Dynamics of Marriage and Family relationship

Marriage

Marriage is one of the deepest and most complex involvements of human relationships.

It is very necessary part of the Indian social system, involves the social sanction, generally in the
form of a civil or/and religious ceremony, authorizing two persons of socio economic relations.

Views on marriage

 Marriage is an institution in which men and women are admitted to family life, to live in
the intimate personal relationship primary for the purpose of begetting and rearing
children.
 Marriage is not for sense of enjoyment, but to perpetuate the race.
 Marriage is a social duty towards the family and the community.
 Among Hindus, ‗Marriage is a Sanskara (tradition) and a religious sacrament, not a
contract. It is a holy union of the two souls and not simply of two bodies, for the
performance of religious rights. It is an indissoluble bond which could be broken only by
death‘.
 According to Muslims, ‗Marriage‘ is an institution ordained for the protection of society,
so that human beings may guard themselves from foulness and unchastity. ‗Marriage‘ is
not a sacrament but a civil contract which promotes a normal family life and the
legalization of children‘.
 According to Christians, ‗Marriage‘ is a voluntary union of life of one man and one
woman to the exclusion of others.

Purposes of marriage

 Make sexual intercourse legitimate, restraining it within bounds, consistent with the
perpetuation of the species.
 Experience the joy of setting up new home, sex, birth and rearing of children, new
relationship to each other and to community.
  Fulfill the desire for security, accumulation of property, education of children, and
provision for old age.
 Gratify the desire for recognition of the individual status in the family and for personal
achievement.
 Escape from unpleasant home conditions and perpetuation of family name.
 Biological, emotional, social and spiritual fulfillment and development, which can‘t be
achieved in isolation.

Goals of Marriage

1) Marriage is a natural contract and artificial

 Marriage contract consists of an agreement – a consent behavior a man and woman to
take each other as husband and wife.
 This implies that they are entering an agreement to affect certain goats in a certain way.
 Since, marriage is nature‘s invention; its goals are posited by the nature to satisfy
biological and psychological needs of individuals.
 Sociologists feel that marriage is an artificial device or a mere convention (custom) of
society.
 The marital literature reveals that there are no absolute and fixed natural goals, rather
marriage has emerged as the result of evolutionary process.
 People enter into marriage for prestige, wealth, security and companionship etc.

2) Marriage is a social institution and individual

 The chief purpose of marriage is social, but not individual.
 To serve the society marriage is important for generative act, rearing and education of
children.
 Due to marriage, a series of relationships arise among various family members,
knowledge and mastery of these relationships leads to art of successful and happy
marriage.
 The primary end of marriage is the procreation and education of the children and the
second is mutual support – Christian philosophy.
  Marriage is primarily a social institution designed to perpetuate the human race, only
secondarily, it is intended for personal gain.
 Marriage is important for the development of individuals‘ personality, as marriage
provides more benefits to people, results in development of their personalities.

3) Marriage has generic and specific goals

 Marriage has generic goal, since it is common to all other societies, personal happiness is
a rightful goal of marriage.
 But this cannot be a specific goal of marriage, since happiness is not the unique goal of
marriage alone.
 The other goal of marriage is to safe guard, the society from foulness, unchastely and also
expanding the society.

4) Marriage is a legal contract

 Marriage is a legal contract, the role of the civil law is two folded.
 To confirm the natural laws and not violate them.
 Should recognize that cultural differences exist in various places.

Permanence of marriage should be reflected in civil law.

5) Marriage is a sacrament:
 Marriage is considered as supernatural as well as natural
 The entire married life of the couple is elevated to this super natural level.
 Grace is imparted throughout married life.

Functions of marriage:

The function of ‗Marriage‘ fall under 2 categories

1) Need Gratification
  Biological needs: Biological needs for food, clothing and shelter one possible only
through personal relationships of family life. Sexual gratification of partners is also one
of the distinctive functions of marriage. Perpetuating the race is one of the biological
needs.
 Psychological needs: Are also will be satisfied through personal relations. Need of
belongingness, companionship, recreation security as a member of the family, there by
getting economic support are some of the psychological needs to be satisfied through
marriage.
2) Social control: Because marriage satisfies both biological and psychological needs, the
morality and ethics of the society is safeguarded. The culture of the society is
safeguarded through maintenance system, the family safeguards the religious sanctities. It
provides education to the children and makes them useful members of the society.

