PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 1

LITERATURE REVIEW
ON
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 2

INTRODUCTION

Irrespective of geographical location, adolescence is deemed as a transitional period

between childhood and adulthood characterized by physical, neurodevelopmental,

psychological, and social changes. It is a period many parents perceive as very volatile stage.

A period of storm and stress where relationships between both parties are tested and can be

threatened (Özdemir, Utkualp, & Pallos, 2016; Windle, 2000). Since adolescence is a

developmental stage that launches adolescents into adulthood, it is also a period when

identities are formed and behavioural patterns are established (Özdemir et al., 2016). Studies

show that during puberty period, various neurodevelopmental changes take place. This

includes the synaptic pruning of unused synapses in the cerebral cortex, which supports

various cognitive skills. Myelination of stimulated neural fibres, which accelerates and

strengthens connection among various brain regions also occurs. Adolescents also experience

alterations in excitatory neurotransmitter activities which makes them react strongly to

events, intensely experience pleasurable stimuli and drive for novel experiences which

include substance use and abuse (Patalay & Gaye, 2019). Statistics show that adolescents

substance use is a common and pervasive risky behaviour in industrialized countries. Recent

nationally representative survey of US high school students shows that 40% of U.S 10th

grade adolescents have tried smoking cigarette, 63% have tried drinking and 38% have tried

at least one illegal drug usually marijuana (Arnett, 2018). By the end of high school, 17%

reported to smoke cigarette regularly, 28% engaged in heavy drinking and 40% have

experimented with illegal drug (Arnett, 2018). About 20% have tried at least one highly

addictive substance.

By scholastic definition and use, substance use refers to alcohol and other drug use

including cigarettes, illegal drugs such as marijuana, LSD, Ecstasy (MDMA), sedatives,

heroin, OxyContin (a natural pain killer) or cocaine (Arnett, 2018). Due to adolescents’
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 3

biological make-up and the uniqueness of the changes going on in their bodies, are

adolescents naturally predisposed to risky novel experiences including alcohol and substance

use and abuse or there are other factors that preclude their dispositions? Multiple researches

evidently show great impact of parental substance use on adolescents’ consequent

involvement in substance use and abuse. Furthermore, because parental substance use could

be related to poor monitoring and parent–adolescent relationships, this paper looks into the

role each may play in discouraging or potentiating substance use among early adolescents

and how it influence their choices of friends. It also considers quality of relationship among

peers, social groups effects and bullying and their influence on adolescent’s substance use.

Gaining better understanding of these factors and how they increase adolescents’

susceptibility to substance use and abuse would help policymakers, and other stakeholders in

adolescent’s lives, make more informed decisions in the development of enlightenment and

intervention programmes. This would have the ripple effect of reducing the risk associated

with engaging in other common risky behaviours that culminate into delinquent acts, sexual

diseases, psychological breakdowns, and road accidents.

The primary purpose of this paper is to explore the influence of peers on adolescents use and

substance abuse with a focus on adolescent in western culture.

A Shift from Parents To Friends

According to Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, adolescents grapple with

the social issue of identity formation. They work at refining and defining themselves. They

try out different “selves” in various contexts and are often grappled with the question of

which self they should be, who they are and who they should be with (social identity). As

adolescents try to answer these questions and many more about identity and social identity,

most adolescents in Western cultures begin a gradual pull, away from their parents. Conflicts
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increase between parents and adolescents and much argument ensued even on mundane

things like bedtime, chores, and more important issues like homework completion. Despite

these differences, majority of parents reported that most disagreements are at the level of

harmless bickering. Research indicates a correlation between positive parent-teen relationship

and peer relationship. Adolescents who feel close to their parents often enjoy a healthy and

happy relationship and tend to do well in school. This correlation can also be stated in

reversal that adolescents who misbehave are likely to have tense relationship with parents and

other adults. However, no matter the level of closeness between adolescents and parents,

adolescence is a period of diminishing parental influence and growing peer influence. This is

because adolescents depend more on friends than on their parents or siblings for

companionship and intimacy. During adolescence, friends become increasingly important and

they are source of adolescent’s happiest experiences. Adolescents view their friends as people

with whom they feel most comfortable with and can openly talk to. Also, the desire to be

popular and conform to peers and social acceptance could also be the driving force behind

adolescents growing desire to form friendship (Arnett, 2018)

