THUONG MAI UNIVERSITY

ENGLISH FACULTY

CLASS: 2152ENTH0911

Group: 02
Topic : Dimensions of word meaning
Subject: Ngữ nghĩa học
Supervisor: Phạm Thuỳ Giang

Hanoi, 2021
 TASK LIST

Student code Full name Deputies Evaluation of

leader
18D170108 Đặng Nguyệt Hà 1. Naming
2. Denotation and reference
3. Sense and reference
18D170310 Đoàn Thị Hạnh 4. The change and development
of meaning ( definition and
cause of semantic)+ slide
18D170210 Vũ Thị Hải 4. The change and
development of meaning
( nature change)+ word
18D170011 Nguyễn Thị Hạnh 5.1 Metaphor

18D170312 Nguyễn Thị Hiên 5.2 Metonymy

18D170209 Trần Thị Thu Hà 5.3 Hyperbole

5.4 Litotes
18D170164 Nguyễn Thị Thu Hoài 5.5 Irony
5.6 Euphemism

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Naming........................................................................................................................ 5
2. Denotation and reference...........................................................................................5
2.1. Denotation................................................................................................................ 5
2.2. Reference.................................................................................................................5
3. Sense and reference....................................................................................................5
3.1. Sense........................................................................................................................ 5
3.2. Reference.................................................................................................................5
4. The change and development of meaning change....................................................6
4.1. Definition of semantic change.................................................................................6
4.2. Causes of semantic change......................................................................................7
4.3. Nature of semantic change......................................................................................8
4.3.1. The denotational meaning may be changed as follows...................................8
4.3.2. The connotational meaning may be changed in two ways as follows..............9
5. Transference of meaning.........................................................................................10
5.1. Metaphor................................................................................................................ 10
5.1.1. Definition......................................................................................................10
5.1.2. Metaphor & Simile........................................................................................10
5.1.3. Conceptual metaphor....................................................................................10
5.1.4. Basis of transference.....................................................................................11
5.1.5. Classification of metaphor............................................................................11
5.1.6. Exercise: Metaphor or Simile.......................................................................12
5.2. Metonymy...............................................................................................................13
5.2.1. Definition......................................................................................................13
5.2.2. Basic of transference....................................................................................14
5.2.3. Cases of metonymy........................................................................................14
5.2.4. Exercise........................................................................................................19
5.3. Hyperbole...............................................................................................................20
5.3.1. Definition......................................................................................................20
5.3.2. Example........................................................................................................21
5.4. Litotes.....................................................................................................................24

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5.4.1. Definition......................................................................................................24
5.4.2. Example........................................................................................................24
5.5. Irony.......................................................................................................................26
5.6. Euphemisms...........................................................................................................27

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1. Naming
The theory of naming states that the word is a signifier which stands for an object. In
other words, words are names or labels for things. The idea works well with nouns which
are usually used to denote objects. However, it doesn’t work well with nouns denoting
abstract concepts. Linguists also realize the need to distinguish what a word or expression
denotes from what they can be used to refer to, we will identify the difference between
denotation and reference. Depending on what it is understood by meaning, we can
distinguish two main semantic theories: the referential/ denotational approach-meaning is
the action of putting words into relationship with the world; the representational/
conceptual approach-meaning is the notion, the concept or the mental image of the object
or situation in reality as reflected in man’s mind.
1. Denotation and reference
1.1. Denotation
Detonation is the ability of a word to identify all those things or objects that are
correctly covered by it. The denotation of word or expression is invariant and utterance
independent. Before describing the characteristics of these theories, a clarification of the
terms used is necessary. All languages allow speakers to describe or model aspects of
what they perceive. In semantics the action of picking out or identifying individuals/
locations with words is called referring/denoting. To some linguists the two terms, denote
and refer are synonymous.
1.2. Reference
Reference is the relationship that holds between a word or expression and the
objects it refers to (called referent).  Reference is variable and utterance - dependent.  By
means of reference, a speaker wants to indicate a particular thing in a particular situation,
not things in general.
2. Sense and reference
2.1. Sense
In a talking sense, we deal with relationships inside language.  The sense of a word
or an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other words/
expressions in the language.  The sense of an expression is an abstraction, not a thing
KDS at all.
2.2. Reference
In talking of reference, we deal with the relationships between language and the
world.  Reference is a relationship between parts of a language and things outside the

