Parenting Relations to Childhood Trauma in Early Adulthood Research Plan

Esperanza Cantu, Jennifer Hill, Ariel Manzano, Shanee Sheard

State University, Bakersfield

Dr. Hector Nolasco

HD-CAFS: 4100-60 Research Assessment Evaluations Child/Fam

December 10, 2023

ABSTRACT
 This study examines the relationship between parenting styles, attachments, parental

addictions, childhood trauma indicators, and maladaptive behavior like anxiety, depression, and

aggressive behavior during early adulthood. In addition, we are analyzing these relationships to

better understand the factors that may contribute to negative behaviors and mental health

outcomes later in life.

Using an extensive questionnaire, we used a mixed-methods approach to collect data

from 100 college students aged 18-22 in Bakersfield, California. The findings indicated a

significant relationship between a lack of quality parenting and childhood trauma markers with

maladaptive behaviors in early adulthood. Participants who reported having experienced poor or

abusive parenting and early childhood trauma were likelier to exhibit maladaptive behaviors such

as substance abuse, aggressiveness, and antisocial behaviors. The study also found that single-

parent households and other family groups were associated with higher rates of maladaptive

behavior. The results indicate the need for policies and programs that support and promote good

parenting practices and early intervention for children who experience traumatic events.

Purpose and Importance

 In 2016, 28.5% of child victims were younger than three years of age. Children younger

than one year are most frequently victimized; they are 150% more likely to be victimized than

any other age group (Child Maltreatment Data - National Child Abuse Prevention Month - Child

Welfare Information Gateway, n.d.). Child victimization rates were similar for boys (48.6%) and

girls (51.0%), with gender unknown for 0.4%.4 In 2016, the majority of perpetrators were a

parent of their victims. To gain a comprehensive understanding of human development, it is

crucial to acknowledge the significant impact that childhood trauma can have. Childhood trauma,

such as abuse or neglect, has long-lasting effects on individuals' development. It raises the

possibility of negative results in adulthood, including substance abuse, mental health issues,

difficulties forming healthy relationships, and physical health problems. Understanding the

connection between parenting quality, trauma indicators, and maladaptive behaviors is vital for

identifying contributing factors and developing interventions to prevent or lessen these adverse

outcomes.

There is a growing concern about the effect of childhood trauma, lack of quality

parenting, knowledge of parenting styles, and how it affects children into their early adulthood

(Child Maltreatment Data - National Child Abuse Prevention Month - Child Welfare Information

Gateway, n.d.). Although it is difficult to gauge how much childhood trauma occurs due to

ethical standards in research and underreported occurrences, there is an apparent correlation

between these issues (Bahmani et al., 2022). Research has found that single-parent households

and various family groups were associated with higher rates of maladaptive behavior. The results

indicate the need for policies and programs that support and promote good parenting practices

and early intervention for children who experience traumatic events (Cantu et al., 2023).

Childhood trauma and parenting quality significantly affect children's development throughout
their life. Studies consistently show a link between childhood trauma, poor parenting, and

negative outcomes later in adulthood, such as aggression or mental health issues. Single-parent

households often have higher rates of these problems. Understanding different parenting styles in

various family contexts is crucial for intervention programs that can mitigate long-term impacts

on individuals' well-being (Casselman, 2015).

This study investigates the links between childhood parenting quality, trauma indicators,

and maladaptive behaviors in early adulthood, such as aggression, addiction, and mental health

and attachment disorders. By exploring these correlations, we hope to understand better the

developmental impact of various parenting styles and traumatic experiences on individuals

transitioning into adulthood. This study aims to contribute to existing research and reveal the

underlying mechanisms that may cause maladaptive behavior during this stage of life by

analyzing these elements and identifying potential connections. Ultimately, the study's findings

may offer valuable insights into preventing and addressing maladaptive behavior, which can

have important implications for mental health professionals, parents, and other caregivers (Cantu

et al., 2023).