Quality of Parent-Adolescents Relationship

Degree of parent-adolescent conflict, open communication and closeness are

indicative of the patterns of interactions that occur between parents and adolescents. These

factors also determine the quality of relationship between parents and adolescents (Rusby et

al., 2018). Study by Rusby et al., (2018) to examine the quality of parent-adolescents

relationship as a predictive factor to adolescent’s substance use and abuse reveals that

relationship between parents and adolescents during transitional period of early adolescence

to late adolescence show that many adolescents during this transition period began the use of

alcohol and marijuana for the first time. Early initiation into alcohol intake and substance use

is found to continue into later years of adolescence and could lead to dependency (Hoffman
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 5

et al., 2006). Within a one-year period of study of 8th grade student to the end of their ninth

grade, alcohol initiation had increased from 40% to 65%, binge drinking initiation tripled in

rate from 10% to 30%, and marijuana use initiation doubled from 20% to 40% (Rusby et al.,

2018). Result further indicates that adolescents’ ratings of parent relationship quality and

monitoring were significant predictors of alcohol use, binge drinking, and marijuana use

initiation (Weymouth et al., 2016). Adolescents who perceive poor relationship with parents

and who think their parents do not know what they are doing are likely to engage in alcohol

and substance use and abuse regardless of whatever their parents think. Well of course, this

will further strain parent-adolescents relationship.

Consequent studies also indicate that parents who spend quality time with their

adolescents, set realistic rules and boundaries, communicate their preferences, encourage

openness and are authoritative, raise adolescents who are prosocial, confident and perform

very well in their academics. Going by homophily principles such adolescents are often likely

to choose friends that share similar values and are deemed similar to them.

Parental Monitoring

Although parental monitoring and influences tend to decrease during adolescents,

parents can still shape their adolescents’ peer relationship indirectly by choosing where to

live, schools to send their adolescents to (e.g., public schools vs. private schools) and where

to attend religious services if at all they would. By doing this, parents influence the peer

networks their adolescents are likely to experience and the pool of peers their adolescents are

likely to choose their friends (Arnett, 2018). Also, parental influence on their adolescents’

personality and behavior through their practices can influence adolescents’ choices of friends.

For instance, in a study of 3,700 adolescents, it was found out that adolescents of parents who

monitor their adolescents activities, and encourage academic achievement achieve higher
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grades in school and have lower levels of engaging in substance use and abuse (Brown et al.,

1993). Furthermore, parents can protect their adolescents from early exposure to substance

use by monitoring their adolescents’ movement: where their children are, who they are with,

and what they are doing during their free time.

Wang et al., (2013) in their studies conceptually classified parental monitoring into

different categories (parental knowledge, youth disclosure, and parental rules) and found that

open parent–adolescent communication and rules about curfew were associated with lower

increases in substance use during early adolescence. Parents establishing a good

communication process that communicate appropriate behaviors, expectations and giving

room for their adolescents’ feedbacks is a critical aspect of good quality parent–adolescent

relationships. Likewise, it is crucial for effective parental monitoring (Wang et al., 2013).

Therefore, parental monitoring and good quality parent–adolescent relationships are

inextricably linked and work arm in arm (Rusby et al., 2018).

Further studies show that the concurrence of increased time with peers and decreased parental

monitoring increases adolescents’ chances of engaging in alcohol use and other substances

(Lam et al., 2014; Rusby et al., 2018). Although adolescents increasingly affect each other’s

behavior during early adolescence, parental influences remain very crucial. For instance, peer

effects on alcohol use are moderated by adolescent-reported parental monitoring (Light,

Greenan, Rusby, Nies, & Snijders, 2013) and low parental monitoring is associated with

affiliating with substance-using peers (Wills & Yaeger, 2003).

Parental Substance Use

Parental substance use communicates either an acceptance or disapproval of substance

use and it influences an adolescent’s decision to engage or refrain from substance use (Kirby

et al., 2008). According to Bandura (1977) established Social Learning Theory (SLT),
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adolescents may be influenced in their decision to engage in substance use and abuse through

observing role models in their environment and perceiving social norms in relation to

substance use. Adolescents simply by watching significant others in their environment can

assess the consequences of the behaviour and discern hurdles associated with engaging in

such practices and rewards (Kirby et al., 2008). This subsequently, may reinforce their

decision either smoke or not to smoke, drink alcohol or engage in drugs use or not (Kirby et

al., 2008). Parental substance use also may increase the availability of that substance to their

adolescent. Studies on parent alcohol and substance use (marijuana) indicate that parent

alcohol use is associated with early adolescent consumption of alcohol which continues into

later adolescence (Brook et al., 2010). Moreover, parent alcohol consumption is found to be

predictive of early adolescent and the adolescent’s friends use (Rusby et al., 2018, Hoffman

et al., 2006). Parent marijuana use is found to be associated with adolescent onset of

marijuana and this relationship is mediated by parent attitudes about marijuana (Miller,

Siegel, Hohman, & Crano, 2013) and by low parental monitoring and greater exposure to

marijuana (Kerr, Tiberio, & Capaldi, 2015).