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language (in the world).  i.e.  by means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in
the world (including persons) are being talked about.
3. The change and development of meaning change
3.1. Definition of semantic change
Semantic change is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word
usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the
original usage. In diachronic (or historical) linguistics, semantic change is a change in one
of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations, which
can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space
and time have very different meanings. The study of semantic change can be seen as part
of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology, and semantics.
Changes in meaning are as common as changes in form. Like the latter they can be
internally or externally motivated. The equivalent to the paradigm in morphology is, in
semantics, the word field in which words and their meanings stand in a network of
relationships. The alteration of meaning occurs because words are constantly used and
what is intended by speakers is not exactly the same each time. If a different intention for
a word is shared by the speech community and becomes established in usage then a
semantic change has occurred.
For example, Old English ‘fit, suitable’, Modern English fair came to mean
‘pleasant, enjoyable’ then ‘beautiful’ and ‘pleasant in conduct’, from which the second
modern meaning ‘just, impartial’ derives. The first meaning continued to develop in the
sense of ‘of light complexion’ and a third one arose from ‘pleasant’ in a somewhat
pejorative sense, meaning ‘average, mediocre’, e.g. He only got a fair result in his exam.
Gentle was borrowed in Middle English in the sense of ‘born of a good-family, with
a higher social standing’. Later the sense ‘courteous’ and then ‘kind, mild in manners’
developed because these qualities were regarded as qualities of the upper classes.
Lewd (Old English læwede) originally meant ‘non-ecclesiastical, lay’, then came to
mean ‘uneducated, unlearned’ from which it developed into ‘vulgar, lower-class’ and then
through ‘bad-mannered, ignorant’, to ‘sexually insinuating’.
Sophisticated meant ‘unnatural, contaminated’ but now has the sense of ‘urbane,
discriminating’. The word sophistry (from Old French sophistrie) still has its original
meaning of ‘specious, fallacious reasoning’.

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 Artificial originally meant ‘man-made, artful, skillfully constructed’, compare
artifice ‘man-made construction’. But by comparison with ‘natural’ the word came to
acquire a negative meaning because everything which is natural is regarded positively.
Nice (Latin nescius ‘not knowing') is recorded from the 13th century in the sense of
‘foolish’, then it shifted to ‘coy, shy’ and by the 16th century had the meaning ‘fastidious,
dainty, subtle’ from which by the 18th century the sense ‘agreeable, delightful’
developed.
Silly (Old English sēlig ‘happy, fortuitous') had by the 15th century the sense of
‘deserving of pity’ and then developed to ‘ignorant, feeble-minded’ and later ‘foolish’.
Fast (OE fæste ‘firm') later developed the meaning ‘quick’. The original sense is still
seen in steadfast ‘firm in position’.
3.2. Causes of semantic change
The factors accounting for semantic changes may be roughly subdivided into two
groups: a) extra-linguistic and b) linguistic causes.
By extra-linguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of the speech
community, changes in economic and social structure, changes in ideas, scientific
concepts, way of life and other spheres of human activities as reflected in word meanings.
Although objects, institutions, concepts, etc. change in the course of time in many cases
the soundform of the words which denote them is retained but the meaning of the words is
changed. The word car, e.g., ultimately goes back to Latin carrus which meant ‘a four-
wheeled wagon’ (ME. carre) but now that other means of transport are used it denotes ‘a
motor-car’, ‘a railway carriage’ (in the USA), ‘that portion of an airship, or balloon which
is intended to carry personnel, cargo or equipment’.
Some changes of meaning are due to what may be described as purely linguistic
causes, i.e. factors acting within the language system. The commonest form which this
influence takes is the so-called ellipsis. In a phrase made up of two words one of these is
omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner. The verb to starve, e.g., in Old
English (OE. steorfan) had the meaning ‘to die’ and was habitually used in collocation
with the word hunger (ME. sterven of hunger). Already in the 16th century the verb itself
acquired the meaning ‘to die of hunger’. Similar semantic changes may be observed in
Modern English when the meaning of one word is transferred to another because they
habitually occur together in speech.
Another linguistic cause is discrimination of synonyms which can be illustrated by
the semantic development of a number of words. The word land, e.g., in Old English (OE.

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land) meant both ’solid part of earth’s surface’ and ‘the territory of a nation’. When in the
Middle English period the word country (OFr. contree) was borrowed as its synonym, the
meaning of the word land was somewhat altered and ‘the territory of a nation’ came to be
denoted mainly by the borrowed word country.
Some semantic changes may be accounted for by the influence of a peculiar factor
usually referred to as linguistic analogy. It was found out, e.g., that if one of the members
of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning other members of this set change their
meanings too. It was observed, e.g., that all English adverbs which acquired the meaning
‘rapidly’ (in a certain period of time — before 1300) always develop the meaning
‘immediately’, similarly verbs synonymous with catch, e.g. grasp, get, etc., by semantic
extension acquired another meaning — ‘to understand’.
3.3. Nature of semantic change
Semantic change is the process of development of a new meaning or any other
change of meaning.
The meaning of a word or expression may change over time in two respects: either
denotation or the connotation can change or evolve. In particular, the denotation can
develop in two ways as follows.
3.3.1. The denotational meaning may be changed as follows
Widening or extension of meaning:
Extension of meaning is another remarkable resuk of semantic change. It can be
divided into four circumstances:
 The meaning changes from the concrete to abstract. For example, religious referred
to the person who sacrificed himself for religion after swearing in the middle century,
such as monk or nun. No matter how a person was loyal to the religion, he could not be
named as a person who believed in religion, except the monk or nun. But now it refers to
the person who believes in religion in general.
 The meaning changes from the specific to general. The meaning of some English
words was narrow in early times. But with the change of times, its specific meaning is
widened to a general meaning. For example, arrive was used in navigation, especially
referred to the ship to shore. Now it extends to get to a place on foot or by vehicle. The
word “person” meant the body in Chaucer’s time to 19th century. In modern time, it
means individual not body.
 Proper noun is changed to common noun. The proper noun can be changed into
common noun by the metonymy to extend its meaning. For example, utopian means the

