, let us move on to the next lesson
in this module.

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Lesson 3
Cultural Relativism
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Discuss the nature of cultural relativism and how it affects moral

behaviour;
o Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism;

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

“If anyone, no matter who, were given the opportunity of

choosing from amongst all the nations in the world the set of
beliefs which he thought best, he would inevitably—after
careful considerations of their relative merits—choose that
of his own country. Everyone without exception believes his
own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in,
to be the best; and that being so, it is unlikely that anyone
but a madman would mock at such things. There is
abundant evidence that this is the universal feeling about
the ancient customs of one's country.”

— Herodotus (Histories, 3.38)

translated by Aubrey de Selincourt

Activity
Read the short article below and reflect on the guide questions that follow.
Sabong or Cockfighting is a popular pastime in the Philippines wherein
game fowls or gamecocks are pitted against each other in a cockpit or sabungan.
Its history in the Philippines can be traced back to the Spanish Colonization in
the 1600s. It is also referred to as Tari-tari, tupada or tigbakay. The fighting cocks
are fitted with metal spurs or knife called a tari on their leg and made to fight until
one is severely hurt or dies. Sabong is largely considered a blood sport because
although not all fights are to the death, the cocks are subjected to significant
physical trauma as result of the fight.

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Game fowls are also bred specifically for the sport. They are born, raised
and bred on “game farms” where breeders keep only birds with potential for the
sport and killing birds that are deemed inferior. The birds are conditioned to fight
by training them through a regimented conditioning of physical work including
attaching weights or blades to their legs for practice fights with other roosters in
order to toughen them up for their fights. The birds are kept in makeshift shelters,
tethered by one leg. Breeders have also been known to pluck the birds’ feathers
and remove the roosters’ wattles and combs to prevent other roosters from
tearing them off during fights. These body parts are important for the birds ability
to regulate their body temperatures. Some “cockers” cut off the birds’ spurs,
which are the natural bony protrusions on the legs, so that more deadly, artificial
weapons can be strapped to their legs. Law enforcement officials have also
found performance-enhancing drugs during raids that are harmful to the animal’s
health with prolonged use.
Advocates of cockfighting cite cultural relevance to justify the perpetuation
of the sport. They argue that it is an ancient sport and is deeply ingrained in the
Filipino culture and in many other cultures in the world. Animal rights activists
however argue that the sport itself along with all its accompanying practices
violate human rights and are unethical. In some areas around the world and even
in the Philippines, cockfighting is still practiced as a mainstream event; either
regulated by law, or forbidden outright. For example, in the United States most
states declared it illegal. It is also considered as illegal sport in Brazil and in most
nations in Europe.
Analysis
o Do you think that cultural relevance is enough to justify the cruelty that is
done to animals in order for sabong to be continued as a practice? Why or
why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

o Many advocated of cockfighting would argue that sabong as a sport

should be viewed with cultural tolerance. Do you think tolerance is a
virtue? What are its limitations? Can you think of an instance when being
tolerant is not ethically ideal?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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Abstraction
Cultural Relativism
We all live within a certain culture and different cultures have different
moral codes. What is culturally acceptable in one society may be culturally
unacceptable to another and vice versa. As German Anthropologist Franz Boaz
explains, “…civilization is not something absolute, but… is relative and… our
ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes.” By relative he
means that anything within a culture should be considered “in relation or in
proportion to the culture to which he belongs. This sentiment would later be
echoed in 1924 by philosopher and social theorist, Alain Locke when he coined
the term cultural relativism.

Claims of Cultural Relativists

(Dr. James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy p. 16- 31)

1. Different societies have different moral codes.

2. The moral code of a society determines what is right
within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society
says that a certain action is right, then that action is right,
at least within that society;
3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge
one society’s code better than another’s.
4. The moral code of our own society has no special status;
it is merely one among many.
5. There is no “universal truth” in ethics; that is there are no
moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times.
6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of
other peoples. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance
toward the practices of other cultures.

