J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
DOI 10.1007/s10964-006-9126-6
Parent Relationships, Emotion Regulation, Psychosocial Maturity
and College Student Alcohol Use Problems
Judith L. Fischer · Larry F. Forthun ·
Boyd W. Pidcock · Duane A. Dowd
Received: 2 March 2006 / Accepted: 2 August 2006 / Published online: 13 September 2006


C Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2006
Abstract This study tested associations between problems
in parent-youth relationships and problems with alcohol use
among college students (N = 1592) using structural equa-
tion modeling. Hypotheses were that relationships between
both substance-specific parenting factors (parental drinking)
and non-substance-specific parenting factors (parental intru-
sive control and lack of support) and college student drinking
behaviors would be mediated by the developmental tasks of
managing difficult emotions and establishing a mature psy-
chosocial identity. Sex, ethnicity and age were entered as
control variables in the analyses and were tested for moder-
ating effects. Results showed that the unconstrained model
for males and females differed significantly from a model in
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the National Council
on Family Relations Annual Meeting, November, 2004, Orlando,
Florida.
J. L. Fischer (
)
Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Texas
Tech University,
Lubbock, TX 79409, Research interests in college student alcohol
misuse.
e-mail: judith.fischer@ttu.edu
L. F. Forthun
Department Human Development & Family Studies, Penn State
University DuBois, College Place,
DuBois, PA 15801, Research interests in adolescent psychosocial
maturity.
B. W. Pidcock
Department of Counseling Psychology, Lewis & Clark College,
Portland, OR 97219-7899, Research interests in college student
alcohol misuse.
D. A. Dowd
School of Human Ecology, Louisiana Tech University,
P.O. Box 3167, Ruston, LA 71272, Research interests in young
adult relationships.
Springer
which the two groups were constrained to be similar. Among
young women, emotion regulation and psychosocial matu-
rity were partial mediators of the effects of parent problems
on alcohol use problems. Among young men, parent prob-
lems were indirectly related to alcohol use problems through
emotion regulation. Implications for alcohol use prevention
activities on college campuses are discussed.
Keywords College students . Alcohol use . Psychosocial
maturity . Emotion . Parent psychological control . Parent
support . Parent drinking
With frequent and excessive drinking, college students are
at a high risk for alcohol related problems (Wechsler et al.,
1994, 2000). Problems associated with alcohol misuse af-
fect the students themselves as well as the lives of other
students (Wechsler et al., 1994, 2000). Past research has ex-
amined a variety of familial and developmental antecedents
to alcohol use among college students to better understand
the complex nature of alcohol misuse and its often risky
consequences (see Ham and Hope, 2003 for a review). The
research continues to point to parenting styles and behaviors
as important influences on alcohol use problems even into
the college years (Ham and Hope, 2003). At the same time,
research continues to show a disparity between those who
misuse alcohol and those who do not on a variety of de-
velopmental indicators including psychosocial development
(Bishop et al., 1997; Jones and Hartmann, 1988) and emo-
tion regulation (Windle and Davies, 1999). Given the impact
that family relationships have on children, it is important to
include both parenting factors and developmental consider-
ations in an examination of alcohol use and misuse among
college students.
This study examines a mediational model where parent
factors are identified as specific stressors that contribute
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
Fig. 1 Model–Dashed lines are
control variable paths, solid age
lines are paths of parent,
development and alcohol use
variables
ethnicity
PARENT
PROBLEMS
PARENT
ALCOHOL
PROBLEMS
to the alcohol use problems of college students but whose
influences are partially mediated by the student’s ability to
regulate difficult emotions and develop healthy psychosocial
strengths (see Fig. 1). Tested as well are the possibilities that
these influences may be fully mediated (Baron and Kenny,
1986) or indirectly related (Holmbeck, 1997; Preacher and
Hayes, 2004). Partial mediation is supported when the inde-
pendent and mediating variables are significantly related to
the outcome. Full mediation occurs when the prior significant
path between the independent variable and the dependent
variable is nonsignificant after the mediator is introduced.
Indirect effects occur when there is no prior significant path
between the independent and dependent variable but there
are significant independent to intermediate variable effects
and significant intermediate to dependent variable effects.
Conceptual model
Parental influences
The predictor variables in the model include both substance-
specific parenting factors and non-substance-specific par-
enting factors (Jacob and Johnson, 1997). A substance-
specific parenting factor includes parent’s own use of alcohol
(Jacob and Johnson, 1997). Offspring with a family history
of alcoholism are at increased risk of experiencing problems
with alcohol compared to offspring with no family history
913
PSYCHO-
SOCIAL
MATURITY
EMOTION
REGULATION
ALCOHOL USE
PROBLEMS
sex
Model
of alcoholism (Pandina and Johnson, 1990). Parents’ prob-
lematic drinking provides modeling of the use and abuse of
substances (Kandel and Andrews, 1987) and generates ex-
pectancies about the effects of alcohol (Zucker et al., 2000).
Moreover, exposure to parental alcoholism may have en-
during effects. DeLucia et al. (2001) theorized that once
offspring have initiated alcohol use as a result of exposure to
parental alcoholism, the child’s continued use is independent
of changes in the alcoholic parent’s drinking. In this study,
youth perceptions of problematic alcohol use by parents are
assessed.
Two non-substance-specific parenting factors negatively
related to offspring drinking problems are parental attach-
ment and behavioral control (Bell et al., 2000; Stone et al.,
2002). Parent-child relationships that are characterized by
a combination of supervision and support/attachment have
been related both concurrently and longitudinally to re-
duced substance use among adolescents (Adalbjarnardottir
and Hafsteinsson, 2001). By contrast, parent-child relation-
ships characterized by poor supervision or a lack of sup-
port/attachment are associated with increased frequency of
substance use and abuse (Barnow et al., 2002). In the case of
the latter, the emerging demands for autonomy on the part of
adolescents may disrupt parent-child attachments and lead
to a change in the behaviors of parents attempting to mon-
itor the activities of their children (Dishion and McMahon,
1998). If efforts to monitor the child fail, parents may re-
sort to psychological control. They may also routinely use
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such parenting practices. Control attempts that emphasize
manipulation, exploitation of the parent-child bond, nega-
tive expressions, criticisms and excessive personal control
(Barber, 1996) are related to poorer psychological well be-
ing as well as to both internalizing and externalizing prob-
lems in adolescents (Barber and Harmon, 2002; Stone et al.,
2002). Likewise, disruptions in parental support have neg-
ative effects on substance use, effects that are mediated by
adolescent self-control (Wills et al., 2004).
In this study, “parent problems” was a predictor variable
and was assessed by the offspring’s perceptions of parental
psychological control and poor connection with parents. In
addition, the model predicts that parent alcohol problems are
related to these non-alcohol-specific parent problems that
are in turn associated with such outcomes as offspring al-
cohol misuse (Bijttebier et al., 2006; Wampler et al., 1993).
Figure 1 reflects this partial mediation model among parental
alcohol problems, parenting problems, and outcomes.
Mediating factors: Emotion regulation and psychosocial
maturity
Theory and research support the view that the influences
of both substance-specific and non-substance-specific par-
enting factors are partially mediated by the developmental
tasks of regulating emotions and establishing psychosocial
strengths. According to Chickering and Reisser (1993), and
consistent with other developmental theorists (e.g., Erikson,
1968), the ability to manage and regulate emotions is im-
portant during times of transition or crisis. The transition
to college involves numerous changes, including decisions
about alcohol use and the management of difficult emotions.
A positive transition is facilitated when individuals are able
to control which emotions they will experience and how they
will express them (Gross, 1998).
From a functionalist perspective, only events that are
important to the person arouse the emotions and provide
the subjective motivation to pursue goal-directed behavior
(Campos et al., 1994). However, emotional arousal can be
both positive and negative. Of concern is when the adoles-
cent response to parental stress caused by parent alcohol
use, poor connection, or psychological control, results in
negative emotional states such as depression or frustration
(Stone et al., 2002; Windle and Davies, 1999). Negative
emotional states often lead to efforts by the individual to
manage or minimize the source of the problem or emotion
(Cooper et al., 1995). When unsuccessful, these efforts may
result in attempts by the adolescent to artificially alleviate the
negative feelings through use of alcohol or other illicit sub-
stances (Catanzaro and Laurent, 2004; Kassel et al., 2000).