In another longitudinal study on older adolescents between the ages of 15 – 17 years,

Capaldi, Tiberio, Kerr, and Pears (2016) also found that independent of parents’ alcohol use,

mothers’ tobacco use and fathers’ marijuana use predicted earlier onset of adolescent alcohol

use. Further, findings show that adolescents with this parental influence are very likely to

choose friends with similar parental influence. Recognizing the importance of these findings

for prevention, is integral into understanding the primary aim of this study. The focus of this

study is to examine peer influence on adolescents’ substance use.

PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 8

Adolescents and Peers

In the real sense of functionality definition and adolescents’ social experiences,

friends influence is more accurate term than peer. Arnett (2018) described peers as

anonymous group of other people who are of the same age and grade. Friends on the other

hand, are emotionally connected to each other, provide social support and connection in a

way peers’ do not. In most cases when people especially adolescents talk about peers, they

are referring to their friends, people of the same peer group whom they are intimate with and

are socially connected to. Most research works on friends and peers have also used the word

interchangeably as it has been used in this paper.

Adolescence is a very sensitive and crucial phase of human development

characterized by the tendencies to adopt risky behaviors, such as substance use and abuse,

and other delinquent acts (WHO, 2020). Adolescents choose friends who are similar to them

in age, gender, educational orientations, share the same media preferences and leisure

activities. The most concerned and common similarity found among adolescent friends is in

their drive for risky activities. Adolescents tend to choose friends whom they perceive are

similar to them in their drive for novel and risky adventures. However, several evidences

suggest that adolescents also choose friends who have positive influence on them. Friends

that discourage risky behavior, give emotional support and help them cope with stressful life

situations (Arnett, 2018; Muchiri & Santos, 2018). Adolescents friends influences begin in

early adolescence, peaks by mid-teens and declines in late adolescence. There is an existing

correlation between rates of risky behavior adolescent report for themselves and that of their

friends. However, because correlation does not mean causation, reports from several studies

conducted on how adolescents perceived themselves and friends in relation to substance use

show that adolescents due to their egocentric nature, reported that their friends are more

similar to them than they are in reality in their use of alcohol, cigarette and substance use
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 9

(Arnett, 2018). This consequently inflates the correlations in the risk behavior they report for

self and friends (Arnett, 2018).

Furthermore, based on the social development model, adolescents tend to duplicate

either positive or negative behaviours, they perceive their family and peers are involved in

(Muchiri & Santos, 2018; Schuler, Tucker, Pedersen, & Amico, 2019). They have also been

observed to have an increased response to incentives, partly due to neuro-developmental

changes occurring in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system of their brains, which makes

them high sensation and novel experiences seekers (Özdemir et al., 2016; Whitesell et al.,

2013).

Most times, adolescents first contact with drugs generally occurs in familiar settings,

comprising of people who are significant or stakeholders in the lives of the adolescent. This

makes monitoring of indicators of drug use among adolescents increasingly important (Jorge

et al., 2018). Early detection of vulnerable adolescents to substance use can contribute to the

establishment of public policies that consider the school setting as a favorable environment

for preventive programs (Jorge et al., 2018). External factors, such as family, friends,

siblings, social economic status can be potential risk or protective factors. Several studies

have shown that having friends who use drugs and who are more susceptible to peer pressure

are the strongest predictors of adolescent substance use (Jorge et al., 2018). Peer pressure

exerts a very powerful influence on behavior, especially in young adolescent. Some risk

factors for adolescence substance use influenced by peers include peer group structure/the

quest for popularity, peer substance use, quality of friendship, and bullying are subsequently

discussed in this paper.

PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 10

Peer Group Structure

Peer groups are a type of social group that consist of people with similar interests,

social status, and are in the same age group. People who make up of a peer group social

interact and can influence themselves both positively and negatively. The social influence

theory as proposed by Kelman (1958) states that an individual’s attitudes, beliefs, and

behavior are influenced by referent others through compliance, identification and

internalization. Relating this to peer influence on substance use, social influence theory posits

that deviant peers directly and indirectly influence illicit drug use and other risk behaviors

during adolescence through peer pressure, modelling and behavioral reinforcement (Jorge et

al., 2018).

Various studies conducted on social influence theory assert that some young people

change their behaviour to fit into a desired network, as well as gain or maintain popularity

(Kirby et al., 2008). Diego, Field, & Sander, 2003 examined the pattern of cigarette, alcohol,

marijuana, and cocaine use by 89 high school students in Florida, USA. They measured the

effects of academic performance, self-rating of popularity, and depression indices on the use

of these substances and found in agreement with the social influence theory, that, students

who had low GPAs, high depression indices and considered themselves popular, were more

at risk to smoke cigarettes and marijuana, as well as drink alcohol (Kirby et al., 2008). Also,

those who had low GPAs and perceived themselves as unpopular, were more likely to use

cocaine. It has also been deduced that adolescents who hope to become group leaders are

more inclined to smoking whereas those who just want to become members of a group are at

higher risks of drinking alcohol. This demonstrates the fact that the effect of peer influence

could be dependent on the type of substance as well (Whitesell et al., 2013).

PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 11

The social selection theory states that adolescents search for deviant friends based on

pre-existing deviant tendencies they already have (Jorge et al., 2018, Kirby et al., 2008)).

Because adolescents often form heterogenous friendship groups, they are therefore exposed

to both deviant and non-deviant influences. It is right to concede that adolescents actively

seek out friends whom they perceive are similar to them. Study carried out by Hoffman, et

al., (2006) shows that smoking adolescents make friends with other smokers. This lends to

support the findings from a Scotland study about smoking behavior of its 106 participants,

between ages 15 to 16 years old. Finding shows a strong positive correlation between that of

adolescents who smoke to that of their friends (Pavis et al., 1998).

As mentioned earlier, because of the heterogeneity of the adolescents’ friendship

group, they are also exposed to non-deviant behaviors. Study conducted on Brazilian

adolescents indicated that adolescents who participates in structured activities and are linked

to each other based on religious, sporting or cultural interests were at a lower risk of illicit

drug use, probably due to the risk of incurring the disapproval of their peers and the ill-effects

these substances have on competitive sport performance (Jorge et al., 2018). These findings

correlate with the notion that emphasizes unstructured socialisation among adolescents

increases their opportunities for substance and alcohol use. This is argued to be due to the

fact that engaging in these activities in the presence of their peers and the absence of an

authority figure makes it more ‘rewarding’ and less punishable (Wesche, Kreager, &

Lefkowitz, 2018).

This implies that there is an existing correlation between adolescents’ risk behaviours

and friend’s thrill to engage in risk behavior because selection has been made based on

similarities and not because they influence each other (Arnett, 2018). Additionally, some

longitudinal studies indicate that both selection and influence contribute to similarities in risk

behavior before they become friends. However, if they stay as friends’ they tend to become
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 12

more similar, increasing or decreasing their rates of participation in risk behavior so that they

more closely match each other. Hoffman et al., (2007) in their study found this assertion to be

true for cigarette use, alcohol use, other drug use (la Haye et al., 2013), delinquency and

aggressive behavior (Arnett, 2018).

Peer Substance Use

Schuller et al., (2019) in their study highlighted that adolescent alcohol, cigarette and

marijuana use is positively associated with corresponding perceived use by friends and family

members in their social network throughout middle and high school. However, concordance

varied across grades, by peer relationship and substance use (Schuller et al., 2019).

Concordance between adolescent and best friend use was positive for alcohol, cigarettes and

marijuana in all grades 6-12. It also reflects both social conformity pressures and peer

homophily due to peer selection processes (Burk, van der Vorst, Kerr, & Stattin, 2012;

Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986). Thus, showing the enduring influence of peers across middle

and high school. Consistent with prior studies, associations with perceived best friend use

were stronger than those with older siblings and adults for all substances. However,

concordances with best friend use did not consistently increase across grades for all

substances as hypothesized (Schuller et al., 2019). For alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana,

concordance with best friend use was very strong in 6th grade and then declined across

middle school. This peak is in accordance with adolescence developmental stage that posit

that younger adolescents are more influenced by peer behaviour, because they have not fully

developed skills to resist peer pressure and sensual gratification (Steinberg & Monahan,

2007). Alcohol, which is the most prevalent substance, was seen to have lowest concordance

with best friend use. Alcohol concordance remained steady across high school and then

declined in 12th grade (Schuller et al., 2019). Smoking and marijuana use were seen to be
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 13

significantly less prevalent than alcohol use, while concordance rates with best friend use

were notably higher than for alcohol. Furthermore, for marijuana use, rate of concordance

increased up to middle high school.