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Childhood Trauma May Contribute to Early Adulthood Maladaptive Behaviors

Coleman et al. (2013) article discussed the effects of childhood trauma and the impacts it

may have in adulthood. The researchers focus on developing depression and heavy drinking

when faced with stress into adulthood after experiencing childhood trauma. The article states the

association of traumatic events such as physical and sexual abuse, parental divorce, and exposure

to violence in those who experienced childhood trauma. The study divided the results by those

who experienced zero traumatic events, those who experienced at least one traumatic event, and
those who experienced two or more traumatic events in childhood. The researchers hypothesized

that the portion of the sample who did experience childhood trauma would most likely have a

significant increase in the likelihood of developing depression or heavy drinking after a stressful

event in adulthood than those who did not experience childhood trauma.

This study was conducted between 1994 through 2007. The researchers surveyed the

sample every two years. The final study sample size is 3,930 participants. All participants

surveyed were over eighteen years old. The sample consists of male and female participants.

The ethnicities of the participants were not disclosed; however, all participants were Canadian

residents. The results were stratified between men and women. Depression was more common

among females, compared to men. At the same time, heavy drinking was reported in higher

numbers among men. The results indicate that at least 26.6% of the participants reported one

childhood traumatic event. In each cycle of surveys, about 35% of the sample stated they did

have a recent stressor in their adult life.

This longitudinal study used mixed methods designed to conduct research. First, the

researchers surveyed the sample every two years over sixteen years to gather quantitative

information on the occurrence of events. They also conducted two interviews to determine

qualitative research on the severity of depression and drinking. One interview was a ten-minute

short interview, and the other was an hour-long, more intensive interview.

Parenting Quality Causing Emotional Dysregulation and Insecure Attachments in

Childhood May Contribute to Early Adult Aggressive Behavior

Based on the article by Casselman and McKenzie (2015), this study aimed to examine a

relationship between young adults who experienced rejection and aggression from their parents

in childhood and the effects of insecure adult attachment and emotional dysregulation in
adulthood. The literature review indicated that emotional dysregulation and insecure adult

attachment directly affected aggression. Also, perceived rejection and acceptance significantly

impacted parental relationships, attachment security, and emotional functioning. This indicated a

connection between these perceptions and young adults' aggressive behavior. There were no

significant differences based on gender variables in the sample. However, there were differences

in gender variables between mother and father rejection and acceptance. The research question

seeks to consider if there is a relationship between young adults’ recollections of perceived

parental rejection in childhood and self-reported aggression in adulthood. The researchers

hypothesized that insecure adult attachment and emotional dysregulation would partially mediate

the relationships between father and mother rejection and aggression. They also hypothesized

that emotional dysregulation would partially mediate the relationship between insecure adult

attachment and aggression.

According to Casselman & McKinley (2015), although studies have examined

independent relationships between parental factors, emotional dysregulations, insecure

attachment, and young adult aggression, no examination by the date of publication assessed these

variables within the same framework. Therefore, the authors sought to determine the effects of

perceived father and mother rejection in childhood and how that contributed to concerning issues

in adulthood. This will provide additional information explaining the possible link between

parental rejection and aggression and help contribute to theories explaining how parenting styles

and relationships continue to impact young adult adjustment. Furthermore, a greater theoretical

understanding could lead to more effective treatment programs for parent-rejected young adults

exhibiting aggressive behavior (Casselman & McKinley, 2015).

 The constructs examined in this study are aggression, emotional dysregulation, anxious

attachment, and avoidant attachment. The variables used to measure the constructs are perceived

mother and father rejection.

The variables that represent the researchers’ constructs of aggression, emotional

dysregulation, anxious attachment, and avoidant attachment (insecure attachment) are mother

and father rejection in childhood. The Aggression Questionnaire measured the charge, which

includes subscales such as physical, verbal, anger, and hostility. Separate questionnaires for

mother and father rejection measured the perceived parental rejection variable. An insecure

attachment was measured using a revised adult attachment scale. It contained 18 items using a

five-point Likert scale ranging from highly uncharacteristic of me to extremely characteristic of

me. The difficulties in the emotion regulation scale measured emotional dysregulation. It

contained 36 items using a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from seldom to almost always.

