The Island Arc (2000) 9, 173–187

Research Article
Lithostratigraphy of Permian marine sequences, Khao Pun Area,
central Thailand: Paleoenvironments and tectonic history
VICHAI CHUTAKOSITKANON,1 PUNYA CHARUSIRI1 AND KATSUO SASHIDA2*
1
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand and 2Institute
of Geoscience, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8571, Japan (email: sashida@arsia.geo.tsukuba.ac.jp)

Abstract Geologic mapping and subsurface lithostratigraphic investigations were carried

out in the Khao Pun area (4 km2), central Thailand. More than 250 hand specimens, 70 rock
slabs, and 70 thin sections were studied in conjunction with geochemical data in order to
elucidate paleoenvironments and tectonic setting of the Permian marine sedimentary
sequences. This sedimentary succession (2485 m thick) was re-accessed and re-grouped
into three lithostratigraphic units, namely, in ascending order, the Phu Phe, Khao Sung
and Khao Pun Formations. The Lower to lower Upper Permian sedimentary facies indi-
cated the transgressive/regressive succession of shelf sea/platform environment to pelagic
or abyssal environment below the carbonate compensation depth. The sedimentological
and paleontological aspects, together with petrochemical and lithological points of view,
reveal that the oldest unit might indicate an Early Permian sheltered shallow or lagoonal
environment. Then the depositional basin became deeper, as suggested by the prolonged
occurrence of bedded chert-limestone intercalation with the local exposure of shallower
carbonate build-up. Following this, the depositional environment changed to pelagic depo-
sition, as indicated by laminated radiolarian (e.g. Follicucullus sp.) cherts. This cryptic
evidence might indicate the abyssal environment during middle Middle to early Late
Permian; whereas, previous studies advocated shelf-facies environments. Following this,
the depositional condition might be a major regression on the microcontinent close to
Indochina, from the minor transgressive/regressive cycles that developed within a skele-
tal barrier, and through the lagoon with limited circulational and anaerobic conditions, on
to the tidal flat to the sheltered lagoon without effective land-derived sediments.

Key words: central Thailand, marine sequences, paleoenvironment, pelagic, Permian,

Radiolaria, shelf, tectonics.

INTRODUCTION stone and the other Permian limestones through-

The Khao Pun area, 4 km2 in size, is located in the
Kaeng Khoi District, Saraburi Province, central
Thailand (Fig. 1). Physiographically, it consists
of limestone mountains trending northwest-
southeast, covered by a dense forest.
The Upper Paleozoic carbonate/clastic unit in
this region has been visited by several groups of
geoscientists. One of the first studies was per-
formed by Brown et al. (1951) who named this lime-
*Correspondence.
Accepted for publication 20 December 1999.
© 2000 Blackwell Science Asia Pty Ltd.
out the country as the Ratburi Limestone. Borax
& Stewart (1966) worked on the Paleozoic strati-
graphic correlation of northeastern Thailand.
Tittirananda’s (1976) PhD dissertation was on the
stratigraphy and paleontology of the limestones
along Highway no. 21. Hinthong et al. (1985)
systematically compiled the geology of the entire
1:250 000-scale topographic map sheet of ND
47–8 (Changwat Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya).
Wielchowsky & Young (1985) studied lithofacies in
the Permian rocks of the Phetchabun Fold Belt.
More detailed studies on the structures in this
region were carried out by Pothong (1986). The
name ‘Saraburi Group’ in place of the name Ratburi
174 V. Chutakositkanon et al.

Fig. 1 Index map. (a) Regional tectonic map of mainland SE Asia showing major tectonic blocks (Bunopas 1981, 1992). (b) Regional geologic map of
the Saraburi-Kaeng Khoi area, central Thailand (after Hinthong et al. 1985) showing major units of the Saraburi Group and the locality of the study area
(inserted block). , Phu Phe Formation; , Nong Pong Formation; , Pang Asok Formation; , Khao Khad Formation; ,
Sap Bon Formation; , terrace gravel; , Recent flood plain; , Khao Yai Volcanics; , Phra Ngam Diorite; , river and
stream; , fault; , thrust fault; S, Saraburi city; K, Kaneg Khoi town. (c) Simplified geologic map of the Khao Pun Area, central Thailand.

Group was first proposed by Bunopas (1981) and
Bunopas et al. (1988) for the Permian succession
which distributes in the west of the Khorat Plateau
margin and the eastern part of the Central Plain
(restricted to the Peninsula of Thailand). Recently,
Dawson & Racey (1993) proposed the Permian
strata of central Thailand as a sequence of suprati-
dal to outer platform facies comprising a Lower-
upper Middle Permian transgressive/regressive
carbonate platform succession. Recently, a detailed
systematic study has been made on the Permian
lithostratigraphy around the Khao Pun study area
at which the Kaeng Khoi Factory of the Siam
Cement Public Company Ltd (SCC) is situated
(V. Chutakositkanon, pers. data, 1996).
The purposes of this study are, therefore,
to present a detailed lithostratigraphy of the
Permian rocks and to discuss the environment of
deposition related to tectonic setting of the area.
Depending on their use, several classifications of
carbonate rocks are applied, following those of
Folk (1959, 1962), Dunham (1962), and Embry &
Klovan (1971), slightly modified by the classifica-
tion systems of Tucker (1981) and Adam et al.
(1984). Approximately 30 spot locations were
visited and revisited, and seven main drilled
holes were logged and lithologically described.
Then, 70 rock slabs and 70 thin sections were
selectively prepared from more than 250 hand
specimens collected from both field and drilled