Types of Marriages in India

Ancient forms

According to Manu Smiriti, the laws of Manu or Manava Dharma Shastra, there existed eight
main forms of Hindu marriages in ancient India:

1) Brahma Marriage: In this type of marriage, the girl‘s father himself invited a Veda
learned and pious man and gave him his highly dressed and bejeweled daughter in the
marriage solemnized by a Brahmin.
2) Daiva Marriage: In this type of marriage, the girl‘s father gifted her properly dressed
and bejeweled daughter to a priest as dakshina (fees) for officiating over a sacrifice.
3) Arsha Marriage: Marriage in which the girl‘s father gave away his daughter, according
to the rule, in exchange of a pair of cattle or two cows given by the bridegroom, for the
fulfillment of the sacred law.
4) Prajapatya Marriage: Marriage in which the bridegroom was duly worshipped and
married to the bride by her father with due honor and words of blessings "May both of
you perform together your duties". Besides this, no marriage ceremonies were performed.
 5) Asuras Marriage: Marriage in which the bridegroom received a maiden, after bestowing
as much wealth as he can afford, to the kinsmen and to the bride herself, according to his
own will.
6) Gandharva Marriage: Marriage in which there is voluntary union of a girl with a man
in solitude when both of them were in love. In this form of marriage, neither the consent
of the parents nor the rites of dowry was essential. Only the will of the marrying parties
was given importance. This marriage was believed to spring from desire and had sex
satisfaction as its chief purpose.
7) Rakshasa Marriage: It was marriage by capture or abduction that is without obtaining
the consent of the girl or her parents. The maiden was captured or abducted from her
home after her kinsmen have been slain or wounded and their houses broken open.
8) Pisaka Marriage: It was marriage by seduction, stealing or fraud. The girl was sexually
violated while she was asleep or intoxicated or unconscious or mentally disturbed and
later given her the social status of a wife.

Prevalent forms of marriage

Various forms of marriage coexist in the present Indian society on the basis of following
classifications:

1) Based on Selection of Mate

According to the party who selects mate there are two types of marriage viz.

i) Arranged Marriage: It is the marriage where marriage mate is selected by someone

other than those being married but with the consent of the boy or the girl involved in
marriage. The match could be arranged by parents, a matchmaking agent,
matrimonial site, or a trusted third party. Majority of the marriages in India are fixed
or arranged.
ii) Love Marriage: A love marriage is a union of two individuals who themselves
choose each other to marry based upon mutual love, affection, commitment and
attraction. The concept of love marriage has never been foreign to India. But still,
 love affairs and marriages have always been discouraged in the Indian society.
However with time, the Indian society is becoming more and more tolerant to love
marriages. The love marriage is no longer a taboo in Indian society, especially among
younger generation.

2) Based on number of spouses

i) Monogamy: Monogamy is a Greek derivative of ―Monos‖ – ‗one or alone‘ and
―gamos‖ – marriage or union. Monogamy is a marriage between one male and one
female that is it is a form of marriage in which one woman is married to one man at a
time. It is the ideal form of marriage, universally approved and widely practiced in
India. Among the Hindus, until the passing of the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, a
Hindu man was permitted to marry more than one woman at a time. After
Independence, the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 established monogamy for all Hindus
and others who came to be governed by this Act. Monogamy is reported to be of two
types:

 Strict Monogamy: In this type of marriage, a person is married only once in his or
her life that is a person has only one spouse per lifetime. It means the divorcee or
widow/widower don‘t remarry.
 Serial Monogamy: In this type of marriage, a person may have several spouses over
life time but only one at a given period of time. This is also called as ‗modified
polygamy‘.

There are also several specialised types of monogamous marriages that involve cousins viz.

