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ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

When an external force does work in taking a body from a point to another against
a force, work done gets stored as potential energy of the body. When the external force is
removed, the body moves, gaining kinetic energy by losing an equal amount of potential
energy in accordance with law of conservation of energy and the force is called
conservative force.
Coulomb force between two stationary charges is also a conservative force.
It means that the work done by an electrostatic force in moving a charge from one
point to another depends only on the initial and the final points and is independent of the
path taken to go from one point to the other which is the fundamental characteristic of a
conservative force.
Thus, work done by external forces in moving a charge q from one point to another
is given by
W = − ∫ 𝑭𝑬 . 𝒅𝒓 (I)

This work done is against electrostatic repulsive force and gets stored as potential energy.
Potential energy of charge q at a point is the work done by the external force in
bringing the charge q from infinity to that point.

Electrostatic potential (V):

Definition:
Work done in bringing a unit positive charge (without acceleration) from infinity to
a point against the direction of the electric field is called electrostatic potential (V) at that
point,
𝑾
i.e., V = The SI unit of potential difference is volt.
𝒒
The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in moving
1 coulomb of charge from one point to another against the electric field.

Electric potential at a point due to a point charge:

Let +q be an isolated point charge situated in air at O. P is a point at a distance r
from +q. Consider two points A and B separated by a distance of dx.
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The work done in moving unit positive charge from B to A against the direction of 𝐸⃗ is
given by
dW = - F. dx (i)
where F is the force experienced by unit charge at A and is given by

𝒒.𝟏
F= (ii)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒙𝟐
The total work done in moving unit positive charge from ∞ to P against the direction of
𝐸⃗ is given by
𝑟 𝒓 𝒒
∫ dW = ∫∞ − F. dx = ∫∞ − . 𝐝𝐱 (iii)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒙𝟐

𝒓 𝒒
i.e., by definition, V = ∫∞ − . 𝐝𝐱
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒙𝟐

𝒒 𝒓 𝟏
 V= ∫∞ − 𝟐 . 𝐝𝐱
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒙

𝒒 𝟏 𝒓 𝒒 𝟏 𝟏
 V= ⌊ ⌋ or V= [ − ]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒙 ∞ 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 ∞

𝒒
 V= (iv)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

Equation (iv) is true for any sign of the charge q and For q < 0, V < 0, i.e., work done (by
the external force) per unit positive charge in bringing it from infinity to the point is
negative.

Electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole:

Two charges –q at A and +q at B separated by a small distance 2a constitute an electric
dipole and its dipole moment is⃗⃗⃗𝒑. Let P be the point at a distance r from the midpoint of
the dipole O and θ is the angle between PO and the axis of the dipole. Let r1 and r2 be the
distances of the point P from +q and –q charges respectively.
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𝑞
Potential at P due to charge (+q) =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1

−𝑞
Potential at P due to charge (−q) =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
Thus, from the superposition principle, the total potential due to the dipole is the
sum of potentials due to the charges q and –q,
𝒒 1 1
V= [ − ] (i)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟1 𝑟2
Draw AG perpendicular to PB so that AG = r2 – r1.
For a short dipole, i,e., a << r, r1 and r2 lie close to r and hence r1 ≈ r2 ≈ r. (ii)

(𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 )
 From the figure, cos  =  2a cos = r2 – r1 (iii)
𝟐𝒂
𝒒 𝒓𝟐 −𝒓𝟏
Equation (i) can be written as V= [ ] (iv)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
From equns. (ii) and (iii), equn. (iv) can be written as

𝑞 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝒑 𝒄𝒐𝒔
V= [ ] or V= (v)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

𝒑.𝒓̂
Or V= (r >> a) (vi)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

̂ is the unit vector along the position vector OP.

where 𝒓
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Special case:

1. When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole, then θ = 00 or θ =1800.

𝒑
∴ V= ±
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

2. When the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole, then θ = 900.

∴ V= 0
The important distinction between electric potential of a dipole and that of due to a single
charge is
(i) The potential due to a dipole depends not just on r but also on the angle between the
position vector r and the dipole moment vector p whereas the potential due to a single
charge is depends just on r.
(ii) The electric dipole potential falls off, at large distance, as 1/r 2 whereas the potential
due to a single charge falls off as 1/r.

Potential due to a system of charges:

Consider a system of charges q1, q2 ,…, qn with position vectors r1, r2,…, rn relative to
the point O.

𝑞1
The potential V1 at O due to the charge q1 is V1 = (i)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1
𝑞2
Similarly, the potential V2 at O due to q2 is V2 = (ii)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
and so on for the potential due to other charges.