Cultural relativism is the belief that the concepts and values of a culture
cannot be fully translated into, or fully understood in, other languages; that a
specific cultural artefact, for example a ritual, has to be understood in terms of the
larger symbolic system of which it is a part. Cultural relativists would assert that a
person’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that
persons own culture. In the same manner it is important that any practice should
be viewed or judged based on the standards of the culture to which it belongs
and not by any other standard, where one culture might appear superior or
inferior to the other. A key component of cultural relativism is the concept that
nobody, comes from a neutral position. We all have our own biases that are
rooted in the cultures to which we belong. The way to deal with our own
assumptions is not to pretend that they don’t exist but rather to acknowledge
them, and then use the awareness that we are not neutral to inform our
conclusions.

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Closely linked to cultural relativism is ethnocentrism. Which is the

tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture.
The term Ethnocentrism was coined by William Graham Sumner and entails
having the belief that one’s own culture is the “right way” or the “only way” of
looking at the world. Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one’s own race or
ethnic group is the most important or that some or all aspects of its culture are
superior to those of other groups. If we take this concept side by side with cultural
relativism, it is an extreme form of cultural bias because ethnocentrism uses only
one’s own cultural standard in seeing the world whereas cultural relativism
asserts that the only proper standard for looking at the world relative.
When taking an ethnocentric view, a person might view a cultural artifact in
terms of his own culture and judge other groups in relation to their own particular
ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behaviour, customs,
and religion and see it as primitive, or barbaric or inferior in some way. Again, this
leads to making wrong assumptions or judgments about others. Ethnocentrism
could lead to animosity towards other cultures or groups of people, some
examples of this include, sexism, racism and bigotry and thus lead to social
injustice and discrimination.
What brings these two concepts together is that culture is so ingrained in
us that we cannot help but have it affect our view of the world. Understanding
these concepts help us to acknowledge these biases and act accordingly.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism

Keeping in mind our own cultural biases goes a long way in preventing us
from making the wrong assumptions about peoples behaviour. It also allows us to
mitigate our own prejudices and be more open minded in examining other
cultures. Dr. James Rachels discusses very eloquently two important lessons that
can be learned from cultural relativism. First, it warns us from assuming that our
preferences are the absolute rational standard and second, it teaches us to keep
an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth. The word
“tolerance” comes to mind from these two lessons. It means the ability or

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willingness to be understanding or at the very least, allow the existence of

opinions or behaviour that one does not necessarily agree with.

Throughout this discussion you might also be asking the question as to

whether a culturally relative way of looking at the world is the right way to go.
Although cultural relativism espouses tolerance of behaviour, it is also not without
its disadvantages. There are dangers that are associated with cultural relativism.
Taking a culturally relative view may be well and good for harmless practices but
what about harmful ones? Research on cock fighting in the Philippines or bull
fighting in Spain or the Grindadràp or the Faroese for killing long-finned pilot
whales in the Faroe Islands or the Yulin Dog Festival in China. All these cultural
practices involve extreme cruelty to animals. Would it be right to allow these
cultural practices to continue in light of the fact that they involve cruel treatment
and killing of animals simply because they happen in a cultural context? This
leads us to think about the extent of tolerance that is advocated by Cultural
Relativism.

The Consequences of Taking Cultural Relativism Seriously

(Dr. James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy,

1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies

are morally inferior to our own.
2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by
consulting the standards of our society.
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.

The first danger of cultural relativism pointed out by Dr. Rachels is lies in
its original premise because we cannot call out harmful societal practices. If for
example one culture chooses to wage war on another as part of their cultural
practice we cannot call out that culture for their violence or aggression because it
is part of their culture. Consider other harmful practices such as “child brides” in
some cultures, tribal cleansing, slavery or “honor killings”. All these practices
cannot be seen as abominable or wrong because they happen in the context of a
particular culture.

The second consequence outlined by Dr. Rachels takes an insider view. If

we cannot call out the harmful practices of other cultures, in the same manner we
cannot also criticize harmful practices taking place in our own culture because
the only way of judging right or wrong would be to consult our cultural standard.