 Cross Cousin Marriage: A cross cousin is a cousin from a parent's opposite-sexed

sibling. So, a cross cousin is the child of the mother's brother (maternal uncle's child) or
of the father's sister (paternal aunt's child). Cross cousin marriage rules per se are
specified from a male perspective. Thus, cross-cousin marriage is the marriage of a man
with his mother‘s brother‘s daughter or father‘s sister‘s daughter or a relative who is
 simultaneously his mother's brother's and father's sister's daughter. It is of following
types:
a) Matrilateral Cross Cousin Marriage: It occurs when a man marries his mother‘s
brother‘s daughter. Continued over a number of generations, this eventually forms a
circle where everyone is connected to each other. In Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and
Andhra Pradesh, matrilateral cross-cousin marriage is especially favored.
b) Patrilateral Cross Cousin Marriage: It occurs when a man marries his father‘s sister‘s
daughter. Continued over a number of generations, this eventually forms a circle where
everyone is connected to each other. Patrilateral cross-cousin marriage is observed among
the Paraiyars and other castes/tribes of Tamil Nadu.
c) Bilateral Cross Cousin Marriage: It occurs when a man marries a girl who is
simultaneously his mother's brother's and father's sister's daughter. It also occurs when
men marry each other‘s sisters. The practice of marrying each other‘s sisters is seen in
Yanomamo of the Amazon and also in Australia.

 Parallel Cousin Marriage: A parallel cousin (or ortho-cousin) is a cousin from a

parent's same sex sibling. So a parallel cousin is the child of the father's brother (paternal
uncle's child) or the mother's sister (maternal aunt's child). Parallel cousin marriage is the
marriage of a person with his father‘s brother‘s child or mother‘s sister‘s child. It is also
further subdivided into:
a) Matrilateral Parallel Cousin Marriage: It occurs when children of two sisters marry
each other. It is prevalent among several communities of Madras, Tamil Nadu and
Maharastra.
b) Patrilateral Parallel Cousin Marriage: It occurs when children of two brothers marry
each other. This type of marriage serves to preserve wealth within extended family or
lineage. The disadvantage is that it limits any possible ties between two groups. It is
prevalent in several communities of Madras and Tamil Nadu.
Reasons behind preference for cousin marriage: In certain communities or tribes of India, Cousin
marriage is preferred over marriage with a stranger or outsider as:

 It affirms the tradition or cultural values of their community;

 It ensures the authenticity and compatibility of spouses for marital stability and
durability;
 It ensures an intimate and conjugal relationship between the bride and her in-laws;
 It further strengthens the already existing family ties;
 It helps maintain the family structure;
 It preserves familial wealth, sometimes via advantages relating to dowry or bride price;
 It eases prenuptial negotiations;
 It enhances female autonomy.

Unique Features of Monogamy: There are several reasons which make monogamy, the ideal
form of marriage. Those are:

 It ensures that everyone gets a higher chance of obtaining a partner.

 It provides a stable environment for children to grow in the form of consistent male and
female parent role models.
 It provides certain regularity and a shared set of expectations for adult participation.
 In this system the husband and wife each regard the feelings, sentiments and the sexual
benefits of the other, as exclusively belonging to him/her.
 It promotes physical health by reducing the chance of acquiring STDs.
 It contributes to the financial health of the family and thus, comparatively high standard
of living due to the small family size.

Polygamy: In this type of marriage a man/woman marries more than one woman/man at a given
time. In other words, a person marries more than one spouse of the opposite sex. Polygamy is
reported to be of two types that is :
 i) Polygyny: In this type of marriage, a man marries more than one woman (wife) at a
given time. Polygyny is further of two types:
 Sororal Polygyny: It is a type of marriage in which a man is simultaneously married to
one or more of his wife‘s sisters. The most common form is a man marrying the eldest
sister first then eventually marrying her younger sisters. It is usually observed among the
Naga, Gond, Baiga, Bhil and Toda communities of India.
 Sororate: The Latin word ‗Soror‘ stands for ―Sister‖. It refers to the marriage where a
man marries the sister of his dead or barren (inability to bear children) wife.

ii) Non-Sororal Polgyny: It is a type of marriage in which wives are not related as
sisters. Islam approves of non-sororal polgyny. A Muslim man can have as many as
four living wives at a time, provided that they all are treated as equals. In Hindu
Mythology, it is seen in Ramayana. Father of Ram, King Dasharath, had three wives.