In fact, the inability to regulate emotions and behaviors has
been implicated in the development of alcohol use disorders
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J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
(Cooper et al., 1995; Iacono et al., 1999). Figure 1 includes
pathways where parent alcohol and parent problems are re-
lated to emotion regulation and these are related to alcohol
use problems.
Similarly, difficulty in managing negative emotions may
result in arrested psychosocial development. According to
Chickering and Reisser (1993) and Erikson (1968), an im-
portant developmental task for emerging adults and college
students is developing a healthy sense of identity. Identity
is defined as a stable sense of self, of knowing “who one
is” and “where one is going” (Erikson, 1968). This stable
sense of identity is supported by various developmental as-
sets, or strengths, including competence, purpose, and in-
tegrity (Chickering and Reisser, 1993; Erikson, 1968). Neg-
ative emotions alert the individual to important events (both
internal and external) that may impact the evolving sense
of self. However, if negative emotions are left unmanaged
or are poorly managed, emotion-based psychosocial goals
become disorganized and unfocused and psychological de-
velopment is arrested. Research by Nurmi et al. (1997) links
emotions and psychosocial development. College students
with a less mature identity style had the highest levels of
depressive symptoms and difficulty in delaying gratification
(Nurmi et al., 1997). Furthermore, this less mature profile is
linked with alcohol use and abuse (Bishop et al., 1997; Jones
and Hartmann, 1988). Thus, the model depicts connections
between emotion regulation and psychosocial maturity and
between both of these developmental tasks and alcohol use
problems.
Control variables and moderating effects
The literature suggests that the relationships among the vari-
ables in the model may differ based on sex of the partici-
pant. Although national surveys of alcohol use consistently
show that females, as compared to males, are much less
likely to consume alcohol and experience alcohol-related
problems (Clements, 1999), these reflect average between
group differences. In order for sex to be a moderator, it
must alter the nature of the associations among variables. A
variety of psychosocial correlates of alcohol use differ by
gender (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Research suggests that fe-
males may be more sensitive to family disruption and are
more likely to respond with increased alcohol consumption
(Coffelt et al., 2006). Likewise, there is a stronger rela-
tionship between psychosocial self-esteem and alcohol con-
sumption among women than men (Walitzer and Sher, 1996).
On the other hand, men are more likely to report drinking as
a means to cope with emotional distress (Park and Levenson,
2002). These differences would suggest that both substance-
specific and non-substance specific parenting factors in our
model may be more strongly related to alcohol problems
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
for females. Additionally, low psychosocial maturity may be
more strongly associated with alcohol problems for females
whereas emotion regulation should be a stronger correlate
for males.
Ethnicity is another potential moderator of the associa-
tions in the proposed model. Research indicates that Euro-
pean American youth report higher consumption and conse-
quences of alcohol use with Hispanic Americans next and
African Americans lowest (Ham and Hope, 2003; Johnstone,
1994). These differences suggest that ethnicity is at least a
correlate of drinking patterns and consequences. It may be
that the alcohol use differences among diverse youth are re-
lated differentially to the variables in this study, but research
(Bray et al., 2003) found that the processes of individuation
(involving autonomy, identity, and intimacy) were similar
across European American, Hispanic American, and African
American adolescents. On the one hand, differences in levels
of alcohol use are expected, but whether associations among
variables, such as those that involve psychosocial maturity,
vary by ethnicity is uncertain. With a lack of precision in
efforts to measure ethnicity (Johnstone, 1994), and the small
percentages of ethnically diverse youth in colleges such as
those used in this study, there are limitations in this study to
full consideration of the role of ethnic diversity.
A final possible moderator in this study is age. Age is
related to alcohol consumption in that drinking reaches a
peak at 19 or 20 and declines afterwards (Johnstone, 1994)
justifying its inclusion as a control variable. Younger college
students would have had more recent at-home experiences
with parents than older college students, thus, having possi-
bly stronger associations of parent variables with other vari-
ables. In this case, age would act as a moderating variable.
Thus, sex, ethnicity, and age are included in Fig. 1 as exoge-
nous variables and they are tested as possible moderators.
Summary and predictions
In this study, the ability to manage difficult emotions and
the attainment of psychosocial maturity were identified as
important partial mediating factors between problems with
parents, both substance specific and non-substance spe-
cific, and alcohol problems. Consistent with our model,
previous research has demonstrated a link between lack of
parental support and connection with difficulty managing
emotions (Catanzaro and Laurent, 2004). Likewise, research
has demonstrated a link between parent problems and diffi-
culty in acquiring psychosocial strengths (Fullinwider-Bush
and Jacobvitz, 1993; Grotevant and Cooper, 1985; Perosa
et al., 1996). Finally, research suggests that alcohol use is
greater among those who have difficulty managing emo-
tions (Windle and Davies, 1999) and those who are less psy-
915
chosocially mature (Bishop et al., 1997). Thus, the model
illustrates predictions that parent alcohol problems and par-
ent problems are related to offspring alcohol use problems
through disruption in the developmental tasks of emotion
regulation and psychosocial strengths (see Fig. 1). Within
this overall model, there are also specific predictions of how
parent variables are related to each other and how devel-
opmental variables are related to each other. First, parent
alcohol problems have direct and mediated paths to other
variables in the study through parent problems. Second, emo-
tion regulation has direct and mediated paths to alcohol use
problems through psychosocial maturity. Finally, because
demographic variables may have an impact on the levels
of the variables of the study as well as on the associations
among the variables of the study, sex, ethnicity and age are
tested for their effects within the model and as moderators
of the model effects.
Method
Participants
College students were recruited in their classes on three state-
assisted campuses in the northeast, the south, and the south-
west. Institutional IRB approval was obtained on all three
campuses. The anonymous volunteers represented a wide
range of majors, ages, and family incomes. The sample used
for this study was composed of 1,592 college students, 1,064
(66%) women and 528 men (34%). Their ages ranged from
18–25 years with a mean of 20.2 and a standard deviation
of 1.5. Eighty-six percent were White/Non-Hispanic, with
5% Hispanic and 6% African American. The remaining par-
ticipants identified themselves as Asian American/Pacific
Islander (1%), Native American/American Indian (< 1%) or
other (2%). Parents’ household incomes ranged from under
$15,000 to over $100,000 with a mean in the $60,000 to
$75,000 range. Among the students who ever used alcohol
(84%), the average onset was in the middle of the 9th grade.
The collection of data from three campuses provided a wider
array of college contexts than would the use of data from only
one campus. The few participants with missing data (n = 27,
1.7%) were deleted from the data set of 1,619. Examination
of differences between the original data set and the non-
missing data set found negligible differences and supported
dropping the participants with missing data.
Measures
There were five latent variables included in the model. The
predictor variables were (a) Parent Alcohol Problems and
(b) Parent Problems. The intermediate variables were (c)
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Emotion Regulation, and (d) Psychosocial Maturity. The de-
pendent variable was (e) Alcohol Use Problems.
Parent alcohol problems
The Children’s Alcohol Screening Test CAST-6 identi-
fied problems offspring experience with parents that arise
because of the parents’ drinking (Hodgins and Shimp, 1995).
The CAST-6 consisted of 6 items answered with a yes/no
format. This scale is a shorter version of the Children’s
Alcoholism Screening Test or CAST (Jones, 1983). It has
been used successfully in research involving college students
(Pidcock et al., 2000) and is a recognized screening tool to
identify children of alcoholics (Bijttebier et al., 2006). The
CAST-6 was chosen for the alcohol-specific parenting mea-
sure because it specifically assesses the degree of impact
of parental drinking on the participant. Children may not
know how much or how frequently their parent drinks but
they can identify whether they’ve been in an argument with
a drinking parent or if they wished their parent would stop
drinking. A sample item was “Did you ever argue or fight
with a parent when he or she was drunk.” Cronbach’s alpha
was .90. High scores indicated more problems with parents’
drinking (Parent Alcohol Problems) whereas a score of zero
indicated no problems either because parents did not drink
or because parental drinking was not problematic to the off-
spring. In order to provide indicators for a latent variable, the