The third consequence stems from the two previous dangers. Ultimately, if
we are unable to criticize harmful cultural practices, the whole idea of moral
progress becomes doubtful because we would have to be tolerant with practices
that have a cultural aspect in spite of the fact that they are harmful. The whole
idea of progress is hinged on development moving forward towards advancement
and making things better. If we are to develop as a society both morally and
socially, harmful cultural practices must be corrected if not abandoned completely
and be changed for the better. Being tolerant of such practices would defeat the

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purpose of social reform. The continued progress of individual cultures and global
society as a whole depends largely on being able to continuously evaluate
culture, whether that of our own or others in the interest of curbing or if not
eliminating harmful practices so that they can be changed for the better and stop
the harm that they cause. Being tolerant of negative cultural practices would
mean being complicit in the harm that it brings and encourage clinging to old
ways and prevent any growth or development to take place.
Given the dangers of Cultural Relativism, we are led to ask whether there
is a culture- neutral standard of right and wrong that we can use when judging
cultural practices. Dr. Rachels posits considerations when looking at cultural
practices. The first would be to consider “whether the practice promotes or
hinders the welfare of the people whose lives are affected by it.” The second
consideration would be “to see whether an alternative set of social arrangements
that would do a better job of promoting their welfare”. He is quick to point out
however that these considerations are also independent moral standards that can
vary from person to person and can still be similar to “interfering with the social
customs of other peoples.” He also asserts that tolerance is a virtue because it
entails the willingness to live in peaceful cooperation with people who have a
different culture from ours.
Application
Research on any of the following cultural practices and give a critique of
the practice based on Dr. Rachels’ culture neutral considerations for judging
cultural practices. Write your critique in Learner Worksheet 6.
Topic Choices
o Child brides or early marriage of girls 11- 13 after which they are expected
to start producing children.

o Sex bias or son preference leading to selective abortion, foeticide and

infanticide because the female child is not valued by her culture.

o Female genital mutilation (FGM), an age-old practice which is perpetuated

in many communities around the world simply because it is customary
which involves surgical removal of parts or all of the most sensitive female
genital organs.

o Dowry murder is a brutal practice involving a woman being killed by her

husband or in-laws because her family is unable to meet their demands for
her dowry — a payment made to a woman’s in-laws upon her engagement
or marriage as a gift to her new family.

o Honour Killings wherein rape victims, women suspected of engaging in

premarital sex, and women accused of adultery have been murdered by

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their male relatives because the violation of a woman’s chastity is viewed

as an affront to the family’s honour.
Critique Guide (Total Word Limit should not exceed 500 words)
o Discuss the cultural practice you have chosen. Give a short background of the
practice including the societies/ cultures that still engage in the practice.
o Discuss the practice against Dr. Rachels’ first culture- neutral consideration:
Does the practice promote or hinder the welfare of the people whose lives are
affected by it? Give proof to support your claim.
o Discuss the practice against Dr. Rachels’ second culture- neutral consideration:
Is there an alternative set of social arrangements that would do a better job of
promoting their welfare?
o Give your personal stance based on your research. Should the practice be
stopped? Or if it would be changed what is your proposal for change?
o All sources must be properly cited. Submissions will be subjected to plagiarism
check.

Learner Worksheet 6
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

_________________________________________________
(Chosen Topic)

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Note: You may use the back part of this paper or an extra sheet of paper if you need to.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure
Well done! You have just finished Lesson 3 for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

Notes from this Lesson

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Lesson 4
Filipino Values & Universal Values
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

o Analyse crucial qualities of the Filipino Moral identity in your own

experiences;
o Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino moral traits;
o Evaluate what needs to be changed in the Filipino Moral Identity.

Time Frame: 1 Week

Introduction

What does it mean to be Filipino?

Gerard Lim
https://rappler.com/voices/ispeak/identity-crisis-filipino
June 20, 2014

“Is being kayumanggi the only thing that makes a Filipino?

Erin Sinogba, a writer, puts the Filipino identity in question. She
says there is a dominant construction of what it means to be
Filipino. The problem, however, is that it does not accommodate
the "cultural panorama" of Filipino experiences. Each person who
identifies himself/herself as Filipino contributes his/her diverse
background and experience to what it means to be Filipino… Even
Filipinos who leave the country and grow up in other nations still

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identify themselves as Filipino in one way or another. Reina Reyes

looks at Jose Rizal and how he traveled Europe, adopting things
from various cultures in hopes of bringing them back to the
Philippines. She says the chance to experience other cultures
helps us realize that things don't have to be the way they've always
been… Is the Filipino really just the kayumanggi person who goes
to Catholic mass every Sunday and eats adobo? What does it
mean to be Filipino when most of Philippine history is a construct of
colonialism?”

Activity
Based on the article excerpt above, what does it mean to be Filipino?