cores. A chemical staining technique, described by
Friedman (1959, 1977) and Friedman & Sternbach
(1982), was used to aid identifying carbonate min-
erals. Major- and minor-oxide analyses were
mainly performed by Krongkaew et al. (1991) and
some by Chutakositkanon (1996).
However, all samples analyzed by Krongkaew et
al. (1991) were composite samples; therefore, in
some cases the results do not represent the geo-
logic units and are not similar to those performed
by Chutakositkanon (1996), which indicate actual
lithologic units. In this regard, we decided to use
only the results from Chutakositkanon (1996),
especially those for limestones in the Phu Phe
Formation and for the mudrocks in the Khao Pun
Klang Member. However, in general, the results of
Krongkaew et al. (1991) are in agreement with our
results.
REGIONAL GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Saraburi Group (Fig. 1b) in the current study
area is in the southernmost part of the approxi-
mately north-trending continuous outcrops of the
Upper Paleozoic carbonate/clastic unit, extending
southwards at least 400 km from Lao PDR. The
Saraburi Group, exposed as a chain of limestone
hills, ridges, knobs and mounds, is observably
bounded by the youngers, the Khao Yai Volcanics
to the south, continental red-bed clastic rocks of
the Mesozoic Khorat Group to the east and north-
west, and Quaternary alluvial deposits of the Chao
Praya, the Lop Buri and the Pa Sak Rivers to the
west. This grouping takes place along the west-
ernmost part of the Indochina (Indosinian in
places) microcontinent (Bunopas 1992).
Several stratigraphers have tried to identify the
complex stratigraphy here. Hinthong et al. (1985)
subdivided the rocks, based upon stratification,
fossils and structures, into six formations, from
older to younger, as the Phu Phe, Khao Khwang,
Nong Pong, Pang Asok, Khao Khad and Sap Bon
Formations, covering the entire southern limit of
the Phetchabun–Saraburi trend.
Structurally, Abele & Beeser (1963) believed that
the regional rock sequence belonged to the south-
ern flank of ‘a large gently westward plunging anti-
cline’ whose core lay somewhere further north. This
gigantic structure is, however, mentioned as an
anticlinorium by Hinthong (1981), N. Comviravong
(unpubl. data, 1985) and Pothong (1986).
The rocks in this region were intruded by
plutonics of Permo-Triassic Phra Ngam Diorite
Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 175
(Hinthong 1981; Hinthong et al. 1985). Volcanics,
dikes and sills of similar composition and age were
also found in the Permian country rocks of the
Saraburi Group. Hinthong (1981) and Hinthong et
al. (1985) assigned the volcanics the name, Permo-
Triassic Khao Yai Volcanics.
Bryozoans, algae and fusulinids collected in
carbonate rocks, as had been noted earlier by
Pitakpivan (1965), Borax & Stewart (oral presenta-
tion at Economic Commission for Asia and the
Far East Meeting in Bangkok, Thailand, ECAFE,
1966), Tittirananda (1976), Dawson (1978a,b),
Hinthong (1981), Ingavat-Helmcke (1993) and
Dawson & Racey (1993), indicate the ages from
Early to Late-Permian. These rocks were also
noted to have deposited in a shallow shelf sea or
platform environment.
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
The Upper Paleozoic sedimentary sequence in the
Khao Pun area is composed mainly of limestones,
subordinate mudstones and bedded cherts with
minor andesitic hypabyssal rocks, such as dikes
and sills. According to the works of Hinthong
(1981) and Hinthong et al. (1985), the rock units in
the present study area were grouped as the
Khao Khad and Phu Phe Formations. However,
the current field and subsurface stratigraphic
investigations allowed us to re-group the Permian
sedimentary succession in the Khao Pun area
from oldest to youngest, based essentially on the
lithologic and physical appearances, stratifications
and sedimentary structures, into three litho-
stratigraphic units, the Phu Phe, Khao Sung
and Khao Pun Formations which are further
subdivided into seven members as demonstrated
(Fig. 2). In addition, 1796 composite samples
(Krongkaew et al. 1991) and 14 systematically
selected samples (Chutakositkanon 1996) from
individual members were geochemically analyzed
for major-oxide contents; the general results
are shown (in the lithostratigraphic column of
Fig. 2).
PHU PHE FORMATION
The Phu Phe Formation (Hinthong 1981) in the
study area consists of gray, thickly to very
thickly bedded biomicrite and biomicrosparite or
fossiliferous boundstone, packstone; some wacke-
stone are distributed only in the southwestern-
most portion. Regarding the chemical analysis
176 V. Chutakositkanon et al.

Fig. 2 Lithostratigraphic column of the Khao Pun Area and average major-oxide results of individual units. Lithostratigraphic column uses the classi-
cal rock-section key shown in Selly (1985, Fig. 0.1). The grain size is drawn increasing to the left, following Wentworth grades. Numbers in parentheses
are the total number of rock samples analyzed. *Analysis was performed by Krongkaew et al. (1991) and Chutakositkanon (1996); **Chutakositkanon
(1996) only; ***no analysis performed.

(Chutakositkanon 1996), the low SiO2, Al2O3, K2O
and MgO contents (0.095, 0.02, < 0.01 and 1.34%,
respectively) and high CaO content (53.6%) are
considered to be limestones. Fusulinacean fossils
can also be identified and the following species
were reported by Hinthong (1981): Pseudoschwa-
gerina cf. toriyamai Igo, Pseudoschwagerina
(Zellia) turbida Kahler, Paraschwagerina sp. and
others which indicate Early Permian Sakmarian.
Notably, the bedding planes of the 85-meter-thick
unit are steeply inclined to the northeast direction,
directly opposite to the other units. This leads us
to the interpretation that the Phu Phe Formation
was possibly northward-upthrust on the youngest
Khao Pun Formation. This Phu Phe Formation is
also called the Rong Ngan Kaeng Khoi Member
after the Kaeng Khoi Factory of the SCC, to be
consistent with the members of the other units
(Chutakositkanon 1996).
KHAO SUNG FORMATION
The Khao Sung Formation is entirely exposed in
the northern part and its features are clearly dis-