six items were parceled over three indicators, termed castA,
castB, and castC. CastA reflected the belief that the parent
has a problem with alcohol and a wish that the parent would
stop drinking. CastB indicated encouragement to the parent
to quit and the wish to hide alcohol from the parent. Finally,
castC reported that parents argued with each other and the
adolescent when drunk.
Parent problems
There were two indicators of non-substance-specific par-
enting problems (Parent Problems), parental psychological
control (parent control) and parental lack of support and
connection (parent lack support). The Parental Psychologi-
cal Control scale reflected college students’ perceptions of
maternal and paternal insensitive control and manipulation
(Barber, 1996). The Parental Psychological Control scales
consisted of 8 items for each parent, such as, “My mother is
a person who is always trying to change how I feel or think
about things” and “My father is a person who brings up past
mistakes when he criticizes me.” These items were answered
on a 5-point Likert type scale from “Almost never or never
true” to “Almost always or always true” with higher scale
scores reflecting greater perceived problems with parents.
The Cronbach’s alpha reliability was .87 for mother control
and .89 for father control.
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J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
Lack of parental connection and support was measured
by using the communication subscale of the revised Inven-
tory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) (Armsden and
Greenberg, 1987). The communication subscale specifically
assesses the affective quality of the relationship between
parents and their children on a 5-point Likert scale. Sam-
ple statements include, “I like to get my mother’s point
of view on things I’m concerned about” and “I feel it’s
no use letting my feelings show around my father.” Par-
ticipants were asked to complete the nine subscale items
for both mother and father separately. Items were coded so
that higher scores reflected lower connection and support.
Cronbach’s alpha was .91 for both the mother and father
subscales.
Because there were a number of participants without re-
sponses on the items relating to fathers, and because these
participants were disproportionately distributed by ethnic-
ity, the parental indicators were collapsed across mother and
father scores. For those with scores on both parent scales,
the average of mother and father scores was used. If there
were scores for only one parent, then the scale score for
that parent was used. Thus, the indicators for parent prob-
lems were parent control and parent lack of connection and
support.
Emotion regulation
Emotion Regulation consisted of 24 questions from the Iowa
Managing Emotions Inventory (Hood, 1997) organized into
two indicators concerning recognition and management of
depression (manage depression) and frustration (manage
frustration). The items were answered with a 5-point for-
mat from “Not descriptive of me” to “Very descriptive of
me.” An example is “When feeling frustrated, I find a solu-
tion and move on to other tasks.” Cronbach’s alpha was .85.
A high score reflected better recognition and management of
emotions.
Psychosocial maturity
Four scales, (a) identity commitment, (b) purpose, (c) com-
petence, and (d) integrity, were used as indicators of the la-
tent variable of Psychosocial Maturity. Identity commitment
was measured using the 16-item commitment subscale of the
Ego Identity Process Questionnaire (Balistreri et al., 1995),
answered on a 6-point format from “Strongly Disagree” to
“Strongly Agree.” Identity commitment measured the extent
to which the person had committed to vocation, friends, val-
ues, roles, and politics, (e.g., “I am very confident about what
kinds of friends are best for me”). Cronbach’s alpha was .77.
The psychosocial strengths of purpose and competence were
measured using subscales from the Psychosocial Inventory of
Ego Strengths–Short Form (Markstrom et al., 1997). Each of
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
these subscales had four items from 1 (Not descriptive of me)
to 5 (Very descriptive of me). Each had a Cronbach’s alpha
of .62. The psychosocial strength of integrity was measured
using the wisdom subscale from the Psychosocial Inven-
tory of Ego Strengths–Short Form (Markstrom et al., 1997).
The wisdom subscale, integrity, measures the psychosocial
strength acquired during the final stage of Erikson’s eight
stages of development: integrity vs. despair, precursors of
which appear at earlier developmental stages. The integrity
subscale had a Cronbach’s alpha of .62.
Alcohol use problems
Four items/scales constituted indictors of the latent variable
Alcohol Use Problems. Experiences of problems in the use
of alcohol and estimates of excessive drinking occasions and
average consumption were used to reflect the various ways in
which alcohol use problems are discussed and measured in
the literature. Although Patock-Peckham and Morgan-Lopez
(2006) found that alcohol use and problems stemming from
alcohol use were significantly correlated for women but not
men, when men and women were compared in this study, the
factor loadings of indicators of the latent variable were not
significantly different. Thus, the four indicators of Alcohol
Use Problems were binge in the past two weeks (binge),
frequency of binging on the last 10 occasions (frequency
binge), alcohol consumption per week (consume alcohol),
and alcohol related problems (alcohol problems).
Frequency of excessive drinking and degree of con-
sumption are often used to measure alcohol use problems
(Wechsler et al., 2000). The participants were asked to
“Think back over the last two weeks. How many times have
you had five or more drinks at a sitting?” Responses to this
binge item were written in. “Think about the last 10 occa-
sions you’ve drunk alcohol. On how many occasions did
you have five or more drinks?” and participants were asked
to write in the number of times (frequency binge). Students
were requested to “Please write the average number of drinks
that you consume a week” in the space provided (consume
alcohol). The 10 items of the Alcohol Use Problems scale
(alcohol problems) (Wechsler et al., 1994; Wechsler et al.,
2000) reflected the extent to which the students experienced
various problems due to their own drinking or drug use in the
past year. The items were answered on a 6-point scale from
“Never” to “10 or more” times. A sample item was “Been
in trouble with campus or local police.” Cronbach’s alpha
was .83. Higher scores reflected more problems with alco-
hol/drug use. Frequency of binge drinking in the past two
weeks ranged from 0 to 20 with a mean of 1.46, median of 0,
and standard deviation of 2.32. Frequency of binge drinking
over the last 10 drinking occasions ranged from 0 to 10 with
a mean of 3.18, median of 2, and standard deviation of 3.56.
Average number of alcoholic drinks consumed (consume al-
917
cohol) per week ranged from 0 to 75 with a mean of 4.19,
median of 1, and standard deviation of 7.49. Alcohol prob-
lems averaged 5.3, median was 2, and standard deviation
was 7.19. As described below, three of the indicators were
transformed to reduce skew.
Control variables
Sex was coded as 1 = female (n = 1064), 2 = male
(n = 528). Ethnicity was 0 = European American (white,
non-Hispanic, n = 1374) or 1 = Other Ethnicity (n = 218).
With so few in any of the ethnic groups other than Eu-
ropean American, this Other Ethnicity category was cre-
ated of necessity. In the Other Ethnicity group, 41% were
African American and 29% were Hispanic/Latino. Alco-
hol use problem indicators in this study varied by ethnicity
(Wilks lambda = .83, p < .001) similar to that reported in
the literature (Johnstone, 1994). Comparisons across all eth-
nic groups with Tukey’s B for multiple mean comparisons
found African Americans scored lower than all others on fre-
quency of binge drinking and lower than Native Americans
on binge drinking in the past two weeks. Groups were equiv-
alent on alcohol consumption and alcohol problems. Three
other significant mean differences were scattered across the
groups. This heterogeneity by ethnicity across the variables
of the study should be kept in mind as the analyses proceed.
Age was recorded in years. When age was used as a cate-
gory in the moderating analyses, 18–20 year olds were in the
younger group (n = 994) and 21–25 year olds were in the
older group (n = 598). This split was based on the median
(age 20), the legal drinking age and the literature that sug-
gested a decline in drinking after age 20 (Johnstone, 1994).
The variables of the study were assessed for skew and out-
liers. Although testing of models with maximum likelihood
estimates (as was done in this study) is robust to nonnormal-
ity (Lei and Lomax, 2005) efforts were made to reduce skew
when possible. Three of the alcohol use variables were sig-
nificantly skewed. In order to reduce skew, these were trans-
formed using a log to the base 10 transformation (binge and
alcohol problems) or a square root transformation (consume
alcohol). There were no outliers. Table 1 includes informa-
tion on the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations
of variables of the study.
Plan of analyses
The plan of analyses called for several stages. First, the hy-
pothesized full model was analyzed. This full model tested
for fit of the paths in Fig. 1. Evaluation of the model involved
examination of various indices of goodness of fit. Through-
out, goodness of fit is estimated with the incremental fit
index (IFI), a nonnormed index that is relatively unaffected
by sample size, the comparative fit index (CFI), a normed
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 918 J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926