Reasons behind the origin or prevalence of polygyny:

Today Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, has legally prohibited polygyny among all those who are
governed by it. Still, certain communities like Muslims and other tribes have the liberty to
practice it. There are numerous factors like biological, ecological, cultural etc. that have led to
the emergence or prevalence of polygynous marriage among few tribes and communities of
India. Those are:

 In the primitive societies, high male mortality from warfare, feuding, occupational
accident and disease led to an imbalance of females outnumbering males. Since, the rate
of male mortality was high; it was not possible to allow some women to remain
unmarried. Every woman was required to procreate children. Thus, this system suited
those societies, not only because of the excess of women over men, but also because it
strengthened them numerically.
  In some societies man is prohibited to have sexual relation with his wife while she is
menstruating, pregnant or breast feeding. This form of lengthy abstinence from sex with
wife creates the need for second marriage.
 The barrenness of wife or inability to produce son for salvation was also one of the main
reason for going for subsequent marriages.
 In some societies number of women a man possesses or the size of the family he has is
the index of social prestige.
 In certain societies man requires to marry more women to get help in agriculture work
and to protect their property. It is a means to get cheap and reliable labour in the form of
wives and children.
 Certain prevailing customs like levirate also forces the widow of elder brother to marry
the younger brother even if he is married.

Reasons behind decline in the practice of polygyny:

 The belief that one should procreate a son to attain salvation or to provide him support in
the old age is declining.
 Low income and desire to maintain high standard of living makes it difficult to afford
more than one wife and children from each wife.
 It conflicts with the numerical equality of the sexes; female sense of proprietorship;
dignity and general welfare of the wife and best interests of the offspring.
 Economic and social independence of females has made them refuse man‘s dominance
over them in the form of polygyny.

Polyandry

In this type of marriage one woman marries more than one man (husband) at a given time.
Polyandry is even less common than polygyny. Polyandry is also of two types:
 i) Fraternal Polyandry: It is also called as ‘Adelphic polyandry’. In this a woman is
married to a group of brothers. The children are treated as the offspring of the eldest
brother regardless of who the biological father is. This type of marriage usually
occurs in the Himalayan areas of Nepal and Tibet. Fraternal polyandry is prevalent
among the Todas of Nilgiri Hills, Iravans and Kammala caste of Malabar in Kerala.
In Hindu mythology, it is found among the five brothers called Pandavas.
 Levirate: It is a specialized version of fraternal polyandry where a man marries the
widow of his dead brother. Levirate is the derivative of Latin word ‗Levir‘ which means
‗Husband‘s Brother‘. It is popularly known as devar vivah. This practice helped maintain
and reinforce family connections and alliances created by marriages. The form prevails
among the Ahirs of Haryana, some Jats and Gujars and some other castes of U.P.

ii) Non- Fraternal Polyandry: In this, all the husbands of a woman are not necessarily
brothers. The woman lives with her different husbands in turns. While she lives with
one husband, others have no right or claim over her. If a child is born, any husband
can be chosen as the child‘s social parent through a special ritual. This type of
marriage is practiced among Nair of Kerala & Tibetians.

Reasons behind the origin or prevalence of polyandry:

Just like polygyny, Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, has legally prohibited polyandry among all those
who are governed by it. Still, certain communities and tribes have the liberty to practice it. There
are various biological, ecological and cultural factors that are responsible for the origin and
prevalence of polyandry in certain communities and tribes of India. Those factors are:

 A difficult economy, especially an unfertile soil, which does not favour division of land
and belongings and makes maintenance of individual wives difficult;
 Scarce environmental resources or scarcity of food supply, which made it compulsory to
limit human population growth and enhance child survival;
 Desire to let family property stay within the family for generations and distribute work
within family (especially in fraternal polyandry);
 Desire to preserve the unity and solidarity of the sibling group (in fraternal polyandry);
  It allows one of the husbands to be away for work like commercial or military journey
from months to years at a time without disrupting the family;
 It also provides economic security for the wife when one of her husband dies;
 Scarcity of women in the society due to female infanticide and appropriation of many
women by polygamous chiefs and strong men in a tribe.
 Polyandry is often practiced due to poverty and heavy bride price.