played as a straight ridge in aerial photographs.
The bedding planes, striking parallel to the NW-
trending ridge, dip steeply in the southwesterly
direction. Lithologically and structurally, this
formation is distinguished from the others by the
presence of cherts and the absence of hypabyssal
rocks. However, the Khao Sung Formation is com-
posed principally of three conformable members,
namely, from older to younger, the Khao Sung
Nua, Khao Sung Klang and Khao Sung Tai
Members, respectively. The overall thickness of
this formation is ~ 830 m.
Khao Sung Nua Member
The Khao Sung Nua Member, the lowest unit
of the Khao Sung Formation, is composed of a
420-meter-thick uniform, southwestward-dipping
succession of interbedding between thin- to
medium-bedded black argillaceous limestones,
black-bedded chert (Fig. 3a) and black shale.
However, the argillaceous limestones are likely to
contain a high percentage of organic materials and
a very finely grained texture and are re-classified,
herein, as micrite and biomicrite, or as mudstone
and wackestone. Surprisingly, the limestones
contain irregular-shaped microcrystalline quartz
or chert with an average size of 5–7 mm. Individ-
ual chert layers, invariably interbedded with black
argillaceous limestones, range in thickness from a
few centimeters to tens of centimeters or more,
and both upper and lower surfaces are wavy. When
viewed under the polarizing microscope, these
bedded cherts are, in fact, porcellanite. The pres-
ence of shale in the member is still problematic
because the member is not exposed clearly as an
outcrop. The shale presence is interpreted from
black, strongly weathered regoliths. Spherical
radiolarians, the most observable fossils, are pre-
served very rarely in these siliceous sedimentary
rocks.
Khao Sung Klang Member
The Khao Sung Klang Member, the middle unit
of the Khao Sung Formation, is obviously distin-
guished because it is the only member in the for-
mation that contains no cherts in succession. The
member consists mainly of pinkish-gray, thickly
to very thickly bedded fossiliferous or crinoidal
floatstone, rudstone, packstone and grainstone
or biointrasparite and intrabiosparite, with some
packed (over 50% allochems) biointramicrite
and packed intrabiomicrite. The southwestward
Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 177
dipping Khao Sung Klang Member, considered to
be a large lens-shaped sedimentary body with a
maximum thickness of 200 m, conformably overlies
the Khao Sung Nua Member and underlies the
Khao Sung Tai Member. The variable-sized fossils
of crinoid stem fragments, calcareous algae and
bryozoans can be observed easily. Due to its lens
appearance, the geochemical data are not required
for this study.
Khao Sung Tai Member
The youngest Khao Sung Tai Member of the Khao
Sung Formation, exposed entirely as cobble-sized
loose blocks covering the southern foot of Khao
Sung, is outstandingly characterized by gray to
dark gray laminated cherts (Fig. 3b) with some
porcellanites and deep-red ironstones. According
to its chemical data (Chutakositkanon 1996), the
high SiO2 content (approximately 89.9%) and small
CaO concentration (approximately 3.90%) of this
laminated siliceous sedimentary rock is regarded
as a composition of chert to porcellanite following
the classification of Krumbein & Sloss (1963). The
section, carefully measured as ~ 210 m thick, over-
lies the Khao Sung Nua and Khao Sung Klang
Members with abrupt contacts and underlies the
Khao Pun Formation with a fault contact as a huge
vertical cliff. Observed fossils are spherical radio-
larians, sponge spicules and unidentified siliceous
shell fragments, mostly aligned parallel to the lam-
ination or banding (Fig. 3c). We discovered poorly
preserved radiolarians, probably Follicucullus
sp. (Fig. 4), suggesting an interval from middle
Middle Permian to early Late Permian. The occur-
rence of the radiolarians places the age of the Khao
Sung Formation or the equivalent Khao Khad
Formation of Hinthong et al. (1985) younger than
that proposed by Hinthong et al. (1985).
KHAO PUN FORMATION
The youngest and thickest (1570 m thick) forma-
tion in the present study area is called the Khao
Pun Formation. The conformable sedimentary
sequence, moderate-dipping in the southwesterly
direction of the Khao Pun Formation, is set apart
from the others by the presence of well-developed
calcite veins and veinlets, andesitic dikes and sills
of hypabyssal rocks, and the absence of chert
layers. The Khao Pun Formation overlies the Khao
Sung Formation in the north and abnormally
underlies the older Phu Phe Formation in the
south with normal and thrust-fault contacts,
178 V. Chutakositkanon et al.

Fig. 3 Samples from the Khao Pun area. (a) Natural exposure of intercalated argillaceous limestone (L, thicker beds) and chert (C, thinner beds) with
both their upper and lower wavy surfaces in the Khao Sung Nua Member. (b) Rock slabs of laminated cherts from the Khao Sung Tai Member; bar =
5 cm. (c) Photomicrograph of the laminated chert under crossed polars showing alignment and spherical outlines of radiolarians (R), bar = 0.5 mm. (d)
Characteristics of well-bedded limestone strata of the Khao Pun Nua Member with extension cracks or gashes in the central part. (e) Fusulinid fragment
(Verbeekina sp.) in a carbonate rock of the Khao Pun Nua Member, bar = 0.5 mm. (f) Road-cut exposure of the Khao Pun Klang Member showing the
argillaceous limestone (L) intercalation in the slaty shale in the upper part of the member. (g) Normal graded-bedding and scoring in a core sample from
the Khao Pun Klang Member proving the right-side-up sequence in the Khao Pun Area. Number indicates the depth (86.25 m) from surface of the drilled
hole, bar = 5 cm. (h) Photomicrograph of andesite hypabyssal rock showing large biotite (B) and plagioclase (PL) phenocrysts with sericite alteration,
bar = 0.5 mm.