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imaginary place or state in which everything is perfect. It is from the Utopia written by
Thomas More.
 The extension of meaning is achieved by figure of speech. The extended meaning
can be vivid and elegant by figure of speech. There are several figures of speech which
can make semantic change: metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole and so on. For example, fox
refers to the cunning person, bee refers to the industrious person and bull refers to the rush
person. Crown refers to monarch, cowl refers to monk, and olive branch refers to peace.
Narrowing or Restriction of Meaning: Restriction or narrowing of meaning refers to
the range of object thing which is reflected is smaller than the original after the semantic
change, that is the change from the general meaning to the specific. For instance, the word
hound was originally the general word for dog but today it only marks its hunting breeds.
Here, the new meaning is more precise, covers only the part of the original
meaning.Another example is fowl its original meaning was bird, but now it refers to a
farmyard bird, especially a hen.
3.3.2. The connotational meaning may be changed in two ways as follows
The degradation of meaning refers to the commendatory word or neutral word
change into derogatory word in the linguistic development. For example, the original
meaning of silly was blessed and happy, Since the blessed people were used to represent
the innocent of evil, its meaning was innocent in the 17th century. Since the innocent
people lived a simple life, so the silly meant simple and simple-minded, while this always
connected with lack of intelligence. So silly means foolish nowadays. So we can show its
semantic change below: blessed and happy-innocent-simple-lack of intelligence-foolish.
The elevation of meaning refers to the derogatory meaning and neutral meaning
change into commendatory meaning. For example, the original meaning of ambassador
was the person who takes a message. Now it was elevated to the meaning that an official
who lives in a foreign country as the senior representative there of his or her own country.
The original meaning of enthusiasm was the religious emotions with scornful meaning.
Now it refers to the zeal without scornful meaning. Its evolution process of meaning was
foolish-simple-shy-modest-discriminating agreeable.
4. Transference of meaning
4.1. Metaphor
4.1.1. Definition 
Metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on the
similarity between these two.

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 In other words, we call one object by the name of another because we compare them
and discover certain similarities. The metaphor may provide clarity or identify hidden
similarities between two different ideas.
E.g: He is the apple of my eyes.
4.1.2. Metaphor & Simile 
A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two things. Similes differ from
other metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using comparison
words such as "like", "as", "so", or " than", while other metaphors create an implicit
comparison.
While both similes and metaphors are used to make comparisons, the difference
between similes and metaphors comes down to a word. Similes use the words “like” or
“as” to compare things, for example “My heart is like an open highway” In contrast,
metaphors directly state a comparison, for example “Love is fire.”
4.1.3. Conceptual metaphor 
A conceptual metaphor is understanding one domain of experience (that is typically
abstract) in terms of another (that is typically concrete).
Example: Argument is war. 

 
In this example, a domain such as War includes a number of components such as
opponents, weapons, attack and defense, victory, and defeat. These components can be
used as the basis for a range of metaphoric expressions representing, generally speaking,
the domain of an Argument (an exchange of thoughts assuming some initial
disagreement, and various procedures and results of those procedures). In talking about an
argument in terms of war (attack someone’s position, win the dispute, etc.), the War
domain is the source of structure, while the Argument is the target.

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4.1.4. Basis of transference
Metaphors can be based on many sorts of resemblances:
a. The similarity of shape. 
E.g: head of a cabbage, bottleneck, eye of a needle, teeth of a saw, teeth of a comb; rails
(for legs).
b. The similarity of position. 
E.g: foot of a page, foot of a mountain, head of a procession.
c. The similarity of function, behavior. 
E.g: bookworm, film star, the key to the mystery.
d. The similarity of color.
E.g: orange, hazel, chestnut, rose, orange
e. The similarity of size.
E.g: elephantine (very big and clumsy), midget (very small) 
f. The similarity of movement.
E.g: She wormed her way back to her bed. 
4.1.5. Classification of metaphor 
a. Living metaphor
A living metaphor gets its force from being a use that is not permitted. It lives
because the words retain their usual meaning
E.g:  
- Her home was a prison, in which the characteristics of prison are trying to assimilate or
compare with the environment of the house.
- She is an early bird, in which the girl is being compared with a bird. Indirectly the
quality of the bird is being given to the girl. 
b. Faded metaphor
A faded metaphor is one that has lost its freshness due to repeated usage and has
become habitual.
E.g:  
- Dying capitalism.
- Golden youth. 
- Fall in love.
c. Dead metaphor
A dead metaphor is a term that has lost its literal meaning and is only used
metaphorically.