By the superposition principle, the potential V at P due to the total charge configuration is
the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges

V = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn (iii)
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𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑛
V= + + ………..+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛

𝟏 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑛
Or V= [ + +⋯+ ] (v)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛

Note: For a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R, the electric field outside the
shell is as if the entire charge q is concentrated at the centre. Thus, the potential outside
the shell is given by
𝒒
V= (r > R)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
The electric field inside the shell is zero. This implies that potential is constant inside the
shell (as no work is done in moving a charge inside the shell), and, therefore, equals its
value at the surface, which is given by

𝒒
V=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑹

Equipotential surfaces: An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of

potential at all points on the surface.
(i) In case of an isolated point charge, all points equidistant from the charge are at same
potential. Thus, equipotential surfaces in this case will be a series of concentric spheres
with the point charge as their centre. the electric field lines for a single charge q are radial
lines. Hence the electric field lines must be normal to an equipotential surface.
i.e.,
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(ii) In case of uniform field, equipotential surfaces are the parallel planes with their
surfaces perpendicular to the electric lines of force as shown in Fig.

Note: If the field were not normal to the equipotential surface, it would have non-
zero component along the surface. To move a unit test charge against the direction of the
component of the field, work would have to be done which is in contradiction to the
definition of an equipotential surface on which no work is required to move a test charge.
The electric field must, therefore, be normal to the equipotential surface at every point.
Relation between field and potential:

Consider two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B with potential values
V and V + ΔV, where ΔV is the change in V in the direction of the electric field E. Let P
be a point on the surface B. Δx is the perpendicular distance of the surface A from P. When
a unit positive charge is moved along this perpendicular from the surface B to surface A
against the electric field, the work done in this process is equal to the potential difference
ΔV and is given by
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−𝜟𝑽
ΔV = - E. Δx Or E= (i)
𝜟𝒙

Important conclusions of electric field:

(i) The negative sign indicates that the potential decreases steepest in the direction of
electric field.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the negative potential gradient normal to the equipotential
surface at the point.
(iii) The unit of electric field can also be expressed as Vm−1

Potential energy of a system of two charges:

Consider the charges q1 and q2 initially at infinity and determine the work done by
an external agency to bring the charges to the given locations.

The work done in bringing q1 from infinity to A is zero since there is no external field
against which work needs to be done. This charge produces a potential in space at B at
the distance, r, is given by
𝑞1
V= (i)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Another point charge q2 is brought from infinity to the point B.

Now the work done on the charge q2 is stored as electrostatic potential energy (U) in the
system of charges q1 and q2.
∴ work done, W = Vq2

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
 Potential energy, U = (ii)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
Equation (ii) is true for any sign of q1and q2.
For a system containing ‘n’ charges , the potential energy (U) is given by

𝟏 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑛 𝑞1
U= [ + +⋯+ ] (ii)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟12 𝑟23 𝑟𝑛1
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Potential energy of a single charge in an external field:

The external electric field E and the corresponding external potential V may vary from
point to point. By definition, V at a given point is the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to the given point. Thus, work done in bringing a charge q from
infinity to the point P in the external field is given by W = qV.
This work is stored in the form of potential energy of q.
If r is the position vector of the given point relative to some origin, then

U = q V(r) (i)

Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field:

Consider two charges q1and q2 located in an external electric field E with position vector
r1 and r2 relative to some origin O respectively.

The work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to r1 against

the external field= q1V(r1) (i)

where V(r1 ) is the external potential at the point r1 .

Now, consider the work done in bringing q2 to r2. Here, work is done not only against
the external field E but also against the field due to q1.

i.e., Work done on q2 against the external field = q2 V (r2) (ii)

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𝟏 𝑞1 𝑞2
Work done on q2 against the field due to q1 = . (iii)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑟12

 From equns. (i), (ii) and (iii),

Potential energy of the system = the total work done in assembling the configuration

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
U= q1 V(r1) + q2 V (r2) + . (iv)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐

Potential energy of a dipole in an external field:

Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in an electrostatic field is the work done in
rotating the dipole to the desired position in the field. When an electric dipole of dipole
moment p is at an angle θ with the electric field E, the torque on the dipole is
τ = pE sin θ
Work done in rotating the dipole through dθ,
dw = τ. dθ = pE sinθ dθ
The total work done in rotating the dipole through an angle θ is W = ∫ dw
i.e., W = pE ∫sinθ .dθ = –pE cos θ

This work done is the potential energy (U) of the dipole.

∴ U = – pE cos θ
When the dipole is aligned parallel to the field, θ = 0o ∴ U = –pE

 The dipole has a minimum potential energy when it is aligned with the field.

When the dipole is aligned opposite to the direction of the field, θ = 180o ∴ U = +pE

 The dipole has a maximum potential energy when it is aligned in opposite with the
direction of the field.
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Electrostatic shielding: The process of isolating a certain region of space from external
field based on the fact that electric field inside a conductor is zero.
The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from outside
electrical influence.
Ex: During a thunder accompanied by lightning, it is safer to sit inside a bus than
in open ground or under a tree. The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding,
where the electric field is zero.