Fig. 4 SEM photographs of radiolarians (Follicucullus sp.) from the
Khao Sung Tai Member, bar = 100 mm.
respectively. Information obtained from both
surface and subsurface investigation leads to the
subdivision of the Khao Pun Formation into three
major conformable members, from lower to upper,
including the Khao Pun Nua, Khao Pun Klang and
Khao Pun Tai Members.
Khao Pun Nua Member
The 560-meter-thick Khao Pun Nua Member is
largely exposed in the northern portions of Khao
Pun and Khao Nong Kop as an E-trending strip
passing the central part of the area. It consists
generally of yellowish-gray or pinkish-gray to
dark-gray, thickly to very thickly bedded (Fig. 3d)
biointrasparite and intrabiosparite, with some
packed biointramicrite and packed intrabiomicrite
or fossiliferous or crinoidal floatstone, rudstone,
packstone and grainstone. Dolomitic limestone,
locally abundant, is exposed with a predominant
weathering surface, the so-called ‘elephant skin’.
Results from X-ray fluorescence analysis reveal
that CaO averages 51.62% and MgO 1.18%. A
value of MgO greater than 1% suggests that the
mineral dolomite is likely to be present. However,
most carbonate rocks in this member are classified
as limestone, following the classification of calcite-
dolomite mixture (Pettijohn 1975) because the
mineral dolomite is less than 5% of the total calcite–
dolomite mixture. From subsurface investigation,
an intercalation zone between the yellowish-gray
limestone with reddish-brown calcareous shale,
and the black argillaceous limestone with black
shale can also be observed in this unit. The south-
westerly dipping Khao Pun Nua Member overlies
the Khao Sung Tai Member with a fault contact
that formed as a large scarp and underlies the cor-
respondingly dipping Khao Pun Klang Member
Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 179
with either abrupt or intercalation contacts. The
Khao Pun Nua Member consists predominantly
of several fossiliferous beds. Essential fossils
include crinoid stems, bryozoans and algae, with
a minority of fusulinids (Fig. 3e) and small
foraminifers. The following late Middle Permian
fusulinacean fossils have been identified from this
member, namely Verbeekina verbeeki (Geinitz),
Verbeekina sp., Neoschwagerina megaspherica
Deprat, Afghanella cf. sumatrinaeformis Gubler
and others (Hinthong 1981). Crinoid stems are
the most abundant fossils and can be observed
throughout the unit.
Khao Pun Klang Member
The thinnest, 180-meter-thick Khao Pun Klang
Member mainly consists of high organic materials
and a very finely grained sedimentary arrange-
ment of mudstones as slaty shale to shale, with the
argillaceous limestone intercalations near upper
and lower contacts (Fig. 3f). Microscopically, the
black color of mudstones in this unit is the result
of finely disseminated organic matter and pyrite.
The black argillaceous limestone is re-classified as
micrite, quartz intramicrite and some as biomicrite
or mudstone, wackestone and terrigenous quartz
silt-sized wackestone. Geochemically, our mud-
stones contain averaged values of SiO2 65.0%,
Al2O3 16.0%, Fe2O3 5.02%, K2O 2.89%, MgO 1.86%,
and Na2O 0.77%. Like the general shales, major
minerals are clays and quartz; thus, the most
abundant oxides are SiO2 and Al2O3. The high per-
centage of Fe2O3 might be due to the occurrence of
pyrite disseminated grains and framboids. The
TiO2 content (average 0.72%) in this mudstone is
much higher than those of other sedimentary units
(Chutakositkanon 1996, Table 5.2) and clearly
distinguishes these rocks. However, averaged
CaO content of SCC results (Krongkaew et al.
1991) which is doubtfully higher than 16%, may
be caused by the presence of calcite veins and
veinlets in their samples. The southward to
southwestward dipping, organic-rich, very finely
grained clastic/carbonate rock unit overlies the
fossiliferous carbonate rock of the Khao Pun Nua
Member and underlies the youngest Khao Pun Tai
Member with the abrupt or intercalated contacts.
Subsurface study reveals that several sedimentary
structures noticed in core-samples, such as normal
graded-bedding (Fig. 3 g), cross-lamination, and
scouring and flame structures, prove the normal or
right-side-up sequence. Although we do not have
enough chronological data for this member, it may
180 V. Chutakositkanon et al.
be placed as late Middle Permian, based on the
stratigraphical relationships between overlying
and underlying members.
Khao Pun Tai Member
The 830-meter-thick Khao Pun Tai Member, the
thickest and youngest unit, is clearly distinguished
from the other members by its light gray color and
aphanitic texture. The term ‘lithographic lime-
stone’ is used in field investigations for this dense,
homogeneous and very fine-textured limestone.
Although the limestone appears to be micrite in
hand specimens, under the polarizing microscope
these micrite crystals are observed to be micro-
sparry calcite with average grain size of ~6 mm,
following Ehlers & Blatt (1982), contrasting with
typical micrite (1–4 mm) and typical microsparry
calcite (5–15 mm). From this viewpoint, it is possible
to classify the limestone in this unit as microsparite
and dismicrosparite or mudstone, with rare wacke-
stone. No dolomite has been recognized in the
stained slab surfaces. This is consistent with the
results from XRF analysis with average MgO con-
tents at 0.53%. A very steep, southwesterly inclin-
ing unit overlies the conformable Khao Pun Klang
Member with abrupt contact and abnormally
underlying the older Rong Ngan Kaeng Khoi
Member with thrust-fault contact.
A highly weathered shale unit was observed to
the north, near the study area. The observed 510-
meter-thick mudstone unit predominantly consists
of greenish-gray to yellowish-gray slaty shale or
shale, rarely interbedded with argillaceous lime-
stone. Its bedding planes were mostly inclined to
the south and conformed with the other units
in the present study area. Hinthong et al. (1985)
mapped the rock unit in the north of the present
study area as the Khao Khad Formation; however,
we believe this unit could be re-mapped as the
Pang Asok Formation of Hinthong et al. (1985)
because of its similar lithology and overall thick-
ness. We do not have sufficient paleontological data
from this member. However, lithological features
of this member may be correlated with those of the
Facies 6 by Dawson & Racey (1993). Therefore, the
age of this member is inferred as late Middle to
early Late Permian.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks in the present study area consist
entirely of dark-green to greenish-gray hypabyssal
rocks forming minor intrusions, such as dikes
and sills. Geochemical results (Chutakositkanon
1996) reveal that the rocks are of basaltic-andesitic
to andesitic composition. The 40Ar/39Ar dating
(Charusiri et al. 1999a) for hypabyssal dikes in this
study area and nearby volcanics indicates the age
is Jurassic, probably indicating the younger phase
of more widely exposed Permo-Triassic plutonics
(Phra Ngam Diorite) and volcanics (Khao Yai Vol-
canics). Petrographic investigation (Fig. 3 h) of the
hypabyssal rocks reveals that the rocks consist
mainly of relatively large-sized alkali feldspar,
amphibole and brown biotite phenocrysts (up to
2 cm) and a groundmass of plagioclase prism
and quartz. Lath-shaped groundmass plagioclases
exhibit a well-defined trachytic texture, possibly
suggesting that the rocks formed at a shallow
depth.
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
Generally, the bedding planes are very steep to
moderate (40°–70°) and inclined towards SW to
SSW directions with E to ESE trends. Subsurface
studies indicate that several sedimentary struc-
tures noticed in core samples from the Khao Pun
Klang Member, such as normal-graded beddings,
cross-laminations, scourings and flame structures,
prove the normal or right-side-up sequence in the
Khao Pun area (Chutakositkanon 1996), not the
up-side-down sequence. These intermittently con-
formable sedimentary sequences may belong to
the southern flank of ‘a large gently westward
plunging antiformal anticline’ whose core lies
somewhere further north of this study area, fol-
lowing the idea of Abele & Beeser (1963). However,
we cannot prove the anticlinorium proposed by
Hinthong (1981) and Pothong (1986).
The NNW-trending thrust fault is observed in
the southwestern part of the study area; whereas,
the NE- to ENE-trending strike-slip faults are
determined in the center, with the opposite sense
of movement (Fig. 1c).
DISCUSSION ON TECTONIC EVOLUTION
AND PALEOENVIRONMENTS
In tectonic terms, the Khao Pun area (Saraburi
Province) is situated in the westernmost part of
the Indochina microcontinent (Bunopas 1981,
1992; Pothong 1986; Bunopas & Vella 1992;
Charusiri et al. 1999b).