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E.g:  
- Nip it in the bud: To nip something in the bud is to stop or suppress it at a very early
stage. The metaphor references snipping a flower bud before it has the opportunity to
bloom.
- In the same boat: If you are in the same boat as someone, it means you are facing a
similar set of circumstances or undergoing the same challenging situation. The metaphor
refers to literally being in the same boat with someone because you can’t get off the boat
and you’ll face the same fate as the other person.
4.1.6. Exercise: Metaphor or Simile
1. My love is like a red, red rose. Simile

2.The giant's steps were thunder when he ran toward Jack.  Metaphor

3. Her eyes were diamonds, sparkling in the bright light.  Metaphor

4. After the three hour trail ride through the hills, Jimmy got off his horse and Simile
waddled like a duck.

5. The pillow was a cloud when I put my head on it after a long day. Metaphor

6. I feel like a limp dishrag. Simile

7. His hair was a haystack when he rolled out of bed to get ready for school.  Metaphor

8. Those girls are like two peas in a pod. Simile

9. You are the light in my life. Metaphor

10. Her heart is gold. Metaphor

Tips : Metaphors: compare 2 unlike objects using “is/are/was”

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           Similes: compare 2 unlike objects using “like” or”as”
4.2. Metonymy
4.2.1. Definition
Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it is associated. In
other words, instead of the name of one object or notion, we use the name of another
because these objects are associated and closely related.
For example: The Pentagon is one of the world's largest and most recognizable
office buildings. (The Pentagon , the headquarters building of the United States
Department of Defense, is a common metonymy used to refer to the U.S. military and its
leadership.)
Metonymy vs Metaphor:
In order to have deep understanding of metonymy, it is really important to make
good distinction between metonymy and metaphor which are two basic means of
transference of meaning.
Metaphor and metonymy are both figures of speech where one word may be used in
place of another. However, especially in cognitive science and linguistics, the two figures
of speech work very differently. Roman Jakobson (2002) argued that they represent two
fundamentally different ways of processing language.
Metonymy works by the contiguity (association) between two concepts, whereas
metaphor works by the similarity between them. When people use metonymy, they do not
typically wish to transfer qualities from one referent to another as they do with metaphor:
there is nothing crown-like about the king, press-like about reporters or plate-like about
an entrée.
The difference between metaphor and metonymy is that metaphor is often used for
the substitution of two words. At the same time, metonymy is used for the association of
the two words. In metonymy, the word used as a replacement has a similar meaning,
whereas in a metaphor this is not the case.
  Metaphor Metonymy
Description A word that is used to express Gives a different type of name to
some other specific term. a specific word.

Uses Used for the substitution of two Used for the association of the
words. two words.

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Uses in different Used in poetries, music, literature, Used in writing the movie
fields speeches, etc. dialogues. Poeties, song, etc.

examples Kisses are the flowers of the Silicon Valley used to refer to the
affection. tech industry
4.2.2. Basic of transference
Material, causal or conceptual relation:
a. Place – for – institution:
Example: Hollywood isn’t what it used to be.
A district of Los Angeles, California. The American film industry.
b. Thing – for – perception:
c. Object – for – possessor:
d. Part – for – whole: often by means of either mentioning a part for the whole or
conversely the whole for one of its parts.
Example: The perfect set of wheels for the young racer.
In this example, set of wheels refers to the whole car.
e. Place – for – event:
Example: Pearl Harbor still has an effect on our foreign policy.
“Pearl Harbor” refers to the attack on Pearl Harborwas a surprise military strike by the
Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States (a neutral country at the time)
against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii
4.2.3. Cases of metonymy
a. The name of container instead of the thing contained:
When one thing contains another, it can frequently be used metonymically, as when
"dish" is used to refer not to a plate but to the food it contains, or as when the name of a
building is used to refer to the entity it contains, as when "Washington", "the White
House" or "the Pentagon" are used to refer to the U.S. government, presidential staff or
military leadership, respectively.
Examples: The hall applauded.
               To drink a glass.
  Original use Metonymic
sense
Hall a building or large room used for events involving a lot of people People in the

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 hall.
Glas a small container for drinks made of glass or similar material, Water in glass.
s with a flat base and usually with no handle

b. Name of parts of human body as symbols:

Human beings in the process of using language firstly got to know about their own
body and gave names to its parts. Later, when they discover the world outside, they
compared the surrounding objects with their own body. Hence the names of parts of
human body are transferred to denote many other things or parts of thing in the real world.
In that case we have “metaphor”. However, sometimes names of parts of human body are
used to be the symbol for characteristics of a kind of person.
Examples: His little son has a really clever head.
   She is famous for her kind heart.
  Metonymic sense
Clever It’s a symbol of an intelligent person.
head

Kind heart It’s a symbol of a kind person.