Analysis
o Discuss the major influences on your personal identity. Who played the
biggest role in moulding you to be the person you are now? How did they
impress their influence on you?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Abstraction
Determining Factors of the Filipino Moral Identity
There are many factors that lay the foundation of our moral identity as
Filipinos. Former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED),
psychologist and educator Dr. Partricia Licuanan reported ten (10) key factors
that contributed to the Filipino character.
The Home Environment. The importance that Filipinos place on family is
given primary emphasis in the home environment and is ingrained from
childhood. Older siblings are generally expected to take responsibility for younger
siblings, which continues into adulthood. The care for parents in their old age is
also a responsibility impressed upon children throughout their lives. Closeness
with extended family is also typical among Filipinos, which fosters belongingness
to a larger family unit that extends beyond one’s immediate family. The home
environment is instrumental in imbibing Filipino values to an in individual.
Culture and Language. The Philippines is home to many dialects coupled
with diverse regional cultures. It is typical for a Filipino to speak a native dialect
and the national language of Filipino. It is also common for urban areas in the

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Philippines to be melting pots of regional cultures. Filipinos also have foreign

influences that spring from their exposure to education and the media.
History. Many Filipino traits can also be traced from our colonial history.
The term “colonial mentality” refers to this directly to explain the internalized
attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by people as a result of colonization, i.e.
them being colonized by another group, which is accompanied by the belief that
the cultural values of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own.
The Educational System. The school environment is also instrumental in
forming the Filipino identity. In the Philippine setting, many schools are
authoritarian, placing emphasis on being well-behaved and being obedient. Many
studies have shown that this contributes to passivity and conformity. The
educational system of the Philippines has seen many changes in the past few
decades, moving towards more learner- centeredness. Foreign educational
frameworks have also become a prominent feature in the Philippine educational
landscape in recent years.
Religion. The Philippines is a dominantly Catholic country but at the same
time it is home to many religious denominations. The deep spirituality of Filipinos
is credited as one important factor in their inherent resilience and optimism,
because of their firm belief in the Divine Provision and Care. However this same
factor is also associated with passivity and conformity such as the “Bahala na
attitude” where Filipinos passively believe that everything will eventually sort itself
out.
The Economic Environment. Many Filipino traits can also be attributed to
the economic environment of Filipinos. Filipinos are known to be hard working
and frugal which could stem from their economic circumstances. Ilocanos for
example are known for these specific traits, which they attribute to the hard
working environments in their region, resulting in the tendency towards frugality.
Resilience during times of difficulty is another Filipino trait that can be traced to
the economic environment as well as strong community ties where the spirit of
“Bayanihan” or helping each other in time of need is very much alive. The
economic conditions of the country have also spawned the emergence of the
OFW family that has to deal with long periods of separation and a unique family
dynamic.
Political Environment. Politics figures heavily in the Filipino identity,
serving to emphasize Filipino family centeredness due to a lack of strong
government presence. The Philippine political landscape also contributes in large
part the “kanya kanya mentality” and the “barrio barrio mentality”. The political
environment is also known for the power imbalance that is evidenced by political
dynasties, corruption and impunity of the rich and elite. There are also on-going
political rivalries and divisions that trickle down to political supporters. This
makes for polarized public opinions on national issues.
Leaders and Role Models. Filipinos greatly respect people in authority
and have the tendency to be fiercely loyal to those they perceive as their role

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models or “idols”. There is also a tendency to romanticize the role of leaders in

society which results in an overdependence in leaders to “save” the people from
their difficult circumstances. Former President Joseph Estrada was hugely
popular among the masses at the time he was elected. This was attributed to the
“Asyong Salonga” persona which was a “hero of the people” role he played when
he was still an actor. The “idol” status bestowed upon leaders and perceived role
models in Philippine society plays a part in the way Filipinos view and form
opinions about specific issues.
Mass Media. The media also contributes heavily to the Filipino identity
because it greatly impacts many aspects of culture. It can reinforce or erode
Filipino culture by exposing us to foreign cultures. The KPop phenomenon, for
example, which explains Filipino fascination for all things Korean was brought
about by the advent of Korean music groups and Korean telenovelas made
available by mainstream media. Our exposure to foreign cultures through media
and Internet has been