index, both of which should be .90 or higher with .93 or

higher expected for a good fit (Byrne, 1994). The root mean

3.61
.74
square error of approximation (RMSEA), that compensates

–
I

for complexity of the model (Hu and Bentler, 2000) and is

.47∗∗∗
3.72
.72
minimally influenced by sample size (Browne and Cudeck,
Cm

–
1993), should be .08 or lower for an acceptable fit and .05

.56∗∗∗
.59∗∗∗
or lower for a good fit (McDonald and Ho, 2002). Although

3.69
.74
P

–
Chi-square is used often as an index of goodness of fit, it is
likely to be significant with a large N such as occurs in this

.44∗∗∗
.33∗∗∗
.34∗∗∗
4.29
.64
study (Sivo et al., 2006). Therefore Chi-square is not used
IC

–
to determine goodness of fit but it is reported and is used to
.19∗∗∗
.32∗∗∗
.30∗∗∗
.24∗∗∗
compare models.

3.53
.54
D

In the first stage of the analyses, the full model was tested
.78∗∗∗
.13∗∗∗
.28∗∗∗
.27∗∗∗
.19∗∗∗
and modified through elimination of nonsignificant paths.
3.43
.54
Comparisons were made between the two models for signif-
F

icant change in Chi-square. Goodness of fit was examined for

−.08∗∗∗

−.08∗∗
−.06∗
−.04
−.05

−.04

.27
.62
the models. The second stage tested for possible moderation
CtC

effects by comparing the model constrained, in turn, for sex,

.65∗∗∗

ethnicity, and age, with corresponding unconstrained mod-

−.06∗
−.06∗
.01
.00
−.04
−.04

.23
.57
CtB

els. Significant moderating effects need to be considered in

–

order to evaluate threats to the generalizability of the model

.75∗∗∗
.73∗∗∗

−.09∗∗∗

−.07∗∗
−.08∗∗
−.05∗
−.01
−.02

.37
.73

and to move to the third stage of testing, a stage that included

CtA

the examination of mediation and indirect effects. Alterna-

.18∗∗∗
.13∗∗∗
.14∗∗∗
−.22∗∗∗
−.22∗∗∗
−.28∗∗∗
−.23∗∗∗
−.21∗∗∗
−.23∗∗∗

tive models are proposed and examined to provide greater

2.40
.76

understanding of the model.