Reasons behind decline in the practice of polyandry:

 Besides, legal prohibition, polyandry practice is seen to decline because of the following
reasons:
 The paternity of the children practically remains uncertain.
 It finds an insuperable barrier in male jealousy and in the male sense of proprietorship;
 It is directly opposed to the welfare of the husband, wife and children, and fatal to the
fecundity of the race.

Polyfidelity / Group Marriage

Polyfidelity (also sometimes called Polyexclusivity) means the marriage of two or more women
with two or more men. Here, the husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives
and they all together form a single family unit and all members of the marriage share parental
responsibility for any children arising from the marriage that is children are regarded as the
children of the entire group as a whole.

Marriage based on the field of selection

1) Endogamous: A marriage in which an individual follows the rule of endogamy and

marries within a specified or defined group of which he or she is a member. The
endogamous groups specifically refer to varna, caste and subcaste. They also include
religious and national affiliation. Notable examples of endogamous religious groups in
India are Parsis.
Reasons behind the origin or prevalence of rule of endogamy:

 The rule of endogamy was followed in early society and is still being practiced since:
 It encourages group affiliation and bonding;
 It encourages or maintains the group solidarity and ensures greater control over group
resources.
 It serves as a form of self-segregation, that is: it helps a community to resist integrating
and completely merging with surrounding populations. It helps minorities to survive as
distinct communities over a long time, in societies with other practices and beliefs;
 It makes marital and family adjustment easier due to the familiarity with caste‘s values
and norms;
 It checks decrease in the membership or strength of the castes.

Reasons behind decline in prevalence of rule of endogamy:

 Education has liberated the minds of people and they evaluate a person on the basis of
individual traits and values rather than caste and believe in national and global solidarity.
 In the highly competitive and progressive world, individuals are finding it very difficult
to find a marriage partner exclusively from their endogamous group.
 Good numbers of individuals are going for love marriage in which the rule of endogamy
does not prevail.

2) Exogamous: A marriage in which an individual follows the rule of exogamy and marries
outside the gotra and sapinda relationships.

Reasons behind the origin or prevalence of rule of exogamy:

 Scarcity of women within certain exogamous group;

 Prevent early sexual promiscuity within the clan;
 Clan blood was regarded sacred and to spare the sacredness of the totem, one had to
refrain from its appropriation for sexual purpose.

Reasons behind decline in prevalence of rule of exogamy:

  The reasons for decline in the functionality of rule of exogamy in present India are the
same as for in case of endogamy.

Marriage Based on Caste

1) Hypergamous (anuloma): A marriage in which a boy follows the rule of hypergamy and
marries a girl from the sub-caste lower to him and vice versa.
2) Hypogamous (pratiloma): According to the rule of hypogamy, man belonging to the
lower sub caste marries the girl belonging to the higher sub caste. In ancient scriptures, it
is also given thatpratiloma marriages, whereby a girl is married to a boy from a lower
caste sub-caste, was condemned.
3) Homogamous: Homogamy refers to marriage between the partners who resemble
themselves in certain ways. In present day, homogamy is one of the most common
criteria for mate selection among the youth.

Reasons behind the origin or prevalence of rule of hypergamy and hypogamy:

According to sociologists, the rule of hypergamy or hypogamy was followed to fix permanently
a social hierarchy in which the ascendancy of the Brahmin over Kshatryias and higher subcastes
over lower subcastes was categorically asserted.

Reasons behind decline in the prevalence of rule of hypergamy and hypogamy:

The reasons for decline in prevalence of hypergamy and hypogamy in India are the sum
collective of reasons behind decline of exogamy and endogamy in India.

Theories of Mate Selection

 Role Theory
 Value theory
 Exchange theory
  Complementary Needs Theory
 Sequential Theories

Family

A family is a group and person united by the ties of marriage, blood or adoption constituting a
common household, interacting and inters communicating with each other in their respective
social role of husband and wife, mother and father, son and daughter, brother and sister, creating
and maintaining a common culture.