Filipino Character Traits

“Character” is the mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual or
shared by a group of people. Filipinos have distinct character traits. Note that
these character traits influence behaviour and moral judgement. Even positive
traits when manifested in the extremes can lead to either positive or negative
behaviour. For example, Filipinos find the trait of being “mabait” or kind to be a
positive trait because it means being friendly, generous or considerate. However,
if this trait is manifested in the extreme makes an individual prone to being taken
advantage of or abused which is bad and disadvantageous to the individual. Let
us discuss some Filipino character traits and how they can lead to the
manifestation of positive or negative behaviour.
Family orientation or Family- Centeredness (Makapamilya). Filipinos
are known for their family centered orientation, a genuine love for family
members not limited to immediate family but extended family as well. Foreigners
have often remarked their fascination on the lengths that Filipinos will go for the
sake of their family- being able to endure long periods of separation as in the
case of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) and other personal sacrifices. This
strong family orientation gives Filipinos a sense of belongingness and security.
This trait solidifies the Filipino family unit, enabling them to withstand hardships
by providing a comprehensive support system. However, the trait can also lead to
dependency on the family unit. This can lead to a lackadaisical attitude in some
individuals knowing that their families will not abandon them no matter what. In
turn, unemployed family members become the burden of other members of the
family to the detriment of their own financial goals. Extreme family centeredness
can also lead to forsaking community and the common good for the sake of one’s
family as manifested in nepotism for example and the “kanya- kanya” attitude.

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Pakikipagkapwa-Tao. The Filipino practice of “Pakikipagkapwa- Tao” is

explained to be the Filipino standard for benevolence or goodness. UP Diliman
Department of Psychology explains the Kapwa Theory, specifically the concept of
“pakikipagkapwa-tao” that is often used in Filipino psychology as the people’s
moral compass of what is good or bad. The theory states that when one sees
another as a fellow human being, one is obligated to treat others like how he or
she wants to be treated. It obliges one to be humane to other people, both in
attitude and action. Being humane, which requires putting oneself in another
one’s shoes, should serve as a guiding principle in decision-making.
Pakikipagkapwa-tao figures into many aspects of Filipino culture in close tandem
with Filipinos being innately social personality. In some respects this can also
lead to having an extremely collectivist mind-set where an individual forgoes his
or her own interests for the sake of many. This behaviour in itself comes with its
own advantages and disadvantages. The Bayanihan Spirit is a manifestation of
pakikipagkapwa- tao which fosters deep communal ties and care for neighbours
and other members of the community as well.

Pagiging Matatag, Matiisin at Maparaan. Renowned CNN reporter,

Cooper Nielson made social media headlines when he publicly praised the
strength of the Filipino spirit during a report he was making on the Typhoon
Yolanda Aftermath in Tacloban. In his report, he thanked the Filipinos for
“showing the world how to live” citing that in the midst of great adversity he
observed how Filipinos maintained amazing flexibility, adaptability, resilience, and
tenacity under the worst of circumstances and lacking government presence.

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Pagiging Masayahin. Another positive aspect of the Filipino character is

cheerful disposition of Filipinos coupled with their innate strength and tenacity;
this trait allows Filipinos to weather even the most extreme hardships. Humor is
another aspect that is a large part of the Filipinos fun-loving nature. This pleasant
disposition towards life eases the struggles of daily lives and allows Filipinos to
thrive even in difficult situations.
Pagiging Masipag at Matiyaga. Given the environmental factors that
Filipinos have to deal with socio- economically and politically, Filipinos are also
known for being hardworking and industrious. This trait is most noticeable in the
willingness to take on difficult jobs, even to the point of going abroad if the need
calls for it and the ability to persevere under these circumstances. In the same
way as other traits of the Filipino Character, this not only enables the Filipino to
survive but thrive in spite of many trials they might face.
Pagiging Makadiyos at Madasalin. The Filipino character is also made
inherently resilient by a deep and abiding faith in God and being prayerful. It is
common for Filipino families to go to Church together and observe religious
holidays as well as pray together as part of daily living. Although the Philippines
is a predominantly Catholic nation, Filipinos are widely regarded to be a deeply
religious people.