After the Hercynian Orogeny (Middle Car-
boniferous), intermittent marine deposition took
place in this region. According to Abele & Beeser
(1963), Tittirananda (1976) and Wielchowsky &
Young (1985), the sedimentation occurred in a
shallow marine or shelf sea/platform environment
in the Permian period. Recently, Dawson & Racey
(1993) have proposed that the Permian limestone
of Central Thailand is a supratidal sequence to
outer platform biofacies and consists of a Lower
and an upper Middle Permain transgressive/
regressive carbonate platform sequence. Paleoen-
vironmentally, their interpretation is appropriate
for the more regional area than the limited
Khao Pun area. Essentially, the depositional
environment in this area must be analyzed by
applying the marine carbonate depositional
models of Irwin (1965), Tucker (1981) and Selley
(1985).
In this discussion, we explain the evolution of
the study area and areas nearby by dividing it into
six stages. A depositional model for the develop-
ment of the Khao Pun area during the Early to
Late Permian time is shown (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 Model of depositional environment of the Khao Pun Area during Permian Period. Stage 1, Phu Phe Formation; Early Stage 2, Khao Sung Nua
Member; Late Stage 2, Khao Sung Klang Member; Stage 3, Khao Sung Tai Member; Stage 4, Khao Pun Nua Member; Stage 5, Khao Pun Klang Member;
Stage 6, Khao Pun Tai Member. CCD, Carbonate compensation depth.
Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 181
THE FIRST STAGE
In the first stage, we grouped rocks occurring in
the Khao Pun area and areas nearby that were
deposited in a relatively stable condition of a pre-
sumably and temporarily inactive margin during
Early Middle Permian.
The limestones of the Phu Phe and, presumably,
the Khao Khwang Formations are dominantly
gray-fossiliferous wackestone or biomicrite to
biomicrosparite with fusulinids and bivalve shells
indicating Early Permian. Although the Phu Phe
Formation of the study area indicates the shel-
tered shallow or lagoonal environment, the occur-
rence of limestone-bedded chert alternation in
the upper part of the Khao Khwang Formation, as
defined by Hinthong (1981), probably indicates the
deeper environment. Geochemical data (high
values of CaO and LOI, and very low values of
SiO2, Na2O and K2O) as well as the occurrence of
micrite or microsparite matrix and recrystallized
carbonate allochems of the Phu Phe Formation in
the study area, indicate that no detrital or land-
derived minerals, such as quartz, feldspar or clay
182 V. Chutakositkanon et al.
minerals, are involved in this carbonate diagene-
sis, possibly due to the very low relief landmass or,
in other words, the landmass providing terrige-
neous sediments was located far apart at this
stage.
Towards the late stage, the deposition recog-
nized by the interbedded limestone-shale of the
Nong Pong Formation (Hinthong 1981) and the
shale-dominated sequence of the Pang Asok For-
mation (Hinthong 1981) still occurs in restricted
marine areas or a lagoon, but it was supported by
very finely grained clastic sediments and organic
matter during Middle Permian.
THE SECOND STAGE
This stage, characterized by the development of
the interbedded chert-argillaceous limestone litho-
facies of the Khao Sung Nua Member, had the
depositional condition during Middle Permian of
an open-sea or outer-shelf environment with sedi-
mentation below wavebase and away from bottom
currents. The fine-grained size indicates deposi-
tion in quite a low-energy marine environment,
while the rarity of fauna and the absence of
benthonic algae imply that the floor was below the
limits of the photic zone. The lithological and pale-
ontological backgrounds indicate that the deposi-
tional basin may have been deeper than that of
the first stage, as evidenced by the occurrence of
bedded chert and the preservation of spherical
radiolarians. Chert associated with micrite lime-
stone indicates that deposition occurred at depths
of perhaps 200 –1000 m (Boggs 1995).
At the end of this stage, the sedimentary basin
was shallower and locally evinced by the carbon-
ate build up of the Khao Sung Klang Member,
which is indicative of the shallow high-energy
marine environment of migrating shoals and
banks. The observed fossils, such as both sessile
benthos and encrusting colonial organisms (includ-
ing crinoids, calcareous algae, bryozoans and rare
corals), of this carbonate are ecologically zoned
with respect to the barrier or reef mounds.
THE THIRD STAGE
Lithologically and paleontologically, the third
stage is distinguished by deep marine deposits of
laminated radiolarian chert with some porcellanite
and ironstone. Radiolarians, siliceous pelagic
organisms, have been thought traditionally to
accumulate in sediments on the deep ocean floor
and to be originally amorphous opaline silica
(Tucker 1981). The radiolarians in the Khao Sung
Tai Member were converted to opal-CT as indi-
cated by X-ray diffraction method (XRD) analysis
(Chutakositkanon 1996), also called disordered
cristobalite, alpha-cristobalite or lussatite (Jones
& Segnit 1971), showing low first-order interfer-
ence colors in crossed polars. Opaline silica is
metastable and then decreases in abundance back
through time and is absent from Paleozoic cherts
(Tucker 1981). Although the data are limited, we
suggest that this stage occurred during middle
Middle to early Late Permian, based on the radio-
larian species, Follicucullus sp.
By analogy with modern siliceous oozes (Tucker
1981; Selley 1985), radiolarian-rich cherts of the
third stage are interpreted as deep water in an
abyssal area where depths exceed the carbonate
compensation depth (CCD), ~ 4.5 km (Garrison &
Fischer 1969; Tucker 1981). With regard to the
presence of radiolarian chert in the third stage, the
present study may be the first that evince the open
ocean and pelagic or abyssal environment below
the CCD, far from continental influence in middle
Middle to early Late Permian in the southern
end of the Phetchabun–Saraburi trend, because
several authors believe that the Permian limestone
in this region is merely a sequence of supratidal
to outer platform of shelf deposits. According to
Helmcke & Kraikhong (1982), Helmcke & Linden-
berg (1983), Winkel et al. (1983), Helmcke et al.
(1985) and Wielchowsky & Young (1985), the exis-
tence of deep-marine depositional environments
was also reported in Phethcabun, further to the
north of the study area during Early Permian to
late Middle Permian. Their studies give us a paleo-
Phetchabun-Saraburi Tethys trend during the
Permian, with slight facies changes from north to
south, ranging from Early Permian to late Middle
Permian in the northern part, to middle Middle to
early Late Permian in its southern end.
In addition to the paleomagnetic result of
Bunopas & Vella (1983, 1992) for the Permian
rocks of Shan-Thai Terrane, the mean paleolati-
tude for the Permian is between 0° S and 10° S.
Unfortunately, there are no paleomagnetic data
from the Paleozoic rocks of Indochina in their
studies. Paleontologically radiolarian oozes at
present occur in the equatorial region of the Pacific
and Indian Oceans where the depth surpasses
the CCD (Tucker 1981; Selley 1985). This might
be the evidence which indicates that the paleopo-
sition of the Indochina microcontinent during the
third stage in the Permian moved to low latitudes,
presumably in the paleoequatorial zone at that