Head is normally considered as the most important part of the body which control
the operation of the whole body and it contains your brain which has direct relation to a
person’s intelligence. So if that person is very clever, the word “head” is employed to
symbol that characteristic. The same way of explanation also works effectively in the case
of the next example about “kind heart” to refer to a kind person.
c. The concrete instead of the abstract:
Concrete is defined as what you can see or feel. Abstract, however, is something
existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical reality. It is normally hard to
express something abstract, so people tend to use the concrete to visualize the abstract, to
give it “a physical reality”. Let’s consider the following examples
Examples: Your goal of becoming a teacher is a worthy one. With all the crosscurrent in
society today that has not been easy.
     That advice has been a big help to me when troubles have come – and they do
come.

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   Original use Metonymic sense
Crosscurren a current of water that flow across the cross of different ideas and beliefs
t the main current

Come move toward a person or a place happen

 
d. The materials instead of the things made of the materials:
In many cases people find it is not easy to name something and they are not sure
about what is the most appropriate way to call it. Then, the name of materials are taken to
name their products.
Examples: Do you have any coppers?
  Original use Metonymic
sense

Coppe a chemical element that is a reddish-brown metal, used Coin

r especially for making wire and coins.

 
Here coppers (copper) refers to coins made from copper, so this sentence is
understood as “Do you have any coins instead of you have some?”
e. The name of the author instead of his works:
Author and his works share a very close relation and his name can normally not be
separated from his works. That seems to be the reasons why authors’ names are
transferred to denote their works.
Examples: He’s got a Picasso.
            If you like to see sunflower paintings then Vincent is a suggestion for you.
  Original use Metonymic sense

Picasso Name of a Dutch artist. Picasso’s work

Vincent Name of a Spanish  painter Vincent’s works
 
f. Part for the whole and vice versa:

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 The relation between a part and a whole is always easy to be seen, so that metonymy
can base on this relation to transfer the meaning of words.
Examples:    Can you see a sail on the horizon?
                  She is wearing a fox.
  Original use Metonymic sense
Sai a part of the boat which the wind blows against to boat
l make the boat travel through the water

Fo a wild animal of the dog family with reddish brown the skin and fur of the fox
x fur, a pointed face and a thick heavy tail used to make coats

 
g. Items of clothing instead of the one who wears them:
Are we boys going to be beaten by a bunch of skirts? Here is a DRESS FOR
PEOPLE metonymy. Skirt is the typical dress of women
h. Symbol to refer to representative:
The convention of using capital cities to represent countries or their governments is
another example of metonymy.
Example: Beijing has issued an official response to this incident.
                  The power of the crown was mortally weakened.
  Original use Metonymic sense

Beijin Name of China’s capital The Chinese government, particularly the

g leadership

Crown A type of monarchical Monarchy, especially the British monarchy (as

headwear "The Crown")

 
i. Spatial relation:
j. Causal relation:
k. Functional relation:
l. Geographical relation:

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 According to the definition of Lakoff and Johnson (2008), metonymy is divided into
6 common types. His division is quite common, easy to understand, and complements
some of the missing parts in the division of traditional metonymy.
·       Producer for product:
Example: He bought a Ford.
  Original use Metonymic sense
For Name of a car brand Ford’s product.
d
·       Object used for user:
Example: the buses are on strike.
  Original use Metonymic sense
buse Name of a car brand Ford’s product.
s
 
·       Controller for controlled:
Example: Napoleon lost at Waterloo.
  Original use Metonymic sense
Napoleo Name of a car brand Ford’s product.
n
 
·       Institution for people responsible:
Example: Exxon has raised its prices again.
  Original use Metonymic sense
Exxo Name of a car brand Ford’s product.
n
 
·       The place for the institution:
Example: The White House isn’t saying anything.
  Original use Metonymic sense
The White Name of a car brand Ford’s product.
House
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·       The place for the event
4.2.4. Exercise
1. We've got some new blood in the organization.
Name of parts of human body as symbols. Since the organization is thought of as a
person, new people are just like new blood, making the organization stronger and more
energetic.
2. Moscow and Washington will hold talks on this problem.
Symbol to refer to representative: The words “hold talks” create a schema in which the
salient element is the participants—the countries or regions representing different
interests. Therefore the capital where the government locates comes to the foreground.
Here readers’ attention is focused on the Russian government and the American
government rather than the two cities Moscow and Washington
3. He has been called to the bar.
Institution for people responsible: The word “bar” has several meanings listed in the
dictionary. One of them is “the division in a court of law” which is used metonymically to
refer to the lawyers. Therefore “be called to the bar” has developed into a set phrase
which means “to become a lawyer”
4. The conquerors smote the city.
  The name of container instead of the thing contained: The inhabitants of the city.
5. The letters have been bogged down in bureaucratic red tape.
to refer to the complicated bureaucratic procedures.
6. The best part of working at night is that the suits have gone home.
Items of clothing instead of the one who wears them: By referring to accountants and
managers via the suits that they wear.
7. The kind of character we often find in Dickens.
The name of the author instead of his works: In this example, the producer (Dickens)
refers metonymically to his product (i.e. books written by Charles Dickens).
8. Jennifer was wearing leathers, having arrived as usual on her motorbike.
The materials instead of the things made of the materials:  the word leathers relates to the
protective clothing that is worn by motor cyclists.
9. Gary hairs should be respected.
Part for the whole and vice versa: gray hairs refer to old or elder people.
10. The princess captures the hearts of the nation.