PL

–.51∗∗∗
.17∗∗∗
.15∗∗∗
.16∗∗∗
−.10∗∗∗
−.16∗∗∗
−.21∗∗∗
−.19∗∗∗
−.17∗∗∗
−.28∗∗∗
2.02
.77
PC

Results
.08∗∗∗

.08∗∗∗

.14∗∗∗
−.12∗∗∗
−.15∗∗∗
−.22∗∗∗
−.14∗∗∗
−.11∗∗∗
−.12∗∗∗
.03

.03

.51
.51

The full and modified models

AP

–.66∗∗∗

.08∗∗∗
−.10∗∗∗
−.14∗∗∗
−.18∗∗∗
−.10∗∗∗

The structural equation model with latent variables was

−.07∗
.05
.02
.04
−.01

−.04
1.34
1.52
CA

tested using Amos 6.0. The correlational analyses supported

–

the orthogonality of the demographic variables with each

.69∗∗∗
.63∗∗∗

.09∗∗∗
−.13∗∗∗
−.16∗∗∗
−.20∗∗∗
−.13∗∗∗
−.08∗∗∗
−.08∗∗∗
.07∗∗
.05∗
.04

.01

3.18
3.56

other; therefore, no correlated paths among these were en-

FB

tered. To the conceptual model in Fig. 1 were added the

Correlations, means, standard deviations (n = 1592)

.68∗∗∗
.82∗∗∗
.65∗∗∗

.09∗∗∗
−.09∗∗∗
−.14∗∗∗
−.18∗∗∗
−.12∗∗∗
−.09∗∗∗

indicators of the latent variables and associated error terms

.05∗

−.05∗
.03
−.02

.01

.25
.32

(tables of unstandardized and standardized coefficients are

B

available on request). Table 2 provides model fit indices.

− .09∗∗∗

Transformed score; ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01; ∗∗∗ p < .001.

−.10∗∗∗
−.13∗∗∗
−.10∗∗∗

.10∗∗∗

−.15∗∗∗
.08∗∗

−.07∗∗
.06

.03

.02
.03
−.02
−.04
−.04

.14
.34

The extent to which indicators loaded on their respective

E

factors was examined. All of the indicators were signifi-

cantly related to their respective latent variables, p < .001,
.10∗∗∗

−.11∗∗∗
−.13∗∗∗
.06∗

−.06∗

−.05∗
.03
.03

−.02
−.01
.03
−.04
−.02

.01
.02
.03
1.33
.47

and loaded on their respective latent factors. A first calcula-

G

tion of the full model was evaluated in terms of modification

.10∗∗∗

.09∗∗∗

.07∗∗
.05∗

.06∗
.02
.03

−.01

.02
−.02

.04
.06

.05
−.02
−.02
.01
−.01
20.23
1.52

indices that indicated that a path could be freed for corre-

A
–

lated error terms between frequency of binge and alcohol use

problems. The second calculation of the full model included
Identity Commitment (IC)
Parent Lack Control (PL)

this modification. This full model demonstrated a good fit.

Consume Alcohol (CA)a
Alcohol Problems (AP)a

Manage Depression (D)

Manage Frustration (F)
Frequency Binge (FB)

Table 2 provides the fit indices for this model with the cor-
Parent Control (PC)

Standard Deviation
Competence (Cm)

related error term. Explained variance was 7.2%.

Cast A (CtA)
Cast B (CtB)
Cast C (CtC)
Ethnicity (E)

Purpose (P)

Integrity (I)
Gender (G)

There were five nonsignificant paths involving parent al-

Binge (B)a
Table 1
Variable
Age (A)

cohol problems that were eliminated in the modified model:

Mean

age, sex, and ethnicity to parent alcohol problems, and parent

a

Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926 919

Table 2 Model fit for full and

modified models and tests for Model X2 df IFI CFI RMSEA
X 2
df
moderation
Full 577.59∗∗∗ 113 .96 .96 .05
Modified 589.54∗∗∗ 120 .96 .96 .05 11.95 7
Moderation effects: Sex
Unconstrained 657.44∗∗∗ 212 .96 .96 .04
Constrained 720.10∗∗∗ 238 .96 .96 .04 62.66∗∗∗ 26
Moderation effects: Ethnicity
Unconstrained 644.63∗∗∗ 212 .96 .96 .04
Constrained 699.77∗∗∗ 238 .96 .96 .04 55.14∗∗∗ 26
Note. na: not applicable as Moderation effects: Age
neither model is a good fit Unconstrained 1991.08∗∗∗ 206 .84 .84 .07
∗∗∗ Constrained 2104.20∗∗∗ 236 .84 .84 .07 na na
p < .001.

alcohol problems to emotion regulation and to psychosocial
maturity. In addition, paths from sex to parent problems and
from ethnicity to emotion regulation were nonsignificant and
were deleted. As seen in Table 2, the modified model was
also a good fit, and as expected when nonsignificant paths are
deleted, was not significantly different from the full model.
Explained variance was 7.3%. Before presenting and ac-
cepting this modified model as a final model, threats to its
generalizability are assessed through tests of moderation ef-
fects.
Moderation effects
Comparing the results of the models unconstrained versus
constrained provides an indication of the extent to which a
control variable acts as a moderator in the model, altering the
strength of associations among variables. The original full
model had been modified by the deletion of several paths.
In all but one of the instances (age as moderator), the same
paths that had been deleted in the modified model were non-
significant in the multiple group comparisons and therefore
deleted. As a follow-up to a significant moderation effect,
analyses were fit to pinpoint where groups differed. Tests
for the significance of difference of a path across multiple
groups compared a model with a constrained path against
the unconstrained model.
Sex of participant
The results in Table 2 indicated that sex was a moderator of
the modified model. Figures 2 and 3 provide the standardized
path coefficients for females and males (with error terms
omitted for ease of readability). In the unconstrained model,
explained variance was 9.4% for young women and 5.9%
for young men. Tests for significance of difference of paths
found two such significant differences: (a) the age to parent
problems path was significantly more negative (p < .001) for
women than men (β = − .14, p < .001 vs. β = − .09, ns);
(b) the psychosocial maturity to alcohol use problems path
was significantly more negative (p < .001) for women than
men (β = − .23, p < .001, vs. β = − .03, ns). in the uncon-
strained model. The indicators of the latent variables were
not significantly different by sex of the participant. With sex
of the participant limiting the generalizability of the modi-
fied model, these results called for testing for mediation and
indirect paths separately for young women and young men.
Ethnicity and age of participant
The results in Table 2 indicated a moderating effect of eth-
nicity. However, when comparing the paths for the Euro-
pean American versus Other Ethnicity group, there were no
significant paths to alcohol use problems in the model for
Other Ethnicity participants except for age. Despite the fact
that age was the only significant path to alcohol use prob-
lems among the participants in the Other Ethnicity group
(β = .22, p < .01), this path was not significantly different
(p > .05) from that of the European American participants
(β = .09, p < .01). The negative effect of parent problems
on psychosocial maturity was significantly stronger (p < .05)
for Other Ethnicity participants (β = − .52, p < .001) than
for European American youth (β = − .27, p < .001).
The failure to find any significant pathways among the
main variables of the study to alcohol use problems in
the Other Ethnicity group suggests that, along with age,
there are other unspecified pathways to alcohol use prob-
lems among diverse youth. Additional analyses within the
European American group supported the model presented
in Figs. 2 and 3. Thus, the model represents European
American processes only.
The variance of the measures of alcohol use problem indi-
cators was considered as a possible contributing factor in the
failure to find significant associations between the variables
of the study and alcohol use problems within the Other Eth-
nicity group. This was rejected based on higher variances in
the Other Ethnicity group. The inclusion of ethnicity in the
analyses within sex (Figs. 2 and 3) is warranted because eth-
nicity is significantly associated with variables of the study.

