SCHOOL OF SCIENCE

ZOOL 322: PRINCIPLES OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY

Course leader: Dr. Emily J. C.

Senior Lecture: Zoology
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Eldoret

Email: emilychemoiwa@yahoo.com
Mobile: 0722 931 952
Office D124
ZOOL 322: PRINCIPLES OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY COURSE
DESCRIPTIONS
 Characterization of Mammalogy and Mammalian
Traits
 The evolutionary history of various mammalian lineages

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 Characterization of the orders and families of the
extanct mammals
 Morphological adaptations of mammals for feeding,
locomotion, reproduction, etc
 Physiological adaptation of mammals for homeostasis
and reproduction
 Behavioural adaptations of mammals for feeding,
homeostasis, reproduction
 Social Organization of mammals
  Terminology
 character:
 recognizable attribute

 apomorphy:

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 derived or specialized character

 plesiomorphy

 primitive or ancestral character

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 autapomorphy

 characterizes a terminal branch only

 synapomorphy

 shared derived character inferred to have originated in the latest common ancestor

 sister groups:

 two monophyletic groups share a common ancestry with each other more recently than either one does
with any other taxa
 monophyletic:

 entire phylogeny; latest common ancestor plus all and only all its descendants

 paraphyletic:

 group having a common ancestor; but from which one or more descendent groups have been excluded;
can not be defined strictly by synapomorphies; part of phylogeny; e.g. Class Reptilia if it does not
include birds; stem groups 3
 polyphyletic:

 descendents of unrelated ancestors; does not include the common ancestor of at least two taxa; taxa are
grouped together because of convergent evolution
 INTRODUCTION

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 Mammalian Diversity
 5,400 mammal species (Wilson and Reeder, 2005,

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Mammal Species of the World).
 In 1993, 4,700 species were recognized.

 Compare this to 20,000 fish species or 750,000 described

insect species.

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MAMMALIAN CHARACTERISTICS

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 Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia

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Synapomorphies of extant mammals
 endothermy (also in Aves) aided by hair (insulation)
 skin glands (including mammary glands)
 live birth (except for monotremes)

Contrasts between ectothermic reptiles and endothermic

mammals

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SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF
MODERN MAMMALS
1. Endothermy

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2. Transformation of accessory jaw bones [Chapter 3]
A. mandible consists only of dentary bone

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B. dentary-squamosal jaw articulation
C. three ear ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes [Fig. 2-11]
a. Stapes small relative to skull
b. hearing highly developed
D. tympanic bone

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Mammalian and non-mammalian jaws. In the mammal configuration, the
quadrate and articular bones are much smaller and form part of the
middle ear. Note that in mammals the lower jaw consists of only the
dentary bone.

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A typical mammalian middle ear: sound makes the
tympanum (ear-drum) vibrate; 3 small bones, the malleus,
incus and stapes, transmit the vibrations to the Labyrinth
(inner ear), which transforms the vibrations into nerve
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signals
 CHARACTERISTICS CONT’
3. determinate growth
 Mammalian long-bone anatomy
[Fig. 2-16]

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 epiphysis
 cartilage

 diaphysis (shaft)

 Most growth (lengthening) in long

bones occurs in the cartilage
between the epithyses and

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diaphysis
 Growth (lengthening) in long
bones ceases when the epithyses
fuse with the diaphysis

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CHARACTERISTICS CONT’
4. four chambered heart (also in crocodilians, Aves)
5. single functional left aortic arch; reduction of the right

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6. enucleate erythrocytes (red blood cells)
7. muscular diaphragm

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8. secondary palate (also in crocodilians) with epiglottis
9. Skin with muscles, hair and glands
 facial muscles

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CHARACTERISTICS
CONT’

 hair (including pelage)

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 unique mammalian characteristic; without homologue

 primary function: insulation and homeostasis

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 dead epidermal tissue strengthened by keratin

 outer layer- cuticle

 middle layer-cortex;

 medulla-central core

 pelage

 replaced during molts

 secondary functions

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CHARACTERISTICS
CONT’

 Sebaceous glands

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 sweat glands
 eccrine sweat glands

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 apocrine sweat glands

 mammary glands: modified apocrine glands

 a nipple is present in most mammals

 monotremes lack nipples

 cetacean (whales, dolphins, etc.) specializations

 males of the Malaysian fruit bat, Dyacopterus

spadiceus, lactate
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 CHARACTERISTICS
CONT’
10.Loop of Henle
11.structure of brain and nervous system

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12. highly developed neopallium (roof of the forebrain)
13. tectum (visual center in lower vertebrates) reduced to corpora

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quadrigemina: functions mainly as a relay center for auditory
information and to control visual reflexes
14. corpus callosum in eutherians provides additional
communication
15. smell acute except whales and higher apes [
16. eye typical of amniotes

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 CHARACTERISTICS
CONT’
17. tapetum lucidum (reflective structure) well developed in
nocturnal mammals