time, which overlapped the present equatorial
zone.
THE FOURTH STAGE
In the fourth stage, the depositional environment
was thought to be a barrier during late Middle
Permian, following the complex carbonate shelf
model of Selley (1985). Generally, this stage is rec-
ognized in the Khao Pun Nua Member. The pres-
ence of skeletal floatstone, rudstone, grainstone
and wackestone, is paleoecologically interpreted
to represent non-reef bioherm or mound-like
accumulation. The recognized fossils (both sessile
benthos and encrusting colonial organisms, includ-
ing crinoids, calcareous algae, bryozoans, and rare
fusulinids and small foraminifers) are skeletal or
fragmental debris. Although true corals in this
member are relatively rare, similarly to the
Permian reefs of West Texas (Selley 1985), these
fossils still indicate that the depositional environ-
ment of the fourth stage must be barrier reef or
skeletal mound (migrating shoals and banks).
With regard to the subsurface lithostratigraphy
of the Khao Pun Nua Member, the latest of the
fourth stage is characterized by the transition or
intercalation of reddish-brown calcareous shale
and argillaceous limestone/black shale at the upper
part of the Khao Pun Nua Member. Its character
presumably indicates transgression/regression.
During transgression, the carbonate and fine-
grained clastic sedimentation on the barrier was
accompanied by anaerobic-starved conditions. This
transgression alternated with a regressive drop
in sea level, and the barrier was temporarily and
intermittently subaerially exposed and cemented
by the oxidizing condition.
THE FIFTH STAGE
The fifth stage is marked by the sequence of the
late Middle Permian mudstone of the Khao Pun
Klang Member. This black shale is devoid of fossils
and, with the disseminated pyrite grains and
framboids, may indicate an oxygen deficiency. The
organic matter may be preserved at depth, but
the surface sediments could still support benthic
epifauna; where there are anoxic conditions on the
seafloor, there is invariably plentiful H2S in the
water and benthic organisms are absent. Both
lithological and paleontological lines of evidence
for the Khao Pun Klang sequence strongly point
to the depositional environment of limited circula-
tion and anaerobic conditions in the restricted
Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 183
marine or lagoon with sedimentation below effec-
tive wave base, cut off from the open sea by the
bars of skeletal limestones of the Khao Pun Nua
Member.
THE SIXTH STAGE
Towards the sixth stage during late Middle to
early Late Permian time, the depositional envi-
ronment was rather quiet and conditions were
stable. The last stage is distinguished by the homo-
geneous and light-colored limestone of the Khao
Pun Tai Member and the shale-dominated succes-
sion of the Sap Bon Formation (Hinthong 1981).
The Khao Pun Tai Member is composed entirely
of fine-grained microsparry calcite (average 6 mm)
with a minority of sparry calcite cement in fenes-
tral pores that parallel the bedding plane. From
this viewpoint, the Khao Pun Tai Member is likely
to deposit from the tidal flat to the sheltered
lagoon where there are no land-derived sediments
with oxidizing conditions on the passive margin.
When comparing the paleoenvironments of the
fourth to sixth stages with the carbonate shelf
model of Selley (1985), the major regression from
the barrier of the fourth stage to the fifth stage is
characterized by movement from a lagoon with
limited circulation and anaerobic conditions on the
tidal flat to the sheltered lagoon of the sixth stage.
Although, with little evidence and less clarity
in the northern extension in southern Yunan
(Charusiri et al. 1999b), it must be emphasized that
the Permian sequences of central Thailand are
similar to those of Loei (Charusiri et al. 1998) and
Pichit-Phetchabun (T. Nuchanong, pers. comm.,
1998). Charusiri et al. (1998) considered that the
Loei Permian sequences are atoll-like carbonate
buildups associated with bedded cherts and a
scarcity of marine clastics deposited onto the
Carboniferous Paleotethyan basaltic ocean-floor
(Intasopa 1993) in Loei, and with tuffs in Pichit
(T. Nuchanong, pers. comm., 1990) intervening in
Shan-Thai and Indochina. This stable (or passive)
ocean floor subsequently collided with the
westernmost part of Indochina where its Upper
Paleozoic strata are characterized by the silicic
shelf-dominated sequences of continental margin
(Wielchowsky & Young 1985). All the Khao Pun
carbonates are, therefore, tectonically regarded
as unlikely to represent the carbonate-shelf sedi-
ments deposited immediately at the continental
margin, as previously thought. In addition, based
on the airborne geophysical interpretation by
Tulyatid & Charusiri (1999), carbonates of the
184 V. Chutakositkanon et al.

Saraburi Group are surrounded by a high mag-

netic anomaly. Tulyatid & Charusiri (1999) inter-
preted this to indicate the occurrence of the
paleo-ocean floor prior to the Permian times.
Therefore, we consider that the Permian car-
bonates may have been deposited on the ocean
floor.
After the Permian, or during the Permo-Triassic
periods of marine sedimentation, the place grew
the venue of the folding/faulting. Because the
Indosinian Orogeny was generally sited in this
region, it was thought to be the one dominant,
significant structural feature. The Indosinian
Orogeny that took place between Triassic to Early
Jurassic (Workman 1975; Charusiri 1989) brought
about the plate interaction and collision between
Indochina to the east and the Shan-Thai to the
west and, hence, finished the marine deposition in
now-mainland Thailand (Bunopas & Vella 1983,
1992). The thrusting nature in the area may indi-
cate the compressional tectonics. In accordance
with the paleomagnetic (Bunopas 1981) and dating Fig. 6 Simplified tectonic model for the development of the Khao Pun
(Charusiri 1989) data, the Indosinian Orogeny and Area, (a) Carboniferous-Permian; (b) Triassic-Early Jurassic. 1, Permian
the collision of both microcontinents developed in atoll-like carbonate–buildup in association with bedded cherts deposited
onto the Carboniferous Paleotethyan basaltic ocean-floor in Loei
the Early Mesozoic era. The Permian carbonate
(Charusiri et al. 1998); 2, Age of volcanics and plutonics of the Khao Yai
rocks in the study area were crosscut by the Volcanics and Phra Ngam Diorite (Hinthong 1981; Hinthong et al. 1985);
andesitic dyke; the hornblende from this dyke 3, The 40Ar/39Ar dating (Charusiri et al. 1999a) for hypabyssal dikes in the
yielded the 40Ar/39Ar date at Early Jurassic Khao Pun Area and nearby volcanics.
(Charusiri et al. 1999a). In addition to the north of
the study area, the andesite volcanics in the Lam
Narai area, Lopburi, were dated by Charusiri offset faults. Charusiri (1989) noted that the sinis-
et al. (1999a), using the same method, to be Early tral offset along the Mae Ping Fault occurred as a
Jurassic. Petrochemical investigation (Charusiri result of the collision (compression tectonics)
et al. 1999a) reveals that these volcanics have between the Shan-Thai and Western Burma micro-
magmatic arc-affinity. Therefore, with regard to continents at the end of the Cretaceous period.
the dating results and petrogenetic investigation, The NE–SW structural trend in this area could
we infer that the occurrence of these volcanics are have resulted from the Mae Ping Fault drag. The
indicative of the recurrence of E-dipping oceanic alternative definitions for the NW structural
subduction beneath the Indochina block (Fig. 6). trending here are not plausible, because there are
Additional evidence of such tectonic setting is sup- insufficient data collected in this small area.
ported by K–Ar dating results of volcanic rocks in After the Mesozoic era, the last orogenic episode
Lao PDR, further to the north, as noted by Stokes took place, that is, the 45–50 Ma Himalayan
et al. (1996). If such a scenario is correct, there Orogeny (India–Asia collision). The significant
must be a paleo-ocean floor in-between the Shan- deformation associated with the development of
Thai block to the west and the Indochina block to the tensional tectonic regime resulted in the
the east, the so-called ‘Nakhon Thai block’, as men- normal faulting in the study area.
tioned by Charusiri et al. (1999b). Consequently,
the oceanic slab may have existed along the suture
zone of the Indochina and the Nakhon Thai block, CONCLUSIONS
and may have rejuvenated during Early Jurassic
period. The results obtained from new data of lithos-
From Jurassic to Cretaceous (Charusiri 1989) or tratigraphy, lithology, sedimentology, paleontology
Early Tertiary period, a shear tectonism took and geochemistry, are used to interpret the pale-
place with the occurrence of sinistral and dextral oenvironments and associated tectonic settings of