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The concrete instead of the abstract: the hearts which is organ of the human body and thus
concrete, is used to stand for the love, which is emotional experience and thus abstract.
4.3. Hyperbole
4.3.1. Definition
Hyperbole is a figure of speech and literacy method that uses deliberate
exaggeration to achieve heightened effect. When you use words to exaggerate or
emphasize a point, you're using hyperbole. It's frequently employed to make something
seem much bigger and better than it is, or to make something sound much more dramatic
than it truly is.
Hyperbole in writing and speech can add a dramatic or serious effect to a statement
depending on how it’s used.
With hyperbole Without hyperbole

The game is taking forever. The game is taking a long time.

This helmet is hurting my chin. This helmet is killing me.

 
In fact, the game isn’t actually taking forever, and the helmet isn’t killing anyone,
but adding that wording is more creative.
4.3.2. Example
-       Hyperbole is used for everyday speech: In these common, everyday examples of
hyperbole, you’ll see the sentiment isn’t realistic, but it helps to stress the point.  
+  “There is not enough food in the cupboard to feed an entire army”.
In this case, the speaker is not implying that there is enough food in the cupboard to feed
the army's hundreds of soldiers. Instead, the speaker employs hyperbole to emphasize the
extent of their good fortune.
+  Jane is really hungry. She might tell her friend “I am so hungry, I could eat a
dinosaur.” Obviously she’s exaggerating; not even a competitive eater could eat a whole
dinosaur. Jane is simply trying to get her friend to understand that she is much hungrier
than usual.
+  If I can’t buy that perfect dress, I will die!
In this example, the speaker won’t die just do not buy the dress. Instead, the speaker is
using hyperbole to exaggerate the great interest and desire to buy the dress.
+ I have told you to clean your room a million times.

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In example, the speaker doesn’t mean that he/she told million times. Instead, the speaker
use hyperbole to exaggerate the complaint with the laziness of his/ her children.
+ After a long day of walking, my feet were killing me.
The writer does not want to imply that her feet were actively causing her death. She
simply means that her feet hurt from all of her walking. She could have just said so, but
the hyperbole paints a more vivid picture of her misery.
+ This is the worst film in the world.
The speaker doesn’t literally mean that the film is the worst, but is using hyperbole to be
dramatic and emphasize their opinion “they don’t like it or the film doesn’t impress
them.”
-        Hyperbole in Poetry and Literature: It's frequently utilized in poetry and books to
highlight a certain aspect of the story and elicit a response from the reader. Hyperbole can
aid the writer in conveying their message so that you comprehend the situation's emotion,
severity, or humor. Authors utilize hyperbole to exaggerate any scenario or emotion, and
it can be employed in a humorous or serious manner.
+  In her book ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’, the author Harper Lee writes:
“A day was twenty-four hours long but seemed longer. There was no hurry, for there was
nowhere to go, nothing to buy and no money to buy it with, nothing to see outside the
boundaries of Maycomb County.”
In this example, the author is using hyperbole to emphasize how slow and boring the town
is because no hurry, nowhere to go, nothing to buy and no money. The hyperbolic phrases
in this sentence help the reader to understand the situation as, without them, the sentence
doesn’t appear as emotive.
+  William Shakespeare, Macbeth
After killing King Duncan in Act II, Scene 2, Macbeth realizes there is no way to absolve
himself of his sin:
“ Neptune’s ocean wash this blood
Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather
The multitudinous seas incarnadine,
Making the green one red”.
Macbeth's shame makes him feel as if his hands would never be clean again—a
exaggerated sensation in and of itself. He underlines this by claiming that if he tried to
"wash his hands," the green waters would turn red. This stunning hyperbole, which comes

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at the climax of the play's increasing action, emphasizes Macbeth's shame and revulsion
after killing King Duncan.
-        Hyperbole in Advertising: Many advertising campaigns and slogans feature
hyperbole as a way to attract customers to their products.

+ This toothpaste ad is highly inventive, but it's also very exaggerated. Even with a good
toothpaste that claims to "grow strong teeth," one's teeth will never be strong enough to
bite and tear something apart like that. If you accept a lesser version of this promise, you
can conclude that this toothpaste will strengthen your teeth enough to bite through more
reasonable objects like a tough steak or an apple.