Dielectrics and polarisation: Dielectrics are non-conducting substances having no (or

negligible number of) charge carriers.
Ebonite, mica and oil are few examples of dielectrics. The electrons are not free to
move under the influence of an external field.
There are two types of Dielectrics, polar Dielectrics and non-polar Dielectrics.
The polar Dielectrics are those in which the centers of positive and negative
charges are separated (even when there is no external field). Such molecules have a
permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment.
Examples of polar molecules are HCl and molecule of water (H2O).
In the absence of an external field, the dipole moments of polar molecules orient
themselves in random directions. Hence no net dipole moment is observed in the
dielectric. When an electric field is applied, the dipoles orient themselves in the direction
of electric field. Hence a net dipole moment is produced.

The non-polar Dielectrics are those in which the centers of positive and negative
charges coincide. These molecules then have no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment.
Examples of non-polar molecules are oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2).
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If a non polar dielectric is placed in an electric field, the centre of charges gets
displaced. The molecules are then said to be polarised and are called induced dipoles.
They acquire induced dipole moment p in the direction of electric field.
Electric polarisation: The dipole moment per unit volume is called polarisation and is
denoted by P.
When Dielectric is placed in an external electric field, a net dipole moment is
developed along it. The dielectric is now said to be polarised.

For linear isotropic dielectrics, P = χe E where χe is a constant

characteristic of the dielectric and is known as the electric susceptibility of the dielectric
medium.
Polarisation of dielectric material:
Consider a rectangular dielectric slab placed in a uniform external field E0 parallel
to two of its faces. The field causes a uniform polarisation P of the dielectric. Every
volume element of the slab has a dipole moment in the direction of the field.
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Anywhere inside the dielectric, the volume element has no net charge. This is, because,
the positive charge of one dipole lies close to the negative charge of the adjacent dipole.
However, there is a net charge density ±σp arises from bound charges in the dielectric at
the surfaces of the dielectric normal to the electric field. The field (E0) produced by
these surface charges opposes the external field. So, the resultant field ER < E.
∴ ER = E –E0
(∵ Eo is opposite to the direction of E)
ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS:

1. Electrostatic field is zero inside a conductor. A conductor has free electrons. In the
static situation, the free charges have so distributed themselves that the electric field
is zero everywhere inside.
2. Electrostatic field at the surface of a charged conductor must be normal to the
surface at every point. If E were not normal to the surface, it would have some non-
zero component along the surface due to which the free charges on the surface of
the conductor would then experience force and move.
3. There is no net charge at any point inside the conductor and any excess charge must
reside at the surface.
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has
the same value (as inside) on its surface.

5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E=
𝟎

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE:

A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator that stores
electric charges in the form of electric potential energy.
When a charge Q is given to a capacitor, its potential V will change.

Q α V or Q = CV
i.e., C = Q/V
Here C is called as capacitance of the conductor.
Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the charge Q on it to the potential
difference V across its plates.
The SI unit of capacitance is farad, F (=1 coulomb volt-1)
A conductor has a capacitance of one farad, if a charge of 1 coulomb given to it, rises its
potential by 1 volt.
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The capacitance depends on the geometry of the conductors and nature of the medium.
Parallel plate capacitor:
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates separated
by a small distance.

Expression for capacitance of a Parallel plate capacitor:

Consider a parallel plate capacitor without any dielectric medium between the plates. Let
A be the area of the plates and d be the plate separation having a surface charge density σ
𝒒
= . The medium between the plates is air.
𝑨

The electric lines of force starting from plate 1 and ending at the plate 2 are parallel
to each other and perpendicular to the plates. By the application of Gauss’s law, electric

field due to uniformly charged plate is E = . The electric field in different
𝟐 𝟎
regions is:
 
The electric field in outer region I = − =0 since electric fields on both
𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎
side of the plate 1 are equal and opposite.
 
Similarly, the electric field in outer region II = −
𝟐 𝟎
+ 𝟐 𝟎
= 0.
In the inner region between the plates 1 and 2, the electric fields due to the two charged
plates add up, giving
  
E= + = (i)
𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 𝟎
The electric field is localised between the two plates and is uniform throughout. The
direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate.