The cross-sectional nature of the study prevents some causal conclusions among study variables.

In addition, the questionnaires used to evaluate the variables were unavailable for inspection.

However, they have reported widely used and reputable questionnaires appropriate for measuring

parental rejection and the indirect and direct correlations between constructs and variables.

Mothers with Trauma

This research compares different parenting styles of mothers with traumas. In addition,

they try to connect with the mothers' traumas to see if that affects the outcome of the parenting

techniques with their toddlers. The study included 105 mothers aged 19 to 40. These mothers

have toddlers 18 – 30 months old. Of the 105 participants, 81% identify as Caucasian, 7.6% as

Native American, 4.8% as African American, 3.8% as Hispanic, and 2.9% as Asian, coming
from suburban and rural areas. Participants were contacted through childcare centers, local

businesses, and Early Head Start programs.

This study was done in qualitative research. It is qualitative research because it conducts

a questionnaire gathered from its sample of 105 mothers. The study used number codes of 0 -13

to rate the trauma of the mothers. It has to collect in-depth answers from the mother’s traumatic

experiences

Childhood Trauma in Adult Depressive and Anxiety Disorder

Kuzminskaite et al. (2021), the article explains childhood trauma's negative

consequences on mental health across a lifespan. The focal point of this journal article is to

acknowledge the understanding of how childhood trauma increases the chance of exposure to

various psychiatric disorders. Nevertheless, the lack of an integrative approach to childhood

trauma restricts further growth improvement. The research assimilates childhood trauma findings

across explanatory levels of a longitudinal study of an adult cohort.

The study was an ongoing longitudinal cohort examining the progression and effects of

anxiety and depression disorder in Dutch adults. Within the Dutch adults, the ages ranged from

18 to 65 with present or remission of depressive or anxiety disorder. The participants for the

study were recruited from September 2004 to February 2006 from various settings; 19% from

communities, 54% from primary health care, and 27% from specialized mental health care.

Those diagnosed with PTSD (Post-traumatic stress disorder), bipolar, OCD (obsessive-

compulsive disorder) Alternatively, psychotic disorders were excluded from the study. All

participants were

examined on various socio-demographics, lifestyles, mental health, and genetics.

 The study used mixed methods, both qualitative and quantitative. Researching a

subgroup of 301 individuals, regardless of whether they had anxiety conditions, had an MRI with

given consent. The two methods utilized to measure the prevalence, chronicity, and progression

of psychopathology through self-reported Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form and

Childhood Trauma Interview. That said, knowing this information about having a large subgroup

of.

Early Trauma Experiences

Based on Kaplow, Putnam, Pynoos, and Lieberman's (2006) research informs the audience on

how early traumatic experiences can affect a child as they develop in many ways besides

behavioral issues.

The primary study sample would be a young girl by the name of Rachel from the ages of

9 months to 11 years old. The sample was correct for this research since Rachel has gone through

a traumatic experience at a young age; the sample they used correlates with the study.

This research study uses qualitative research methods because they continue only to

interview Rachel as she continues to grow up. The researchers also conduct multiple interviews

with Rachel’s grandmother throughout the years. The study is longitudinal because they only use

the same two samples (Rachel and her grandmother).

Parenting Styles

Based on Salavera, Usan, and Quilez-Robres (2022), The article’s purpose is to

understand better how parenting styles play a role in the social skill development of a child. This

consists of understanding the different types of parenting. Understanding the different parenting

styles helps explain the correlation between them and their child’s social skills. The research

question was, how does the relationship between parenting styles affect social skills? The second
research question is how the role of gender in parenting styles involves social skills. The research

hypothesis is divided into parenting styles, their effects, and how they relate to social skills. The

second is how the results will be variable in parenting styles and social skills relationships.