Characteristics of Family

 The family experiences are continuous and persistent: Family exerts a continuous and
considerable influence upon the child. The family is the only agency which gives the
child a stable relationship, through which is graces and thrives. Real security is found
only in the fly.
 The family is the Major Agent for transmitting culture: The culture of the society is
transmitted to the child by the family. The taboos, customs beliefs. Followers are passed
on to him by the adult members of the family children generally reflect their parents
culture.
 Family conditioning has a special Emotional Quality: The family environment
profoundly influences character formation in the child. Family environment is the most
conducive for his free expression. Most of his psychological and physical needs are
satisfied in the family.
 The family has a status: Each child, as he enters into this would get his identification
only from his family, is association with its part history and present status. Members of
the family are bound together in a complex unity, built upon their sentiment
interdependence. Each family member is important to another and identifies with one
another. Any distinction to any family member raises the status of the whole family.
  Family is an area of interacting personalities: The family provides the stage to develop
and utilize the child‘s abilities. It establishes the first approving audience. The family is
the place where the individual gets a warm welcome at all stages of his life, is comforted
and soothed during difficult periods by the lore warmth and affection of the members.
 The family passes on Ideas and Ideals: - society controls the behavior of individuals
through the families. Each family has its own ideas and ideals. Although the ideas which
shape behavior, may be common for all the families. The ideals are not. The ideals are
handed down in each family by the previous generations taking a changed for is each
consequent generation. What was considered as the ideal form of management in
grandfather‘s time may not be considered ideal in the modern family.
 Every family has its own Heirlooms: As institutions preserve their converted certificate.
Tropics and awards each family has its own heirlooms – grandfather‘s photographs old
cards. Some unique jewellery utensil and soon. Each family takes pride in preserving
these heirlooms. However worm out they may be.
 It has forms: though family is a universal institution. Its structures or forms not only
from one society to another. But also from one classes to another within the same society.

Functions of the Family

 Biological Function: Reproduction - From religious point of view. To assume family

responsibility-children bring kind and affectionate relationship. Performance of Shradh
for the dead to make the soul united with- the God.
 Economic Function: Family is the chief producer and consumer of goods. Now it is only
the consumer. Members earn money to run the family. Saving for emergencies and
clearing of debts is also important function of the family. Education of children is an
economic asset.
 Protective Function: Caring and protecting the children, sick and old. Church, temple,
mosque served as centers for social intercourse and recreation. Rites and ceremonies are
means of furthering family life and promoting marital accord. Religious functions and
 ceremonies in the family and participation in common prayer help to solidify the
relationship between family members under stress.
 Educational Function: Family is the first institution from where the child starts
education. The home teaches social and ethical values. It trains and prepares the child for
his future roles.
 Socializing Function: Socialization through different events is influenced by the extent
to which the family backs him up. Parents teach the child how to move in the society.
Family teaches the child to learn culturally approved habits, ideas and attitudes. The child
is taught the rights and duties of his position. Through socialization the family assures the
child of conformity to the culture. The family transmits what has been learned and used
to children. It passes ideas and ideals that control individuals.
 Recreational Function: It embraces both the young and old in the family. Family
members share their experiences after hectic work of the day. Plans suitable programmes
to cater to the needs of family members. Family members release their tensions, stresses
through family recreations.
 Affectional Function: It consists of complex and important relationships which are
necessary for family members to develop as normal socially adjusted human beings. It is
present throughout life. Family provides close and intimate responses necessary for
cultivating individual personalities. This affectional relationship extends to outside family
also. It provides opportunities to develop sense of trust, which is essential for adjustment
to family members to become marital partners when they grow up.

Alternate Forms of the Family

Alternate family forms like single parent families, women headed families, childless families and
adoptive families have always been in existence in all societies. The other terms used for
alternative family forms include Non traditional families, Variant family forms (variation of the
norm), Alternative family forms and Alternate family patterns.

The most commonly used and accepted term is alternate family pattern in the result of personal
circumstances. Outside ones control (fertility) or from certain socio economic conditions (male
migration, work participation of women). In such circumstances people are forced to adopt
family patterns that suit their conditions.

The commonly observed family variations in India include:

1) Single parent families & Female headed households

Single parent families are the most commonly found alternate family forms throughout the
world. It is defines as the family in which the children reside with one parent who should take
the major responsibility for the upcoming. In such families either the mother or the father is
absent due to the following reasons:

 Death of the mother/father

 Divorce/separation between parents
 Migration of one of the parents usually father to other places for a job.
 Prolonged hospitalization of one parent because of chronic diseases.
 Long term imprisonment of one of the parents.
 Desertion by one of the parents
 Unwed motherhood

The single parent families may be:

 Permanent / temporary
 Physical / psychological

Because single parent families are mainly headed by women they are also referred to as female
headed families.