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However, there are also notable weaknesses in the Filipino Character,

which have hindered Filipinos from achieving their full potential.
Kanya-kanya Syndrome. This negative trait refers to the selfish, self-
serving attitude possessed by many Filipinos. This trait can manifest itself
particularly towards others who have gained some status or prestige or in terms
of personal drive for power, privilege and status causing one to forsake the
interests of others and being insensitive to the common good. The Kanya-kanya
Syndrome can also take the form of extreme family centeredness where the
interest of ones family takes such precedence that the person pays no mind for
the common good. The mentality of ensuring family welfare at all cost plays a
crucial role in deciding on matters where an individual has to choose between
family and the larger community.
Crab Mentality. Perhaps the opposite of the Bayanihan spirit is the crab
mentality or “pagiging utak talangka” which is a mind- set possessed by some
Filipinos. The expression “utak talangka” comes from the behaviour seen in crabs
placed in a basket wherein crabs prevent other crabs from reaching the top and
escaping by pulling them down again. This is manifested by insecurity and envy
towards others that leads to pulling others down by pointing out their faults,
negative gossip and back- biting or outright sabotage. This leads to animosity
and ill feelings that undermines sense of pakikipagkapwa-tao and the
achievement of set goals. Crab Mentality also often arises out of the Kanya-
Kanya syndrome where one’s selfish attitude pushes a person to pull others
down in order to bolster one’s own status.
Mañana Habit. This refers to the attitude of some Filipinos to put off for
tomorrow or until the last moment something that can be done today. This
procrastination manifests itself in the statements “bukas na lang” or “mamaya na
lang”. This attitude stems from the unwillingness to deal with unpleasant things or
tasks until one absolutely has to leading to decreased productivity. Laziness also
contributes to this particular habit.
Filipino Time. One of the better-known negative aspects of the Filipino
character is disregard for time. This attitude refers to non- observance of
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scheduled or standard time and overall punctuality. This is seen in scheduled

events that start hours after they are supposed to partly because people do not
show up on time. This behaviour is known among time-observant foreigners who
regard it as disrespectful and wasteful of the time of others.
Ningas Kugon. The term “ningas” can be translated to burn or flame while
“kugon” is an indigenous grass known to burn bright and fast. The term means “to
burn like kugon” in reference to short – lived enthusiasm for something. This
attitude captures the attitude of many Filipinos who engages in something with
zeal only at the beginning and quickly loses interest or enthusiasm for the task.
This can be seen not only in individual but community behaviour. This leads to
wasted time, effort and resources on tasks or projects that will not find
completion.
Lack of Self- Discipline. Another negative trait that is seen in many
Filipinos is the tendency to disregard or bend rules in order to serve their own
interests. This lack of self- discipline is seen many ways from queuing habits to
adherence to basic laws, regulations and ordinances. One common problem in
government agencies is the prevalence of fixers who offer their services to get
transactions done faster by circumventing proper procedure. The Filipino lack of
discipline often manifests whenever a situation seems to be inconvenient or there
is lack of time. Many Filipinos opt to take shortcuts or disregard rules. Another
reason for this lack of discipline is the mentality that there are no consequences if
one does not get caught. This type of attitude has a big impact on society. Many
problems that we have in society could actually be solved if people were able to
discipline themselves.
Colonial Mentality. As discussed previously in this lesson Filipinos also
have the tendency to have colonial mentality as an effect of our history of being
colonized by the Spanish, American and Japanese. The term “colonial mentality”
refers to this directly to explain the internalized attitude of ethnic or cultural
inferiority felt by people as a result of colonization, i.e. them being colonized by
another group, which is accompanied by the belief that the cultural values of the
colonizer are inherently superior to one's own. Colonial mentality can manifest
itself in an apparent lack of appreciation for our own culture by preferring foreign
things because they are viewed to be superior. One good example of this is our
fascination for foreign- made products and brands because they are better than
locally made products. This can also be seen by Filipino desire to associate
themselves with foreign culture by adopting or incorporating foreign elements in
our image as it is perceived to be a mark of status or privilege.
The colonial mentality of Filipinos has a powerful impact on the collective
nationalism and patriotism. This is seen in the constant false comparison of
Philippine conditions to that of other countries and looking at these countries as
greener pastures to be aspired for instead of seeking to become part of uplifting
conditions here in the Philippines.
“Bahala na” Attitude. A result of the Filipinos deep faith and religiosity,
the phrase “bahala na” translates to “come what may” can is manifested by