The connection between the article’s purpose and the research question is by comparing

all four parenting styles to how each would affect a child’s social skill development. Exploring

this would be an important factor based on parental types influencing children and their

behavior, as it can give us more insight. Due to this, the research question that explores the

relationship between parenting styles and effects on social skills and how these effects will play

out in relationships is appropriate since it provides information on parental roles and their

consequences.

The constructs being examined are academic success and different types of support. The

variables used to measure the constructs are parental support, teacher support, and educational

support.

The constructs related to the research question are academic success and several forms of

support. Both constructs were measured by using a poll of multiple tests based on gender and

questionnaires. This was performed by giving both women and men the same test and scoring

them by gender. The construct is correct for the topic since it relates to the research questions

and explores the idea of parental skills along with gender roles and their effects on social skills.

The variables include parental skills and types such as self-reveal, emotional support, and

conflict management. This is shown in the scores from the questionnaires performed. The

variables used were related to the research topic and question as it was divided into parental

styles, allowing more insight into this and the gender of those using the different techniques. The

variables are correct for this topic because if further discussed, the parenting styles and gender
will go together to evaluate differences based on the differences, resulting in a child’s social

skills.

Relation of parenting child abuse based on attachment styles, parenting styles, and

parental addictions.

Based on Bahmani et al. (2022) article, the purpose is to recognize the relationship

between parenting styles, parental addictions, attachment styles, and child abuse (CA).

Therefore, the research question posed in the study is whether there is a correlation between

parenting styles, parental addictions, and attachment styles on the likelihood of child abuse. In

addition, this study hypothesized that parental attachment style causes a difference in parenting

style and, consequently, child abuse. Specifically, parents with low affection or overcontrol are

associated with insecure attachment styles in parents.

The research questions in the article appear appropriate as they focus on the relationship

between parenting child abuse and various factors such as attachment styles, parenting styles,

and parental addictions. These factors are likely to impact a child's development and

mental health. Additionally, the research questions aim to identify potential risk factors for

parenting child abuse, an essential issue in child welfare and protection.

The construct is being examined to investigate the effect of parenting styles, attachment

styles, and parental addiction on the child. The variables used to measure the construct parenting

style (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive), Attachment style (secure, preoccupied, fearful,

dismissing), and Parental addiction (attachment avoidance, childhood trauma, child abuse).

The variables measured represent the researcher's constructs of support recognizing the

relationship effect of parenting styles, attachment styles, and parental addiction associated with
child abuse outcomes and using questionnaires to target parents and children relating to

parenting styles and childhood trauma. The questionnaire for parents asked 30 questions based

on their parenting styles, and for the child was a short-form questionnaire of 28 questions of self-

report measures based on traumatic experiences. The pre-teens group of 13-15 took

questionnaires, obtaining consent from their parents to formally participate in the study.

Hypothesis: It is hypothesized that a lack of quality parenting, accompanied by childhood

trauma markers, significantly increases the likelihood of maladaptive behaviors such as

aggression, addictions, mental health disorders, and attachment disorders in early adulthood.

Research Question: Does the quality of parenting and childhood trauma markers impact early

adulthood maladaptive behavior?

METHODS

Procedures

Data was collected using responses based on one-on-one interviews from Bakersfield,

California. Results were collected from male and female California State University, Bakersfield

student participants, aged 18-22 in this cross-sectional study..

Once agreed upon experiment, participants were given more information with flyers and

will have a chance to ask any questions they may have. They will be given a 32-item scale

divided into three sections: childhood experiences, adult experiences, and adult behavior

questionnaire.

The collected data will be filtered based on each response and separated into categories

for further analysis. These responses will be evaluated by a team member who will connect these

responses to the participants' maladaptive behaviors.

Sample Characteristics:

Data will be collected from 100 male and female student participants of California State

University, Bakersfield, aged 18-22. The participants are of various ethnic backgrounds and

household dynamics. All participants have given consent to participate in this study.