+ “Adds amazing luster for infinite, mirror-like shine” for Brilliant Brunette shampoo.
The hyperbole in this shampoo statement is that it produces an infinite mirror-like sheen.
A shampoo, regardless of brand, cannot provide infinite shine or even shine similar to that
of a mirror. Many individuals who see this commercial, on the other hand, may believe
the weaker claim that this sort of shampoo gives a long-lasting and beautiful shine that
makes it worthwhile to buy and use.

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+ Other examples:
+ Red Bull gives you wings (Red Bull)
+ The king of beers (Budweiser)
+ Nothing runs like a Deere. (John Deere)
-       Hyperbole is used in songs, movies lines, etc.  Similar to a well-delivered speech,
hyperbole can help paint a vivid picture or express a strong emotion in the lyrics of a
song.
+ “Cry me a river”, Justin Timberlake
Now there's just no chance
With you and me
There'll never be
Don't it make you sad about it?
Cry me a river
In fact, it is impossible for someone to cry a river, Justin use hyperbole to show the
character’s emotion in the song.
+ California Gurls, Katy Perry
“ Sun – kissed skin so hot we’ll melt your POPSICLE” Well, if your skin is hot enough to
melt POPSICLE, you’d probably be suffering from a sunburn.
-       Hyperbole in speeches: When hyperbole is carefully placed into a speech, it can help
you really punch your points. A tiny bit of exaggeration may be enough to perk up the
ears of your audience.
+  "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of human talent, of human knowledge,
that has ever been gathered at the White House — with the possible exception of when
Thomas Jefferson dined alone." – White House dinner honoring Nobel Prize winners,
President John F. Kennedy.
+ "So first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear
itself." – First Inaugural Address, Franklin Delano.
4.4. Litotes
4.4.1. Definition
Litotes is a figure of speech in which a phrase is used to communicate a positive
declaration or statement using negative phrasing or concepts. Litotes is a bit of an
exaggeration. It does, however, include a double negative for effect.

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 The use of double negatives makes a litotes appear more complex, which makes it
easier to memorize. It is a litotes as long as it does not directly state the author's idea, such
as an understatement.
For example:
With no litotes: All in all, she was a good dancer
With litotes: All in all, she was not a bad dancer.
4.4.2. Example
-        Litotes in everyday conversation: Litotes are frequently encountered in regular
English conversation. A litotes can be difficult to understand. It is not always advisable in
ordinary life, especially when dealing with difficulties of clarity. When you want to spice
up your prose and make your readers ponder, throw them an ironic litotes or two. They'll
be grateful for the opportunity to use their brain muscles.
In other words, Litotes uses a negative word and an opposite adjective to describe
someone or something.
Normal With litotes

He’s similar his older brother. He’s not unlike his older brother.

The weather is pleasant. The weather is not unpleasant.

Visiting family is common. Visiting family is not uncommon.

I agree with your point of view. I can’t disagree with your point of view.  

My car was expensive. My car was not cheap.

These ideas on the matter are useful. These ideas on the matter are not useless.

 
-        Litotes in Literature: Litotes is not utilized frequently as a literary device in
literature. However, it is featured in some important literary works as a mean of gaining a
reader’s attention and expressing meaning in an understand way.
+  The Prelude: Book 1: Childhood and School-time (William Wordsworth)
“ Not seldom from the uproar I retired
Into a silent bay, or sportively
Glanced sideway, leaving the tumultuous throng,
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To cut across the image of a star
That gleam’d upon the ice”
Wordsworth uses litotes in his poetry by combining the words "not" and "seldom."
By saying "not seldom," the poet implies that he means "frequently." In this approach, he
conveys a sense of understatement about how frequently he removes himself from a
crowded or hectic setting to admire visuals and the presence of nature. Wordsworth's use
of litotes as a literary device gives the reader and the poet a sense of poetic language and
contemplation. As a result, by downplaying the poet's frequent forays into nature, it really
underlines the significance of the activity. The litotes allows the escape to become
significant for the reader as well.
+ “The sword was not useless to the warrior.” – Beowulf.
-        Litotes is most often used in nonfiction and rhetoric because it successfully helps a
speaker communicate his argument.
+  Indeed, it is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and quarrel among themselves
about the relative goodness of their masters, each contending for the superior goodness of
his own over that of the others. (Frederick Douglass).
The phrase “not uncommon” is an example of litotes. Two negatives are used to express
the contrary: That it is actually common for this to occur. Douglass employs a type of
irony here by using litotes. It's remarkable that slaves would fight over their masters'
"goodness" since none of their lords were actually "good." Douglass is likely using litotes
to underline how frequent this practice was.
-       Litotes in Disney Movie Lines: Litotes is a figure of speech used in many Disney
films to emphasize a positive or to highlight understatement by employing double
negative language. This compels the audience to consider the statement's true meaning.
+ This is no ordinary lamp! (Disney’s Aladdin)
+ Now, Pooh was not the sort to give up easily. (Disney’s The Many Adventures of
Winnie the Pooh)
+  Sometimes the right path is not the easiest one. (Disney’s Pocahontas)
=> Like any figure of speech or literary device, it’s important for writers to not overuse
litotes. Incorporating frequent litotes can be distracting, tiresome, and repetitious for a
reader. This results in a loss of effectiveness for this form of figurative language. 