𝒒
 E= (ii)
𝑨 𝟎
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𝑽
Now for uniform electric field, E= (iii)
𝒅
𝑽 𝒒 𝒒 𝑨𝟎
From (ii) and (iii), = or =
𝒅 𝑨𝟎 𝑽 𝒅

𝑞
Since C = , the capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is
𝑉
𝑨𝟎
then, C = (iv)
𝒅
Effect of dielectric on capacitance: Consider a parallel plate capacitor without any
dielectric medium between the plates. Let A be the area of the plates and d be the plate
𝒒
separation having a surface charge density σ = . When the medium between the plates
𝑨
𝑨𝟎
is air, the capacitance C=
𝒅
Consider a dielectric inserted between the plates fully occupying the intervening
region. The dielectric is polarised by the field. Then the net surface charge density on the
𝛔
plates reduces and is given by σnet = where K is a constant characteristic of
𝑲
the dielectric known as dielectric constant.
 𝑽
Hence, the net electric field, Enet = and also Enet =
𝑲 𝟎 𝒅
𝑽  𝒒 𝒒 𝑲𝑨𝟎
= =  =
𝒅 𝑲𝟎 𝑨𝑲𝟎 𝑽 𝒅

𝑲𝑨𝟎
Or the new capacitance C’ = (v)
𝒅

Since, K > 1 for any dielectric medium other than air, the capacitance increases, when
dielectric is placed.
The product ε0K is called the permittivity of the medium and is denoted by ε

ε = ε0 K or K=
𝟎
Dielectric constant of a substance is defined as the ratio of the permittivity of the medium
to the permittivity of free space.
𝑪′
Also, from equn. (iv) and (v) K= (vi)
𝑪
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Applications of capacitors:
(i) They are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to eliminate sparking.
(ii) They are used to reduce voltage fluctuations in power supplies and to increase the
efficiency of power transmission.
(iii) Capacitors are used to generate electromagnetic oscillations and in tuning the radio
circuits.
Combination of capacitors: (i) Capacitors in series:

Consider two capacitors of capacitance C1, and C2 connected in series. In series

combination charge Q is same on each capacitor and potential V across the combination
is equal to sum of the potential across each.
Therefore, V = V1 + V2 (i)

𝑸 𝑸
But V1 = and V2 =
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

𝑸 𝑸 𝟏 𝟏
 the equn. (i) becomes V= +  V=Q( + ) (ii)
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

If the combination is replaced by an effective capacitor with charge Q and potential

difference V, then effective capacitance of the combination is given by
𝑄
Cs =
𝑉
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Hence equn.(ii) can be written as = + (iii)
𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

In general, for n capacitors arranged in series,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯
𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒏
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Hence, when a number of capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of the effective
capacitance is equal to the sum of reciprocal of the capacitance of the individual
capacitors.

Capacitors in parallel:

Consider two capacitors of capacitance C1 and C2 connected in parallel.

In parallel combination potential V is the same across each capacitor and charge Q on the
combination is equal to sum of the charges on each. Therefore
Q = Q1 + Q2 (i)
The charges on the two capacitors are, Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C2V
 Equn. (i) becomes Q = C1V + C2V (ii)

If the combination is replaced by an effective capacitor with charge Q and potential

difference V, then effective capacitance of the combination is given by

Q = CpV (iii)

where Cp is the effective capacitance of the system .

CpV = C1V + C2V  Cp = C1 + C2 (iv)

Hence the effective capacitance of the capacitors connected in parallel is the sum of the
capacitances of the individual capacitors.

The general formula for effective capacitance C for parallel combination of n capacitors
is given by
C = C1 + C2 + ... Cn (v)
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Energy stored in a capacitor:

Since the capacitor stores charge, work has to be done to store the charges. This
work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy in the capacitor.

Let q be the charge given and V be the potential difference between the plates of
the capacitor. If dq is the additional charge given to the plate,

then work done is, dw = Vdq (i)

𝒒 𝒒
But V= . Hence, dw = . dq (ii)
𝑪 𝑪

𝑸 𝒒
Total work done to charge the capacitor is given by ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫𝟎 𝑪 . 𝒅𝒒

𝟏 𝑸 𝑸𝟐
 W=
𝑪
∫𝟎 𝒒𝒅𝒒  W=
𝟐𝑪

Since electrostatic force is conservative, this work is stored in the form of potential
energy (U) of the system.

𝑸𝟐 𝟏
U= or U= CV2 (iii)
𝟐𝑪 𝟐
[since Q =CV]

This energy is recovered if the capacitor is allowed to discharge.

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Van de graaff generator: It is an electrostatic machine which produces large electrostatic

potential difference of the order of 106 V resulting large electric fields that are used to
accelerate charged particles to high energies.

Principle: A small charged sphere which is always at higher potential, when placed inside
a large spherical shell, larger and larger amount of charge keep piling up on the outer
shell. Thus the charge supplied to the inner sphere always rushes to the outer shell
building very high voltages.

Use: The high voltage generated in Van De Graff generator is used to accelerate charged
particles such as electrons, protons and ions etc.,