The term female headed family is generally used for those families where women are heads for
those families where women are heads of the families by virtue of their main earner status. The
groups of women included are – widowed, divorced, abandoned, separated and single mothers;
women whose husbands have migrated for employment and women whose husbands are not
economic providers due to unemployment and health. About 8% of all family units are single
headed families and 80% of the single headed families are established due to widowhood and
more than 70% of single parents are women.

2) Dual earner/career families

In dual earner families both the husband and wife work outside the family for better economic
status. Various socio economic factors are responsible for the growing incidence of dual earner
families. A dual earner family is defined as that family where both the husband and wife are
simultaneously employed in fulltime, paid jobs outside their home.

Problems of earning women

 Role overload for women

 Role conflict and multiple roles
 Women experience feelings of guilt as they are unable to take care of their families
efficiently

Family dynamics in dual earner families: Women‘s working status did not change her status at
home but her involvement has improved in decision making.

3) Adoptive families:

The adoptive family is created by the state rather than by procreation. The family comes into
existence by socio legal process rather than through biological process. In this type of family
formation couples are infertile or unable to bear children due to various reasons and adopt a child
or children of known or unknown background.

Adoption: is a process where by a person assumes the parenting for another, who is not kin and
in doing, so permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities from the original parent or
parents.

CARA (Central Adoption Resource Agency): The purpose of CARA is to ensure that every
orphan, destitute and surrendered child has a loving and caring family. It currently comes under
the purview of the Ministry of Women and Child Development. CARA was established in 1990
under the Ministry of Welfare. It became an autonomous body in 1999 by registering it under the
Societies Registration Act, 1860. After the passing of the Juvenile Act, 2000 and its Amendment
2006, CARA was transferred to the MIVCD. In India, a child can be placed with a family under
the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act 1956, Guardians and Wards Act, 1890 and Juvenile
Justice Act, 2000.

Types of Adoption:

i) Open adoption:
 Child can access the records relating to her adoption.
 The birth mother can also have access to the child even after adoption.
 She is allowed to visit the child, communicate with her

ii) Semi-Open Adoption:

 Birth mother does not have any physical contact with the child after adoption.
 She may continue to receive letters and photographs of the child either directly or through
the adoption agency she registered with until the child reaches adulthood.

iii) Closed Adoption:

 An adoption process, in which there is no contact between mother and the adoptive
parents neither before nor after adoption.

iv) Intra Family Adoption:

 Adoption within family.

 Refers to a child being legally adopted by a step-parent after the biological parent has
remarried.
  Eligible family member could also adopt child after the death of child‘s parents.
 Child is not completely uprooted from his/her culture and surroundings.
v) Domestic Adoption:
 Refers to an adoption involving a mother and adoptive parents, who are citizens of same
country.
 Also referred to an intra-country.
vi) International Adoption:
 Refers to placing a child with an adoptive family who are citizens of another country.
 Not all countries per unit international adoption.
 Countries that allow this adoption have very strict rules and regulations govering the
adoption.

4) Childless families:

Parenthood may now be considered a matter of choice owing to widespread use of birth control.
If men and women want to have children, they can decide when to have them. The term childless
is often replaced by child-free in recent articles and discussions of marriage. This change in
terminology reflects a shift of values in our culture.

Couples who do not choose to have children need no longer be viewed as lacking something. It is
considered essential for personal fulfillment. Women who choose to be child-free are generally
well educated and career oriented.

Although the partners in some child-free marriage have never felt that they wanted to have
children, for most the decision seems to have been gradual.

J.E. Veevers (1980) identified four stages of this decision process:

1) The couple decides to postpone children for a definite time period (until he/she gets a
degree/promotion & so on).

2) When the time period expires, they decide to postpone children indefinitely (until they ―feel
like it‖).
3) They increasingly appreciate the positive advantages of being child-free.

4) The decision is made final, generally by the sterilization of one or both partners.