Understanding these trends is crucial in understanding peer influence on adolescent

substance use, as studies indicate that friends are major source of guidance during the

adolescent years. They provide quick access to substance, and help shape attitudes and beliefs

around substance use (Branstetter, Low, & Furman, 2011; Musher-Eizenman, Holub, &

Arnett, 2003). Study by Windle, 2000 showed that compared to parental influence, peer

substance use was a more significant risk factor for adolescent alcohol problems. This could

be due to the fact that peer groups tend to amongst other things, share information and values

about drug use (Scull et al., 2010). Another study by Bahr, Hoffmann, & Yang, 2005 which

sought to address the possibility that peer influences were being overestimated, also found

that the use of drugs by peers had greater influence on adolescent substance use than other

variables (level of parental tolerance for drug use, sibling use, attachment to mother/father,

monitoring by parents) considered in the study. One of the significant findings of this study

was that peers also had a partial influence on the effects of the family variables considered. It

therefore showed that for prevention strategies to be effective, a more comprehensive

approach should be considered.

Quality of Friendship

Although the impact of this dimension of peer influence has not being well examined

and there are some contrasting findings, it is worthy of consideration when examining the

influence that peers have on themselves with regards to substance use. Branstetter et al., 2011

in an attempt to address these contrasts, examined the effect of friendship quality, peer

behaviour and parent-child relationship on adolescent substance use over a year. Their results
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 14

showed that irrespective of the nature of a friendship (supportive or confrontative), substance

use by a friend greatly influenced the behaviour of adolescents to said substances. They also

showed the levels of influence varied depending on the specific substance being considered;

peer influence had greater impact on tobacco and alcohol use while, an increase in

adolescents’ use of marijuana and hard drugs were less dependent on this variable

(Branstetter et al., 2011).

Bullying

Bullying is a form of peer aggression that is commonly experienced by adolescents in

middle and high school (Livingston et al., 2018). It is estimated that approximately 20% of

US public school students have reported being bullied in 2015 (Kann et al. 2016). Bully is

characterized as an “intentional, unsolicited, habitual and repeated use of physical (e.g.,

hitting, kicking, pushing, shoving), verbal (e.g., name-calling, teasing), and/or social (e.g.,

spreading rumours, social exclusion) aggression toward one’s peers to inflict physical,

psychological, social, or educational harm” (Livingston et al., 2018, p. 2558). Bullying peaks

in early to mid-adolescence because of adolescent’s propensity towards risk behaviour and

increased sensitivity to social and emotional gratification. This heightened sensitivity

amplifies the importance of peer acceptance and rejection as well as the allure of risky

activities (Steinberg 2008; 2014). As such, negative social interactions can have a devastating

impact on psychological adjustment, spur involvement in high risk activities, and disrupt

various developmental trajectories. Getting involved in bullying either as a perpetrator,

victim, or bully-victim has been associated with various long-term negative health outcomes

including depression, anxiety trauma symptoms, and substance use (Livingston et al., 2018).

More concerning is the potential for bullying to contribute to adolescent substance use.

Several researches have been able to associate substance use to substance use disorders, and
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 15

other risky behaviour. While it is considered a norm for adolescents to experiment with

tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana; bullies, victims, and bully-victims may be more likely to use

these substances in riskier ways (i.e., earlier or heavier use) that contribute to the

development of substance use problems and other negative health outcomes (e.g., accidents

or violence) (Livingston, et al., 2018).

Among other studies, Tharp-Taylor et al., (2009) showed a well-documented bivariate

relationship between bullying and substance use. However, the nature and timing of this

association is not well understood. Furthermore, there are important question that trail the

research and many more of its kind which include whether substance use occurs as an acute

response to a bullying event or whether it develops over time. Having a clearer understanding

of timing of these outcomes is crucial to developing effective intervention plan for those

involved in bullying (Livingston, et al., 2018). It is also important to consider the bivariate

relationship between bullying and emotional regulation

According to Livingston et al., (2018), emotional regulation theories posit that

adolescent’s involvement in bullying either as a victim or a perpetrator is associated with

acute, negative emotional responses which may spur use of substances as a means of

regulating negative affect. In a study by Livingston et al., (2018) participants were

hypothesized to report greater negative affect and have higher odds of using substances on

days they experienced more peer bullying. Consistent with this hypothesis, findings show that

adolescents who reported to be more bullied by a peer than normal on a given day reported

feeling more sad and were more likely to use cigarettes compared to days they were less

victimized. Such adolescents also reported to be angrier on days they felt more victimized.