the Khao Pun area. During the Permian period,
the evolution of the marine sedimentation which
took place in the western margin of the Indochina
microcontinent can be divided into six stages.
Regarding the character of the oldest formation,
the Khao Pun area was under the relatively and
temporarily stable conditions of an inactive margin
with sheltered shallow or lagoonal environment in
the first stage. The second stage, distinguished
by chert and argillaceous limestone interbeds,
indicates the deposition in a low-energy marine
environment such as an open sea or outer shelf
with sedimentation below wavebase and away
from bottom currents on the Indochina microcon-
tinental margin. Towards the end of this stage, the
depositional basin was locally shown by the car-
bonate build up and signified the shallow high-
energy marine environment of the barrier. By
analogy with modern siliceous oozes, radiolarian
chert in the member of the third stage is inter-
preted to represent an abyssal area where depths
exceed the CCD. This might have guided the pale-
oposition of the microcontinent during the third
stage and was moved to low latitudes, possibly in
the paleoequatorial zone.
In the fourth stage, the depositional environ-
ment was generally thought to be a barrier or
skeletal mound with transgressive/regressive
changes by lithological and paleontological charac-
ters. The fifth stage is recorded by the black mud-
stone with sporadically disseminated pyrite grains
and framboids in texture. Both lithological and
paleontological lines of evidence for the sequence
in this stage disclose the depositional environment
of limited circulation and anoxic conditions in the
restricted marine environment of the microconti-
nental margin. During the last stage, the paleoen-
vironment of the Indochina microcontinent was
in the quiet and stable condition of a temporarily
inactive margin, and was distinguished by very
light-colored, homogeneous and very fine-grained
limestone. Its depositional environment might be
interpreted as tidal flat to sheltered lagoon unin-
fluenced by land-derived sediments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful and sincere acknowledgements are
extended to the Thailand Research Fund and Siam
Cement Public Company Ltd for the kind financial
support and geochemical analysis, with special
thanks to the Kaeng Khoi Factory, Saraburi
Province, for support in labor and convenience
Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 185
during the field investigations. Assistance in the
field by Mr Suvapak Imsamut (Geologic Survey
Division, Department of Mineral Resources) is
greatly acknowledged. The authors express their
gratitude to Mr Sone Bhongaraya (graduate
student in Geology, Chulalongkorn University),
who made time available to help us. Furthermore,
thanks are extended to the Department of
Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn Uni-
versity for some instrumental support in the
course of the study.
REFERENCES
ABELE K. & BEESER W. F. 1963. Geology of the
Muak Lek Area. Thesis, Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok, Thailand.
ADAM A. E., MACKENZIE W. S. & GUILFORD C. 1984.
Atlas of Sedimentary Rocks Under the Microscope.
Willam Clowes (Beecles), London.
BOGGS S. J. R. 1995. Principles of Sedimentalogy and
Stratigraphy 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
BROWN G. F., BURAVAS S., CHARALJAVANAPHET J.
et al. 1951. Geologic reconnaissance of the mineral
deposits of Thailand. U.S. Geological Survey
Bulletin 984.
BUNOPAS S. 1981. Paleogeographic history of western
Thailand and adjacent parts of Southeast Asia-A
plate tectonics interpretation. PhD Thesis, Victoria
University of Wellington, New Zealand. Reprinted
1982 as Geological Survey Paper 5, Department of
Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
BUNOPAS S. 1992. Regional stratigraphic correlation in
Thailand. In Piancharoen C. ed. Potential for Future
Development, pp. 189–208. Proceedings of the
National Conference on Geologic Resources of
Thailand. Prachachon Co., Bangkok.
BUNOPAS S., CHUAVIROTE S., HINTHONG C. et al. 1988.
Geology of the region of Loei 1: 125 000. Geological
Survey Division, Mineral Resources. Development
Project Report, Department of Mineral Resources,
Bangkok, Thailand.
BUNOPAS S. & VELLA P. 1983. Tectonics and geologic
evolution of Thailand. In Nutalaya P. ed. Proceedings
of the Workshop on Stratigraphic Correlation of
Thailand and Malaysia, 1, 307–23.
BUNOPAS S. & VELLA P. 1992. Geotectonics and geo-
logic evolution of Thailand. In Piancharoen C. ed.
Potential for Future Development, pp. 209–28. Pro-
ceedings of the National Conference on Geologic
Resources of Thailand. Prachachon Co., Bangkok.
CHARUSIRI P. 1989. Lithophite metallogenetic epochs of
Thailand: A geological and geochronology investiga-
tion. PhD Thesis, Queen’s University, Kingeton,
Canada.
186 V. Chutakositkanon et al.
CHARUSIRI P., ASSAVAPATCHARA S., DAORERK V. &
YUMUANG S. 1998. Depositional environment of
Permian carbonates in Loei and Nong Bua Lampu
Areas. A final report submitted to Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok (in Thai with English abstract).
CHARUSIRI P., CLARK A. H., FARRAR E. & ARCHIBALD
D. 1999a. Note on the 40Ar/39Ar dating results of the
volcanic rocks of central Thailand. Journal of Asian
Earth Sciences (in press).
CHARUSIRI P., CLARK A. H., FARRAR E., ARCHIBALD D.
& HISADA K. 1999b. Tectonic evolution of Thailand:
a New Synthesis. Tectonophysics (in press).
DAWSON O. T. 1978a. Note on deformation fabrics of the
Permian Limestone from central Thailand. Geology
and Mineral Resources of Thailand, special issue
for the Third Regional Conference on Geology and
Mineral Resources of Southeast Asia (III GEOSEA).
Journal of the Geological Society of Thailand 3, 1–14.
DAWSON O. T. 1978b. Depositional and diagenetic
fabrics of Permian Limestone from Saraburi, central
Thailand. In Nutalaya P. ed. Proceedings of the 3rd
Regional Conference on Geological and Minera-
logical Resources of Southeast Asia, pp. 47–60,
Bangkok.
DAWSON O. & RACEY A. 1993. Fusuline-calcareous
algal biofacies of the Permian Ratburi Limestone,
Saraburi, central Thailand. Journal of Southeast
Asian Earth Sciences 8, 49–65.
DUNHAM R. J. 1962. Classification of carbonate rocks
according to texture. In Ham W. E. ed. Classification
of carbonate rock. American Association of Petro-
leum Geologists, Memoir 1, pp. 108–21.
EHLERS E. G. & BLATT H. 1982. Petrology: Igneous,
Sedimentary, and Metamorphic. W.H.Freeman, San
Francisco.
EMBRY A. F. & KLOVAN J. E. 1971. A Late Devonian
reef tract on northeastern Banks Island, Northwest
Territories. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geolo-
gists 19, 730–81.
FOLK R. L. 1959. Practical petrographic classification
of limestones. Bulletin of American Association of
Petroleum Geologists 43, 1–38.
FOLK R. L. 1962. Spectral subdivision of limestone
types. In Ham W. E. ed. Classification of carbonate
rock. American Association of Petroleum Geolo-
gists, Memoir 1, pp. 62–84.
FRIEDMAN G. M. 1959. Identification of carbonate min-
erals by staining methods. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 29, 87–97.
FRIEDMAN G. M. 1977. Identification of staining
methods of minerals in carbonate rock. In Leroy
L. W. & Leroy D. D. eds. Subsurface Geology, pp.
96–7. Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO.
FRIEDMAN G. M. & STERNBACH C. A. 1982. Identifica-
tion of carbonates, gypsum, and anhydrite by stain-
ing. In Dietrich R. V., Dutro Jr J. T. & Foose R. M.
eds. AGI Data Sheets, 2nd edn., data sheet 50.1–50.2.
American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA.
GARRISON R. E. & FISCHER A. G. 1969. Deep water
limestones and radiolarites of the Alpine Jurassic.
In Friedman G. M., ed. Depositional Environments
in Carbonate Rocks, pp. 20–56. Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralologists Special publica-
tion 14.
HELMCKE D. & KRAIKHONG C. 1982. On the geosyn-
clinal and orogenic evolution of central and north-
eastern Thailand. Journal of the Geological Society
of Thailand 5, 52–74.
HELMCKE D. & LINDENBERG H. G. 1983. [New data on
the ‘Indosinian’ Orogeny from central Thailand.]
Geologische Rundschau 72, 317–28.
HELMCKE D., WEBER K., INGAVAT R. & NAKORNSRI N.
1985. Orogenic evolution of NE-Thailand during the
Upper Paleozoic. In Thavarachorn P., Hokjaroen S.
& Youngme W. eds. Proceedings of the Conference on
Geology and Mineral Resources Development of the
Northeast, Thailand, pp. 31–9, Khon Kaen Univer-
sity, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
HINTHONG C. 1981. [Geology and mineral resources of
the Changwat Phranakorn Sri Ayutthaya] (Map ND
47–8). Geological Survey Report no. 4, Department
of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand (in Thai).
HINTHONG C., CHUAVIROJ S., KAEWYANA W., SRISUKH
S., PHOLPRASIT C. & PHOLACHAN S. 1985. Geological
map of Thailand 1: 250 000 (Changwat Phranakorn
Sri Ayutthaya, ND 47–8). Geological Survey Division
of the Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok,
Thailand.
INGAVAT-HELMCKE R. 1993. Review on fossils of
Thailand. In Thanasuthipitak T. ed. Facies &
Paleontology (BIOSEA) pp. 1–22. Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Biostratigraphy of
Mainland Southeast Asia, Chiang Mai University,
Chasiang Mai, Thailand.
INTASOPA S. 1993. Petrology and geochronology of the
volcanic rocks of the central Thailand volcanic belt.
PhD Thesis. Department of Geology, University of
New Brunswick.
IRWIN M. L. 1965. General theory of epeiric clear water
sedimentation. Bulletin of the American Association
of Petroleum Geologists 49, 445–59.
JONES J. B. & SEGNIT E. R. 1971. The nature of opal
nomenclature and constituent phases. Journal of the
Geological Society of Australia 18, 57–68.
KRONGKAEW P., TRISINWATTANAKUL P., SRICHAROEN J.
& NURAJ S. 1991. [Drilling and detailed geological
survey report of the mining concession of the Kaeng
Khoi Factory of the Siam Cement Public Company
Limited, Saraburi.] Mineralogical Resources
Section, Administration Division, Siam Cement,
Bangkok, Thailand.
KRUMBEIN W. C. & SLOSS L. L. 1963. Stratigraphy
and Sedimentation, 2nd edn, W.H.Freeman, San
Francisco.
PETTIJOHN F. J. 1975. Sedimentary Rocks, 3rd edn,
Harper & Row, New York.