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abandoning proper rationalization in favour of leaving a situation to the hands of

fate or Divine Providence. This attitude is the embodiment of the fatalistic attitude
of Filipinos and could result in avoiding the confrontation and resolution of tough
situations or issues.
Universal or Core Ethical Values
In the previous lesson we discussed cultural relativism to take a macro
perspective of how cultural values may differ. In this lesson we took a micro
perspective at Filipino values to be able to focus more on the Philippine cultural
context. Inevitably, are bound to be moral values that are regarded in the same
way by all societies regardless of cultural context. Ethicists and social scientists
disagree on which values are held universally. Foremost ethicist, Dr. James
Rachels cites that there are only three universal values shared by all cultures.
It is wrong to kill. The preservation of human life is given paramount
importance in all cultures. Many sociologists observed that this universal value
has some variations in culture and that more apt way of stating this value would
be “It is wrong to kill innocents” because in some cultures sanctioned killings do
take place such as penalty for heinous crimes or other reprehensible actions. Be
that as it may, killing in itself is found to be abhorrent in all cultures whether it is
justified or not.
Tell the truth. Honesty and integrity are universally held as noble
behaviour that should be aspired for. In all cultures, telling a lie is equivocally
seen as a form of disrespect and disloyalty and a violation of honor. Truth telling
is a challenge for everyone regardless of what culture they come from. Even in
ancient civilizations people who were held in high esteem in the community were
described to hold very specific traits, being honest in all their dealings being one
of them. In the same manner, individuals despised in the community were
described as being deceitful in one way or another. Trustworthiness is always
seen in positive light as it enables people to live harmoniously and without
conflict.
The young should be cared for. Across all cultures, care for the young is
seen to be of paramount importance as it ensures the future of any society. In
times of conflict and distress such as war and famine, the welfare of the young is
always given precedence over other concerns. Although cultures may vary in
how “care” is expressed, it is generally held that ensuring safety from harm and
provision of necessities for survival for younger members in society is the right
thing to do.
Although Dr. Rachels only outline three, other ethicists say that there are
traits that are seen positively across cultures. The Josephson Institute of Ethics gives
a number core ethical values that can be used as guidelines for harmonious living in
any society.
Trustworthiness. Echoing Dr. Rachel’s point on telling the truth, the quality
or trait of trustworthiness implies a variety of behavioural qualities. Honesty is
communicating with intent to disclose the truth to the best of ones knowledge and

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avoiding any form of deceit seen in terms of three dimensions: truthfulness (not
misrepresenting facts), sincerity (non- deception and sensitivity) and frankness
(volunteering information worth knowing). Integrity is the consistent manifestation of
being trustworthiness. Traits that are associated with trustworthiness also includes
reliability and loyalty as well.
Respectfulness. Respect is about honouring the essential worth and dignity
of all people, including ones self. In all cultures around the world, the value of being
respectful is manifested in many different ways but the emphasis of giving and
receiving respect is expected in all societies. Respectfulness includes civility,
courtesy and decency.
Responsibility. Members of harmonious societies need to be mindful and
accountable of their duties and actions especially those that have an impact on the
community. All societies demand certain responsibilities of its members.
Fairness. Another trait that is held valuable in all cultures is a sense of justice
or fairness. This is evidenced by the presence of systems for attending to the
concerns of conflicting parties in even the most remote tribal societies. Fairness is an
expectation that naturally follows the need for respect. When a person feels they are
being treated unfairly, they also feel disrespected. Various cultures have different
ways of exercising fairness and do so in consonance with other factors in their
culture.
Caring. The formation of human relationships and ultimately the formation of
society depends on human bonds that give people a sense of belonging. Caring,
meaning being kind and displaying concern for others, is expected of members in all
societies. Harmonious societies are characterized by this particular value wherein its
members take care of each other especially after those who are unable to take care
of themselves. Caring can manifest itself in many ways within a society, from basic
neighbourly relations to legislature and policy that are aimed at making people’s lives
better. Caring for other members of society is also considered to be one of the duties
of a good citizen.
Citizenship. Perhaps if one were to summarize how values become
universal, the value of citizenship would be one way of bringing together all the other
values mentioned in this lesson. As in all values discussed here, the actual
manifestation of citizenship varies from culture to culture but all societies agree that
there are specific traits that society expects from all of its members. Citizenship
simply means being a good member of any given society; doing one’s duties for its
betterment and manifesting traits that ensure harmonious living with others.