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920 J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926

age
.18***
commitment purpose competence integrity
.54 .86 .66 .69

.14** .08*
-.14*** PSYCHO-
SOCIAL
MATURITY
-.02 .31***
.97
depression
ethnicity .82 EMOTION
frustration
REGULATION -.23***
.11*
-.18***
-.09*
parent .66 -.26*** .90 binge
control
-.31*** ALCOHOL USE .75
PARENT frequency
parent .82 PROBLEMS binge
lack support PROBLEMS .92
-.09*
consume
.72 alcohol

.08* alcohol
.24*** problems
.92
castA
.81 PARENT
castB ALCOHOL
.83 PROBLEMS
castC Young Women
Fig. 2 Model for females–standardized coefficients–dashed lines are nonsignificant paths; p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01; ∗∗∗ p < .001
∗

age
.24***
commitment purpose competence integrity
.57 .87 .79 .78

-.09 .12* .12* PSYCHO-

SOCIAL
MATURITY
-.09* .32***
.93
depression
ethnicity .80 EMOTION
frustration
REGULATION -.03
.10
-.09*
-.20***
-.32*** .91
parent .67 binge
control
-.32*** ALCOHOL USE .76
PARENT frequency
parent .71 PROBLEMS binge
lack support PROBLEMS .91
.00
consume
74 alcohol

.04 alcohol
.26*** problems
.93
castA
.82 PARENT
castB ALCOHOL
.72 PROBLEMS
castC Young Men
Fig. 3 Model for males–standardized coefficients–dashed lines are nonsignificant paths; p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01; ∗∗∗ p < .001
∗

Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
Although age was associated with the variables in the
study, tests for moderation found that both the constrained
and unconstrained models provided poor fits, even after
adding a path from sex to parent alcohol problems suggested
by the modification indices (see Table 2). Age was retained
as a predictor in the model, but not as a moderator.
To summarize the tests for moderating effects, the modi-
fied model was significantly different for males and females.
Furthermore, the processes depicted in Figs. 2 and 3 are
applicable for European American youth. Age was associ-
ated with the variables of the study but attempts to fit models
with age as a moderator were unsuccessful.
Mediation effects
Based on the analyses for moderation effects, the tests for the
significance of mediation and indirect effects were carried
out on males and females separately. In accordance with
recommendations by Baron and Kenny (1986) for testing
mediation, first, an association between the IV and DV was
tested. However, in the absence of a significant IV to DV
path, then indirect paths via intermediate variables are still
testable (Holmbeck, 1997). Preacher and Hayes (2004) have
argued that testing the significance of indirect effects can and
should occur in the absence of a prior IV to DV significant
effect.
Following recommendations of Preacher and Hayes
(2004), mediation tests were carried out using a bootstrap
procedure they considered superior in terms of power to
the Sobel test when testing for mediating/indirect effects.
The estimate of mediated/indirect effects in this study was
obtained using 5000 resamples and confidence intervals of
95%. In the analyses, the latent variables were recomputed
as measured variables in order to use the Preacher and Hayes
formula. Factor scores of the indicators of each latent vari-
able were employed to provide a model with all measured
variables for these tests of significance of mediation/indirect
effects.
No omnibus test of mediation was conducted. The for-
mula for calculating indirect effects identified classes of
mediating/indirect variables, but did not test for the spe-
cific linked paths identified in the model. Instead, more
limited questions based on the issues that built the model
were considered. First, were parenting variables related to
alcohol use problems through the developmental variables?
Second, were parent alcohol problems related to devel-
opmental variables through parent problems? Third, were
parent problems related to psychosocial maturity through
emotion regulation and was emotion regulation related to
alcohol use problems through psychosocial maturity? In
each analysis, age and ethnicity are entered as control
variables.
921
Parenting variables related to alcohol use problems
through developmental variables
As a first step, the a priori path between alcohol-specific par-
ent alcohol problems and youth alcohol use problems was
established. This was significant (β = .08, p < .05) among
young women but not among young men (β = .05, ns). Thus,
any effects for young women would be mediated effects and
those among the young men would be indirect effects. With
no significant path from parent alcohol problems to emotion
regulation for either women or men (β = .05, ns; β = .00,
ns, respectively), there was no test for parent alcohol prob-
lems to alcohol use problems through emotion regulation.
In this case, the condition that there be a significant IV to
MV path was not present. Tests for mediation for the effects
of parent alcohol problems to alcohol use problems through
psychosocial maturity proceeded for young women as there
were significant IV to MV and MV to DV paths. There was
significant partial mediation (bootstrapped estimate = .019,
CI = .007 to .034) on the effects of parent alcohol problems
on alcohol use problems through psychosocial maturity. A
similar test for young men was not calculated as there was
no significant MV to DV path.
Turning to non-alcohol-specific parent problem effects
on alcohol use problems through developmental vari-
ables, there was a significant a priori path between the
IV and DV (β = .06, p < .05) among women but not
among men (β = .05, ns). Thus, significant effects included
partial mediation among young women (estimate = .026,
CI = .014 to. 041) and indirect effects among young men
(estimate = .046, CI = .021 to .080) when emotion regu-
lation was the MV. With respect to psychosocial maturity,
such partial mediation was significant for young women
(estimate = .067, CI = .047 to .092) but could not be tested
among young men in the absence of a significant MV to
DV effect. Thus, the prediction that developmental variables
would be mediators or indirect effects between parent vari-
ables and alcohol use problems was found for three of the
four tests among young women, but only for one of these
among young men.
Parent alcohol problems related to developmental variables
through parent problems
The tests in this section assessed whether parent prob-
lems constituted a link between parent alcohol problems
and development. The a priori tests of association be-
tween parent alcohol problems and developmental variables
indicated that, among young women, there was a non-
significant association between parent alcohol problems and
emotion regulation (β = .05, ns) and between parent alco-
hol problems and psychosocial maturity (β = − .04, ns).
Springer
922
Indirect effects from parental alcohol problems to emo-
tion regulation through parent problems were significant
(estimate = − .037, CI = − .057 to − .023) and from par-
ent alcohol problems to psychosocial maturity through par-
ent problems (estimate = − .057, CI = − .080 to − .039).
There was no significant a priori association of parent alcohol
problems to emotion regulation (β = .00, ns) among young
men, however, there was a significant indirect effect from
parent alcohol problems to emotion regulation through par-
ent problems (estimate = − .050, CI = − .086 to − .025).
Similarly, there was no prior association between parent al-
cohol problems and psychosocial maturity (β = − .04, ns)
for the young men but there was a significant indirect ef-
fect from parent alcohol problems to psychosocial maturity
through parent problems (estimate = − .074, CI = − .113
to − .042). Thus, in all four tests, parent alcohol problems
were indirectly related to developmental variables through
parent problems.
Parent problems related to psychosocial maturity through
emotion regulation and emotion regulation related
to alcohol use problems through psychosocial maturity
Finally, the possible mediating or indirect effects involving
emotion regulation as a MV or as a IV were tested. First, with
respect to the role of emotion regulation as a possible me-
diator between parent problems and psychosocial maturity,
there were significant a priori associations between these
parent problems and psychosocial maturity among young
women (β = − .22, p < .001) and young men (β = − .31,
p < .001). Emotion regulation was a partial mediator in each
case (Women: estimate = − .055, CI = − .080 to − .036;
Men: estimate = − .073, CI = − .114 to − .042). Among
young women there was a prior association between emotion
regulation and alcohol use problems (β = − .14, p < .001).
This association was significantly and partially mediated by
psychosocial maturity (estimate = − .062, CI = − .087 to
− .041). In the absence of an MV to DV significant asso-
ciation among young men, there was no test for mediation.
Thus, among young women, emotion regulation provided a
link between parent problems, psychosocial maturity, and al-
cohol use problems. Among young men, emotion regulation
was a mediator of the parent problems to psychosocial matu-
rity association but the absence of a link from psychosocial
maturity to alcohol use problems suggested that male dif-
ficulties with psychosocial maturity issues could be related
to outcomes not tested in this model. Taken together these
tests for mediating and indirect effects revealed a networked
set of relationships among the variables of the model. The
predictions were especially borne out in the case of young
women.
Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
Alternative models
With age and ethnicity significantly related to alcohol use
problems for both young men and women, these were in-
cluded in both of the alternative models tested. Alternative
models to those in Figs. 2 and 3 involved leaving out sets
of latent variables. When tested, a model based on Fig. 1
(unconstrained for sex) but without emotion regulation and
psychosocial maturity (Alternative Model 1) found reduced
explained variance in alcohol use problems for women (from
9.4 to 3.7%) and for men (from 5.9 to 2.7%). Such a reduction
in explained variance argues for the importance of including
emotion regulation and psychosocial maturity in the models.
Models without parent alcohol problems and parent prob-
lems could also provide an alternative. The resulting uncon-
strained Alternative Model 2 was a comparable fit and had
explained variance in alcohol use problems that differed by
small amounts from the unconstrained model among both
young women (9.4% to 8.4%) and young men (5.9 to 5.7%).
However, among the young women explained variance in
emotion regulation dropped from 10.1 to 3.2%, among young
men it dropped from 12.2 to 2.2%. Explained variance in
psychosocial maturity dropped from 32.1 to 22.9% in young
women and from 37.1 to 28.8% in young men. In view of the
significant mediation and indirect effects reported in the pre-
vious section for both men and women, we favor the model
depicted in Figs. 2 and 3 as a more complete model. It al-
lows for understanding how parent variables may be linked
to personal characteristics that are, in turn, linked to alcohol
use problems.
Discussion
The model and its variations that were tested in this
study were built upon theory and research that supported
interconnected links among parenting and developmental
variables and alcohol misuse in college youth. In this
study, partial mediation (women) or indirect effects (men)
linked both alcohol-specific and non-alcohol specific factors
(Jacob and Johnson, 1997) to alcohol use problems through
both (women) or one (men) of the developmental factors
in these students. Managing difficult emotions and attain-
ing psychosocial maturity were not only predicted by parent
problems, but were also linked to each other. Sex of the par-
ticipant along with ethnicity and age were introduced in the
model based on literature that pointed to mean level differ-
ences between these variables and some or all of the variables