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4.5.  Irony
The term “irony” is taken from rhetoric. Irony expresses meaning by words of the
opposite sense. Here, it is important to note that intonation has a very essential role to
play in getting this message across.
Examples:
-      His friend’s hand was as soft as a rock. →In this context, “soft” means “horny”
-      Their new boss was as civilized as a shark. →In this context, “civilized” means
“cruel”
Examples in specific context:
Many common phrases and situations reflect irony. Irony often stems from an
unanticipated response (verbal irony) or an unexpected outcome (situational irony). Here
are some common examples of verbal and situational irony:
Verbal Irony:
·  Telling a quiet group, “Don’t everybody speak all at once”
·  Coming home to a big mess and saying, “It’s great to be back”
·  Telling a rude customer to “Have a nice day”
·  Walking into an empty theater and asking, “It’s too crowded”
·  Stating during a thunderstorm, “Beautiful weather we’re having”
Situational Irony:
·  A fire station that burns down
·  A t-shirt with a “Buy American” logo that is made in China
·  Marriage counselor divorcing third wife
·  Leaving a car wash at the beginning of a downpour
·  A dentist needing a root canal
=> Verbal and situational irony are each a violation of a reader’s expectations and
conventional knowledge. When it comes to verbal irony, the reader may be expecting a
character’s statement or response to be one thing though it turns out to be the opposite.
For situational irony, the reader may anticipate an event’s outcome in one way though it
turns out to happen in a completely different way.
Irony in Literature
Example: Not Waving but Drowning (Stevie Smith)
Nobody heard him, the dead man,
But still he lay moaning:
I was much further out than you thought

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And not waving but drowning.
This stanza reflects Smith’s many uses of dramatic irony in her poem. The reader is
aware that the “dead” man is actually still alive, though “nobody” hears him. In addition,
the reader has the understanding and knowledge that the man in the poem was not waving
as those who saw him believed him to be. Instead, the man was signalling for help
because he was drowning.
The dramatic irony in this poem is significant on many levels. The reader is fully
informed as to the situation of the dead man, yet is powerless to influence the people
around him to understand the situation. Therefore, this irony reflects the poem’s portrayal
of the consequences of miscommunication and misunderstanding among people.
4.6. Euphemisms
Euphemisms involve the use of a milder expression for something unpleasant.
Euphemism refers to figurative language designed to replace phrasing that would
otherwise be considered harsh, impolite, or unpleasant. This literary device allows for
someone to say what they mean indirectly, without using literal language, as a way of
softening the impact of what is being said. The reason for this would be for the sake of
politeness, discretion, and other means of mitigating communication. Euphemisms are
used for certain abstractions such as death, sex, aging, getting fired, bodily functions, and
others.
Examples: “big boned” or “horizontally challenged” are used instead of “fat”
Examples in specific context:
Common Examples of Euphemism: There are many common examples of euphemism
used in everyday conversation and writing. Here are some well-known uses of this figure
of speech:
·  “see a man about a horse” instead of “go to the bathroom”
·  “friends with benefits” instead of “friends having sex”
·  “economically challenged” instead of “poor”
·  “between jobs” instead of “unemployed”
·  “split” instead of “divorce”
·  “well-off” instead of “rich”
Examples of Euphemism for Death
One of the most common abstractions to be replaced by euphemism is death. Using
euphemism to express death and dying may be a way to avoid confronting mortality or to

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gain some emotional distance from a sad circumstance. Here are some examples of
euphemism used to express death or dying:
·  Passed away
·  Gone
·  Pushing up daisies
·  Resting in peace
·  Going to a better place
·  Eternal slumber
·  Over the rainbow bridge (for pets and animals)
Examples of Euphemism in Literature: Euphemism is an effective literary device.
Example: The Catcher in the Rye (J.D. Salinger)
“‘What’d you do?’ I said. ‘Give her the time in Ed Banky’s goddam car?’”
In this quote from Salinger’s novel, the main character Holden Caulfield is
questioning one of his fellow students, Stradlater, about his date with a girl named Jane.
Holden essentially grew up with Jane, and he knows that Stradlater is something of a
sexual predator when it comes to girls. However, Holden can’t bring himself to directly
ask Stradlater what happened on their date, and especially whether Stradlater and Jane
had sex.
Therefore, Holden uses the euphemism “give her the time” to indirectly indicate
what he wants to know. In addition, this euphemism is helpful as a literary device for the
reader who wants to know the same information as Holden. By utilizing a euphemism
rather than asking outright about the sexual encounter, both Holden and the reader can
hope that Stradlater will provide an answer.

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