Application

Learner Worksheet 7
Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________

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Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________

Take a personal inventory of your own personal traits by filling out the matrix
below. How do you manifest these traits in your own life? How do you violate these
values? Remember that in taking this exercise seriously you are critically examining your
own moral character.

My Personal Traits/ Ways I manifest these Ways I violate these

Values values in my life values in my life
(Choose only the most important to you)

Note: You may use the back part of this paper or an extra sheet of paper if you need to.

Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page
from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with
your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning
Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online
version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment.

Closure
Well done! You have just finished the last lesson for this module.

If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in

the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging
or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE).

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Notes from this Lesson

Module Summary
In this module we examined the Human Being as the moral agent in order
to gain an understanding of what factors and traits impact our moral judgement
and behaviour. Let us now summarize some of the highlights of this module.

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o Human ethics is driven by rational behaviour and animal ethics is driven by

instinctual behaviour. Rational behavior is a decision making process
where the person acts in ways that best achieves his/ her needs in
conformity to personal morals, principles, beliefs, preferences, and
priorities. Humans are born as free beings. Freedom, or having free will
means being able to choose and do things on our own with or without the
guidance or undue control of external forces or influences. Our freedom to
choose is the foundation for moral acts.

o Culture refers to the “way of life” a particular group of people. The term
culture encompasses so many aspects from traditions, customs, beliefs,
and values, to history, all forms of art, knowledge, religions and even
power dynamics among others. The five basic elements of culture include:
symbols, language, beliefs, values, and norms.

o Cultural relativism is the belief that the concepts and values of a culture
has to be understood in terms of the larger symbolic system of which it is a
part. On the other hand, Ethnocentrism entails having the belief that one’s
own culture is the “right way” or the “only way” of looking at the world and
the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most important or that
some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups.

o There are many factors that lay that determines our moral identity as
Filipinos. These include the Home Environment, Culture and Language,
History. the Educational System, Religion, the Economic Environment, the
Political Environment, Leaders and Role Models and the Mass Media.

o “Character” is the mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual or

shared by a group of people. Filipinos have distinct character traits. Note
that these character traits influence behaviour and moral judgement. Some
traits of the Filipino Character include: Family orientation or Family-
Centeredness (Makapamilya), Pakikipagkapwa-Tao, Pagiging Matatag,
Matiisin at Maparaan, Pagiging Masayahin, Pagiging Masipag at Matiyaga,
and Pagiging Makadiyos at Madasalin.

o Notable weaknesses in the Filipino Character, have hindered Filipinos

from achieving their full potential. These include: Kanya-kanya Syndrome,
Crab Mentality, Mañana Habit, Filipino Time, Ningas Kugon, Lack of Self-
Discipline, Colonial Mentality, and the “Bahala na” Attitude.

o There are moral values that are regarded in the same way by all societies
regardless of cultural context. Foremost ethicist, Dr. James Rachels cites
that there are only three universal values shared by all cultures, which
include: it is wrong to kill; tell the truth; and the young should be cared for.
The Josephson Institute of Ethics gives a number core ethical values that can
be used as guidelines for harmonious living in any society. These values

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include: Trustworthiness, Respectfulness, Responsibility, Fairness, Caring,

and Citizenship.
Now that you have completed all the lessons in this module, it is time to
assess your learning and move on to the next module.

Check your work and prepare for submission and assessment. The
succeeding page will give you instructions on completing your requirements for
this module.

Learning Checkpoint
Module Assessment
Now that you have completed the first module, it is time to submit your
learning output and take the module assessment. A checklist is provided for you
below.

☐ Learning Worksheets 4-7

o For students with no Internet Connectivity use the University

Drop Box/ Courier/ Mail for submission. Neatly detach only the
Learner Worksheets from this module.

o For students with Internet Connectivity answer the Learning

Activities through the University Virtual Environment (UVE)
platform.

☐ Module Assessment

o For students with no Internet Connectivity, contact your Course

Professor to make arrangements on taking the Module
Assessment (Quiz).

o Take the quiz on the University Virtual Environment (UVE)

platform.

END OF MODULE 2
If you have completed all the items on the checklist,
you may move on to the next module.

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