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18. touch- most have vibrissae that are controlled by facial
muscles

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19. complex, differentiated teeth (heterodont) that occlude
 incisors/canines/premolars/molars

20. two tooth generations (diphyodonty)

21. lateral movement of jaw during mastication
22. two occipital condyles
23. elongate ilium

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SOFT ANATOMY
 FAT and ENERGY STORAGE
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 highly efficient circulation system

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 heart rate correlates inversely to body size

 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Female

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 two functional ovaries
 typically vagina, cervix and uterus
 monotremes: uteri to urogenital sinus to cloaca--no vagina
 metatherians: lateral vaginas and two uteri
 Male
 penis--erectile tissue surrounded by sheath of skin
 ospenis or baculum in most
 testes usually scrotal
 SENSE ORGANS

 DIGESTION

 salivary glands
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 stomach-generally sac-like, but complexly divided in some
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM  Saltatorial (jumpers, hoppers)
 THE SKULL  richochetal (bipedal)

 the mammal skull and dentition from  Fossorial

David Armstrong, University of
 Semifossorial
Colorado
 Fossorial

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 TEETH
 AXIAL SKELETON  Climbing

 vertebrae  Scansorial

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 LIMBS and GIRDLES  Arboreal
 pectoral and pelvic girdles  Brachiation
 podials  Vertical Clinging and
  
Leaping
LOCOMOTOR CATEGORIES
 Glissant [Fig. ]
 Terrestrial Locomotion
 Ambulatory
 Volant [Fig. ]
 Plantigrade  Swimmers
 Cursorial  Amphibious or Semiaquatic
 digitigrade
[Fig. ]
 unguligrade
 Aquatic (mostly aquatic)
 Graviportal 16
 Marine (fully aquatic)
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING
MAMMALS

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 FIELD METHODS
 Trapping and Marking

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 Trapping

 live trapping

 kill trapping

 Marking

 tags

 collars

 dyes

 clipping
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LABORATORY METHODS

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 LABORATORY METHODS - A
 Morphometrics

 study skins

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 teeth and skeletons

 LABORATORY METHODS - B
 GENETICS AND MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES

 Chromosomes

 karyotypes

 Protein Assays

 protein electrophoresis

 DNA assays

 restriction fragment-length polymorphisms (RFLP’s)

 nuclear DNA

 mitochondrial DNA

 DNA fingerprinting

 variable numbers of tandem repeats 18

 DNA sequencing
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 Monitoring
 radiotelemetry

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 home range [Table 23-1]

 Geographic Information and Global Positioning

Systems

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BIOGEOGRAPHY
 ZOOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS

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 History
 Faunal regions proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace, co-
discover of the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection.

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 Comparisons of the Mammals of the Faunal Regions [Table
25-1]
 Palearctic (PA)
 Europe, North Africa (to Sahara), Asia (except India, Pakistan and
SE Asia) and Middle East.
 Number of families = 36; endemics = 1

 Nearctic (NA)
 Canada,USA, Mexico to tropics
 Number of families = 31; endemics = 2.
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 Holarctic is Palearctic plus Nearctic
ZOOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
 Neotropical (NT)
tropical Mexico south to South America, plus the Antilles

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
 Number of families = 56; endemics = 28.

 Afrotropic (AF) or Ethiopian (ET)

 Madagascar, Africa south of the Sahara, southern Arabian Peninsula

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 Number of families = 58; endemics = 20.

 Indo-Malayan (IM) or Oriental (OR)

 Pakistan, India, Southeast Asia, Philippines, Indonesia west of Wallace's line (Sumatra, Java,
Borneo)
 Number of families = 49; endemics = 8.

 Australian (AU)
 Australia, New Guinea, Tasmania, Indonesian Islands east of Wallace's line (Celebes, Timor, etc.)
 NOTE: does not include New Zealand
 Number of families = 35; endemics = 21.

 Oceanic
 Oceans of the world and truely oceanic, isolated, small islands

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ZOOL 322: PRINCIPLES OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY COURSE
DESCRIPTIONS
 Characterization of Mammalogy and Mammalian Traits
 The evolutionary history of various mammalian
lineages

ZOOL 322 2022/2023 @DREJC

 Characterization of the orders and families of the
extanct mammals
 Morphological adaptations of mammals for feeding,
locomotion, reproduction, etc
 Physiological adaptation of mammals for homeostasis
and reproduction
 Behavioural adaptations of mammals for feeding,
homeostasis, reproduction
 Social Organization of mammals
  Early evolution of mammals
 The evolution of mammals has passed through many
stages since the first appearance of their synapsid

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ancestors in the Pennsylvanian sub-period of the late
Carboniferous period. ... The synapsid lineage became
distinct from the sauropsid lineage in the late

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Carboniferous period, between 320 and 315 million
years ago.

READ ABOUT THE GEOLOGIC TIME

SCALE
ORIGINS OF A GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE-
USE THE LIST OF REFERENCES AND 24

THE PDF PROVIDED