PITAKPIVAN K. 1965. The fusulinacean fossils from
Thailand, Part I. Fusulines of the Rat Buri Lime-
stone of Thailand. Memoir of the Faculty of Science,
Kyushu University, Series D, Geology 17, 1–69.
POTHONG P. 1986. The geology and structure of Ratburi
Group in a portion of the eastern part of Changwat
Saraburi, central Thailand. MSc Thesis, Chula-
longkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
SELLEY R. C. 1985. Ancient Sedimentary Environ-
ments and Their Sub-Surface Diagnosis, 3rd edn.
Cambridge University of Press, London.
STOCKERS R. B., LOVATT SMITH P. F. & SOUMPHON-
PHAKDY K. 1996. Timing of the Shan-Thai-Indichina
collision: New evidence from the Pak Lay Foldbet of
the Lao PRD. In Hall R. & Blundell D. eds. Tectonic
Evolution of Southeast Asia. Geological Society
Special Publication, No. 106, 225–32. The Geological
Society, London.
TITTIRANANDA O. 1976. Aspects of stratigraphy and
paleontology of the Permian Ratburi Limestone of
Saraburi, central Thailand. PhD Thesis, University
of London.
TUCKER M. E. 1981. Sedimentary Petrology: An Intro-
duction, Geoscience Texts, Vol. 3. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.
Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 187
TULYATID J. & CHARUSIRI P. 1999. The ancient tethys
in Thailand as indicated by nationwide airbone geo-
physical data. In Ratanasthien B. & Rieb S. L. eds.,
Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Shallow Tethys (ST) 5, pp. 335–52. Department of
Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai
University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
WIELCHOWSKY C. C. & YOUNG J. D. 1985. Regional
facies variations in Permian rocks of the Phetchabun
Fold and Thrust Belt, Thailand, pp. 41–55. In
Thavarachorn P., Hokjaroen S. & Youngme W., eds.
Proceedings of the Conference on Geology and
Mineral Resources Development of the Northeast,
Thailand: Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen,
Thailand.
WINKEL R., INGAVAT R. & HELMCKE D. 1983. Facies
and stratigraphy of the Lower-lower Middle Permian
strata of the Phetchabun fold belt in central Thai-
land. Proceedings of Workshop on Stratigraphic
Correlation of Thailand and Malaysia, pp. 293–306.
Geological Society of Thailand and Geological Society
of Malaysia, Haad Yai, Thailand.
WORKMAN D. R. 1975. Tectonic evolution of Indochina.
Journal of the Geological Society of Thailand 1,
3–19.