of the study, but particularly alcohol use problems of the stu-
dents themselves. Males, European Americans, and older
students were higher on alcohol use problems than females,
those of Other Ethnicity or younger students, respectively.
The finding of higher alcohol use problems on the part of
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
males and European Americans is consistent with the litera-
ture (Johnstone, 1994). However, that younger students were
lower on alcohol use problems was surprising in light of lit-
erature that suggested that drinking reached a peak at ages
19 and 20 and declined thereafter (Johnstone, 1994). Perhaps
students in the 2000’s are postponing drinking curtailment
until they are finished with college. In the full model, par-
ent alcohol problems were unrelated to sex, ethnicity or age,
suggesting that problems with parents who misuse alcohol
transcend these demographic categories. The testing of mod-
erating effects for sex, ethnicity and age indicated that males
and females differed significantly, that the model findings
were applicable only to European Americans and that age
was not a moderator.
Young women
Among young women, psychosocial maturity played a cen-
tral role in the prediction of alcohol use problems. It di-
rectly predicted young women’s alcohol misuse and it served
as a partial mediator for the effects of emotion regulation
and parent problems. Explanations for how this vulnera-
bility through psychosocial maturity to alcohol misuse oc-
curs among young women but not young men focuses on
the nature of women’s identity development and its possi-
ble susceptibility to other influences. Historically, Erikson
(1968) wrote that a young woman would suspend full iden-
tity formation until the development of a committed roman-
tic relationship. If she has not attained a strong sense of
psychosocial maturity, then such suspension may leave her
vulnerable to outside influences and low self-esteem. For ex-
ample, those with less mature psychosocial development are
more vulnerable to the pressures of peers to drink excessively
(Adalbjarnardottir, 2002). Although the current analysis did
not include peer pressure, there is an established body of
literature citing the important role of peers in adolescent and
youth drinking (Curran et al., 1997; Kandel and Andrews,
1987). Thus, vulnerability to peer pressure could be one
means by which lower psychosocial maturity is linked to
alcohol use problems.
Among young women who have not yet gained a strong
sense of psychosocial maturity, it may be that they find
comfort in using alcohol. Such an explanation is consis-
tent with Walitzer and Sher’s (1996) research where young
women’s greater consumption of alcohol was associated with
lower self-esteem. Alcohol misuse could allow these young
women to delay or deny dealing with such important issues
as self-definition and self-esteem. The failure to regulate
emotions could lead to drinking to self-medicate and a post-
ponement of psychosocial maturity. The significant associa-
tions between alcohol-specific and non-alcohol-specific par-
ent factors is consistent with research that highlights young
women’s compared to young men’s greater drinking in re-
923
sponse to family factors (Coffelt et al., 2006). Helping young
women deal with parent problems and emotion regulation
in a positive, constructive manner may facilitate their psy-
chosocial growth. Efforts to strengthen their identity forma-
tion could provide an avenue not only for greater personal
growth but also for fewer problems with alcohol. Examina-
tion of these possibilities should be a focus of future research.
Young men
Contrary to the model that predicted partial mediation,
among young men only indirect effects were testable. Parent
problems were indirectly related to alcohol problems through
emotion regulation. The literature has been quite convincing
in terms of the central role of emotional and behavioral reg-
ulation in the positive development of youth, including the
avoidance of harmful substance use (Iacono et al., 1999;
Wills and Dishion, 2004). Among the young men, there was
an indirect link from parent alcohol problems to parent prob-
lems to emotion regulation and there was a connected link
from parent problems to emotion regulation to alcohol use
problems. Emotion regulation was directly related to alcohol
use problems among young men, consistent with the research
of Park and Levenson (2002).
It may be that less ability to manage disturbing feelings
of depression and frustration are related to attempts to self-
medicate with alcohol, leading to excessive and problem-
atic use (Catanzaro and Laurent, 2004; Kassel et al., 2000).
Moreover, difficulty in managing emotions could be associ-
ated with a greater behavioral undercontrol that disinhibits a
youth from caution in using substances. Helping college men
to regulate their frustrations and depression could facilitate
fewer alcohol use problems. If young men with problems in
regulating emotions use alcohol to self-medicate, then de-
creasing the need for self-medication should diminish this
avenue to alcohol misuse.
Other pathways to alcohol misuse untested in this study
are important to consider. For example, sensation seeking
is not so much the undercontrol of behavior as the seeking
out of stimulation and excitement and has been related to
alcohol use problems (Cloninger et al., 1995). Future re-
search should examine such additional pathways and the
interactions of predictors to illuminate for whom and under
what conditions there are processes that link parent variables
to development variables and from development to alcohol
misuse. This research identifies important roles for emotion
regulation for men and emotion regulation and psychosocial
maturity for women.
Limitations and strengths
The study adds to the literature on youth and alcohol mis-
use through use of theory and previous research to derive a
Springer
924
particular directional model. Nonetheless, the findings are in
the nature of associations. Contrary to the proposed model,
it may be that college students’ problems with alcohol pre-
clude forming a healthy psychosocial identity, destabilize
emotional regulation, and foment more problematic relation-
ships with parents. The cross-sectional design is a limitation
in untangling such directions of effects. However, related
longitudinal studies support this model’s direction of effects
(Bray et al., 2001; Simmons-Morton and Chen, 2005; Weber
et al., 1989).
This study assessed only the respondents’ point of view
and focused on just two developmental constructs, emotion
regulation and psychosocial maturity, as mediating or indi-
rect variables. Obtaining multiple points of view, including
parent reports of their own parenting, would be a direction
for future research. In this study, the explained variances
in alcohol use problems were 9.4% for young women and
5.9% for young men. Adding such variables as peer drinking
and sensation seeking would likely increase the explained
variances. Nonetheless, these current findings highlight the
role of development in college student alcohol misuse. With
results in this study limited to those of European American
descent, ethnicity should be examined further. In this study,
there were few participants of other ethnicity compared to
European American participants, furthermore, those in the
other ethnicity group were quite heterogeneous. Needed in
the future is a study that includes greater numbers of di-
verse participants along with an expanded set of predictors
of alcohol use problems.
Strengths of the study include a theory and research-based
model, a large sample size, and results that extend beyond
one region or college campus. In addition, there was simul-
taneous consideration of multiple parenting and develop-
mental variables within the same model along with tests of
alternative models. The generalizability of the model was
tested with the result that there were important male and
female variations detected in the prediction of alcohol use
problems. Although sex of the participant was used as a
moderating variable and allowed identification of significant
differences in the pathways to alcohol use problems between
males and females, other moderating variables, such as per-
sonality (cf., Fischer and Wampler, 1994) could be identified
and tested.
Implications and conclusions
The findings indicate a possible role for college or university
level interventions to discourage problematic alcohol use.
Most alcohol and drug prevention activities on college cam-
puses focus on changing students’ specific knowledge, atti-
tudes, and behaviors in regard to alcohol use (DeJong and
Langford, 2002). These outcomes are accomplished either
Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:912–926
through individual-focused strategies (e.g., curriculum infu-
sion or specific skills training) or environmental/contextual
strategies (e.g., campus policies, social norms or other me-
dia campaigns) (Larimer and Cronce, 2002; Perkins, 2002).
Although such strategies have been found to be somewhat
effective, they ignore other important developmental pro-
cesses that may also contribute to alcohol use problems. It
is unlikely that parents spontaneously will become less in-
trusive in their control efforts or less problematic when they
drink, but there are other avenues to reduce risk. For exam-
ple, improving the students’ own ways of relating to parents
could foster stronger emotion regulation in young men and
women and greater psychosocial maturity in young women.
The addition of components designed to strengthen the psy-
chosocial and emotional well being of students throughout
their college years would enhance alcohol and drug preven-
tion programs.
In sum, the mediational and indirect pathways tested in
this research were moderated by sex of the participant. There
was support for a partial mediation model among young
women. The association between parent problems and fe-
male college student alcohol use problems was mediated, in
part, by women’s psychosocial maturity. Psychosocial ma-
turity also provided a partially mediated path for the effects
of women’s emotion regulation on alcohol use problems.
Among college men, the indirect but central role of emotion
regulation suggests the possible medicinal use of alcohol to
cope with unmanageable emotions that are associated with
parental problems. More broadly, this study indicated that
problems with parents are linked to developmental issues
that are, in turn, linked to alcohol use problems.
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