MEASUREMENTS

Based on the population ages 18-22, the questionnaire was limited to approximately a 32-

item scale divided into three sections: childhood experiences, adult experiences, and adult

behavior and utilized Likert response scales, where respondents could rate their opinions on a

scale of 1-4. This allowed for an understanding of their perspectives and experiences.

While answering survey questions, participants could rate their childhood experiences,

early adult experiences, and maladaptive behavioral traits. This resulted in a rich dataset that

provided valuable insights into the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of young adults in this age

group. Responses ranged from supportive, loving childhood experiences to unsupportive, and

unloving childhood experiences. Some participants felt their parents were too strict and didn’t

allow them to make their own decisions and some participants felt their parents did not care

about their basic needs.

Many respondents expressed their concerns about mental health, drinking, recreational

drug use and depression symptoms. The Likert response scales allowed for a nuanced

understanding of these opinions.

Overall, the sample approach provided a valuable opportunity to gain a deeper

understanding of the perspectives of young adults aged 18-22, providing valuable insights for

future research and policymaking.

Parenting Styles
 Participants were asked to identify between three parenting styles they’ve experienced

while being raised by their parents. Asking, “Which parenting style best describes your parents?”

Which response options follow: 1 = Authoritarian (many rules, unsupportive), 2 = Permissive

(supportive, very few rules), 3 = Uninvolved

Childhood Experiences

Participants were asked to report their childhood experiences by answering a 14-item

scale, A sample item follow: “There were too many rules in our home.” The response options

follow: 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = agree 4 = strongly agree.

Adult Experiences

A 6-item scale was used to measure participants’ adult experiences. A sample item

follows: “I have been a victim of abuse.” The response choices follow: The response options

follow: 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = agree 4 = strongly agree.

Adult Behaviors

On a 12-item scale, participants were asked to answer based on their adult behaviors. A

sample item follows: “I use recreational drugs to cope with daily life.” The response options

follow: 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = agree 4 = strongly agree

 After conducting a one-way ANOVA comparing childhood experience, adulthood

experience, and adulthood behavior, we found that there was a statistically significant difference

between individuals that explained their adulthood behavior than the individuals who explained

their childhood experience and adulthood experiences based on parenting styles.

F(2,97) = 0.407, p =0.667.

F(df between, df within) = F value, p = significance

DISCUSSION

Based on our findings, our study showed similar findings of the studies conducted by

Casselman, R.B. & McKenzie, M.D. (2015) and Colman, et al. (2013). There was a correlation

between harmful early childhood experiences, and early adulthood maladaptive behaviors.

Parenting styles like permissive, authoritative, and uninvolved were a likely contributor to the

early childhood experiences based on the results of the survey. Our findings support the literature

reviewed in this study. Further implications, limitations of the study and future directions can be

used to better understand early childhood experiences and how they affect people throughout

their life and into early adulthood.

Implications

Our research has implications for school counselors, parents, mental health providers, and

anyone else who interacts with young adults to raise awareness of the significance of

comprehending the correlation between specific indicators from childhood. Furthermore, this

information will assist individuals in comprehending how those elements could contribute to

poor actions in life.

Limitations
 While our study provides insights into the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of young

adults aged 18-22, it is important to recognize some limitations. Firstly, the sample size of 100

participants from a single university (Cal State Bakersfield) may differ from the broader

population. The findings may not generalize to other universities or different age groups. Self-

report measures may introduce biases. To correct this limitation, in-depth interviews can provide

qualitative data beyond what Likert scale responses can. Future research could use a mixed-

methods approach combining questionnaires and interviews to understand how different

parenting styles impact individuals' childhood experiences, adult experiences, and adult

behaviors. Furthermore, this study only focuses on three parenting styles (Authoritarian,

Permissive, and Uninvolved), which may not fully gain awareness of the difficulty of

participants' experiences with their parents. Future research could consider more extensive and

varied samples with a more inclusive range of parenting styles to address these limitations and

provide a more thorough understanding of how different parenting styles impact individuals'

childhood experiences, adult experiences, and adult behaviors.