However, in contrast to Livingston et al., (2010) hypotheses, perpetration of peer aggression

was not significantly linked with same day changes in negative affect or substance use.

Nevertheless, Livingston et al., (2018) in their studies were able to establish proximal
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 16

associations among victimization, negative affect, and cigarette use, that are consistent with

theories of emotional regulation. But it is still unclear the exact order of these events in a day.

To collaborate these findings Luk et al., (2010) & Topper et al., (2011) in their study on the

bullied use of alcohol to cope with distress associated with victimization show no relation

between victimization and daily alcohol use. Therefore, it was concluded that the relation

between alcohol use and victimization does not happen at the same period. This effect was

significantly observed among young adolescents in 8th and 9th grades. They were observed to

likely smoke cigarette than engage in alcohol drinking. Nevertheless, it was also observed

that alcohol use increases with age and exceeds smoking among older adolescents (Johnson

et al., 2017).

There is possibility that if similar study were conducted on adolescents, it may yield

different outcomes. Future researches therefore need to consider if being victimized and sad

consistently over multiple days is prospectively associated with depression and substance use

over time. Although, findings show that bully perpetration was not associated with negative

affect or use of any substances on the day of perpetration. Also, “peer aggression perpetrators

substance use may not be proximally linked to perpetration, but rather may be associated

more globally through associating with delinquent, substance using peers, and engaging in

other externalizing behaviours” (Livingston et al., 2018, p. 2567). These findings somewhat

contradict some other researches that suggest that bullies are at greater risk of smoking and

drinking alcohol, and that the bullied have a lower association with alcohol consumption and

cigarette smoking, but are more likely to use marijuana which is globally associated with

bully perpetration and other forms of hard drugs (Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpelä, Rantanen, &

Rimpelä, 2000; Nansel et al., 2001; Whitesell et al., 2013).

It is still very much unclear why the use of marijuana and cigarette decline following

bully perpetration as against prior findings. More research is needed to shed more light on
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 17

this. Furthermore, more research is needed to understand the mechanism and timing bully

perpetration and substance use is associated, in order to be able to identify adolescents at risk

and mitigate against it by making intervention plans. Also, contextual factors like presence of

others, response to others proximal to the aggressive incident to determine role of social

factors in substance use and bully perpetration should also be considered in future researches.

Conclusion

In conclusion, peer influence on adolescent’s substance use hinges on internalizing

factors and on many environmental factors ranging from parental monitoring and quality of

relationship, parental substance use and abuse and risk factors mainly influenced by peers

which include include peer group structure/the quest for popularity, peer substance use,

quality of friendship, and bullying. Based on social learning theory, adolescents can be easily

influenced in their decision to engage in substance use and abuse just by observing these role

models in their environment and perceiving social norms in relation to substance use.

Adolescents simply by watching significant others in their environment can assess the

consequences of the behaviour and discern hurdles associated with engaging in such practices

and rewards (Kirby et al., 2008). Thus, may reinforce their decision either smoke or not to

smoke, drink alcohol or engage in drugs use or not (Kirby et al., 2008).

However, it was seen that among all externalizing factors, friends do play crucial

roles in adolescents spur for substance use and abuse. They can either be a risk factor or a

protective factor. In order words, friends do not always promote and encourage risky

behaviour among adolescents. Studies show that friends can also influence non-deviant

behaviour and such individuals tend to seek company of adolescents with similarities. Prior

findings also show that adolescents who engaged in structured activities are at low risk of

illicit drug use. Thus, it is safe to concede to the notion that emphasizes that unstructured
PEER INFLUENCE ON ADOLESCENT’S SUBSTANCE USE 18

socialization among friends’ places adolescents at risk of substance use and abuse. It was also

found that selection and influence theory contribute to similarities in risk behaviours before

adolescents become friends. Adolescents may only become similar in behaviour if they

continue to stay together as friends (Arnett, 2018).

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