Future Direction

In steering future research directions, it is crucial to acknowledge and rectify certain

limitations identified in our study. The sample size of 100 participants from a single university

(Cal State Bakersfield) may restrict the generalizability of findings; hence, future studies should

prioritize expanding the participant pool to include multiple universities and a more diverse age

range. To overcome potential biases associated with self-report measures and delve deeper into

participants' experiences, a recommended approach involves incorporating in-depth interviews

alongside traditional Likert scale responses. This mixed-methods strategy promises a more

comprehensive understanding of how various parenting styles impact individuals' childhood

experiences, adult experiences, and adult behaviors. Additionally, our focus on three parenting

styles (Authoritarian, Permissive, and Uninvolved) may need to be more balanced with the

intricacies of parent-child dynamics. Therefore, future research should strive for inclusivity by

exploring a more extensive and varied range of parenting styles, thus fostering a nuanced

exploration of their influence. In essence, by embracing these suggestions, subsequent research

endeavors can build upon the foundation laid by our study, addressing limitations and

contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the intricate interplay between parenting

styles and individuals' developmental trajectories.

REFERENCES
Bahmani, T., Naseri, N. S., & Fariborzi, E. (2022). Relation of parenting child abuse based on
attachment styles, parenting styles, and parental addictions. Current Psychology.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02667-7

Child Maltreatment Data - National Child Abuse Prevention Month - Child Welfare Information
Gateway. (n.d.). Www.childwelfare.gov.
https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/preventing/preventionmonth/about/child-
maltreatment-data/

Cantu, E., Hill, J., Manzano, A., Sheard S. “Parenting Relations to Childhood Trauma in Early
Adulthood .” May 7, 2023. HD-CAFS: 4000-60 Introduction to Research Methods,
California State University, Bakersfield, Research Proposal.

Casselman, R.B. & McKenzie, M.D. (2015). Young adults’ recollections of parental rejection
and self-reported aggression: The mediating roles of insecure adult attachment and
emotional dysregulation. Journal of Childhood and Adolescent Trauma 8, 61–71. DOI
10.1007/s40653-014-0032-x

Colman, Garad, Y., Zeng, Y., Naicker, K., Weeks, M., Patten, S. B., Jones, P. B., Thompson, A.
H., & Wild, T. C. (2013). Stress and development of depression and heavy drinking in
adulthood: moderating effects of childhood trauma. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric
Epidemiology, 48(2), 265–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0531-8

Evans, Sara Z, Simons, Leslie Gordon, & Simons, Ronald L. (2012). The Effect of Corporal
Punishment and Verbal Abuse on Delinquency: Mediating Mechanisms. Journal of
Youth and Adolescence, 41(8), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9755-x

Kaplow, J. B., Saxe, G. N., Putnam, F. W., Pynoos, R. S., & Lieberman, A. F. (2006). The long–
term consequences of early childhood trauma: A case study and discussion. Psychiatry:
Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 69(4), 362–375.
https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2006.69.4.362

Kuzminskaite, E., Penninx, B. W., Van Harmelen, A., Elzinga, B. M., Hovens, J. G. F. M., &
Vinkers, C. H. (2021). Childhood Trauma in Adult Depressive and Anxiety Disorders:
An Integrated Review on Psychological and Biological Mechanisms in the NESDA
Cohort. Journal of Affective Disorders, 283, 179–191.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.01.054

Salavera, Usán, P., & Quilez-Robres, A. (2022). Exploring the Effect of Parental Styles on
Social Skills: The Mediating Role of Affects. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 19(6), 3295–. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063295

Schwerdtfeger, K., Larzelere, R., Werner, D., Peters, C., & Oliver, M. (2013). Intergenerational
Transmission of Trauma: The Mediating Role of Parenting Styles on Toddlers’ DSM-
Related Symptoms. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 22(2), 211–229.
https://doi-org.falcon.lib.csub.edu/10.1080/10926771.2013.743941