Reasons:

 Freedom from child-care responsibility and greater opportunity for self fulfillment
 More satisfactory marital relationship
 Wife career considerations
 Monetary advantages
 Concern about population growth
 General dislike of the children
 Early socialization experiences and doubts about parenting ability
 Concern about physical aspects of childbirth
 Concern for children in present world conditions

It has also been observed that divorce is more probable in child-free marriages, because unlike
some other unhappily married couples, the child-free couple do not stay together ―for the sake of
the children‖.

FAMILY WELFARE

The national family welfare programme was launched in 1951-1952 as national family planning
prog. India was the first one to do so. It is 100% centrally sponsored prog. The ministry of health
& family welfare is responsible for this prog.

In 1977 the govt. of India redesigned the ―National family planning program‖ as the
―National family welfare program.‖

Also changed the name of the Ministry of health & family planning to Ministry of health
& family welfare.
History

• Early Development:-

(i) The second 5 Year plan (1956 to 1961) the ―Clinic approach‖ was adopted. Large no. of
family planning clinic was opened.

(ii) The 3rd year plan (1961 to 1966) emphatic recognition was given to family planning.

(iii) In 1960 the NFWP entered a new technological era with introduction of the Lippi‘s loop
later replaced by copper T.

• Later development:-

(i) Target bound program.

(ii) IUD insertion at the rate of 20/1000 urban & 10/1000 rural

(iii) Integration with maternal & child welfare, immunization, nutrition & non formal
education.

(iv) Medical termination of pregnancy Act.

Objective:

To destabilize the population at the level of some 130 million by the year 2050 AD
through small family norms.

Aim:

To achieve a higher end that is to improve the quality of the life of the people.

Concept: The term ―family welfare is in much broader in scope then ―Family planning‖. The
concept of welfare is basically related to ―quality of life‖. It includes:

• Employment

• Education
• Safe drinking water

• Client centered approach

• Prevention & treatment of major diseases

• MCH & RCH services

• Family planning

• Women‘s welfare

Components of National family welfare Programme:-

1. Administration & organization: - This includes appointing the employee & arranging the
resources

2. Training: Training the medical, nursing & paramedical staff.

3. Social & health education

4. Supplies & sewices

(a) The scope of scope of activities carried out under family welfare prog.

(b) Mother & child health

(c) Small family norm

(d) School health

Reproduction & child Health (RCH)

The reproductive & child health program was formally launched by Gov. of India on 15th Oct
1977. As per recommendation of International conference on population & development held in
Cario in 1994.
Objectives:-

(1) To promote the health of the mothers & children to ensure safe motherhood & child
survival.

(2) The intermediate objective is to reduces IMR & MMR

(3) The ultimate objective is population stabilization, through responsible reproductive

behavior.

Intervention / Concept of RCH:

• Prevention & Management of Unwanted pregnancies.

• Maternal care (safe motherhood)

• Child Survival

• Prevention & management of RTIS/STD

• Prevention 9f HIV/ AIDS

Components:

• Family planning

• Child survival & safe motherhood prog.

• Prevention/ management of RTI/STD & AIDS

• Client approach to health care

Family planning Method

1. Natural Method

(a) Calendar method:

(b) Basal Body Temperature

c) Cervical Mucosa
(d) Sympto thermal method

(e) Ovulation awareness

(f) With drawl method

(g) Lactional amenorrhea

(2) Mechanical method

(a) Male condom

(b) Female condom

(c) Diaphragm

(d) Spermicidal

(e) Intra uterine deuce

(f) Sponge

(3) Hormonal Method

(a) Oral pills

(b) Mixed pills (osteon & progesterone)

(c) Mini pills (progesterone only pills)

(d) Post coital pills

(e) Non steroidal weekly oral pills:-

(f) Long acting / once a month pills :-

(g) Emergency contraceptive pills (ECPS or E-pills)

(taken within 72 hours Ecp are safe)

h) Skin patch
i) Vaginal ring

j) Injection

k) Implant

(4) Surgical method:-

(a) Vasectomy:-

(c) Tubectomy

Family Disorganization

Family:-

A family is group of two or more people that are related by blood, marriage (registered or
de facto) adoption, step or fostering & who usually live together in the same household.

Disorganization: - a breakdown of a family system.

The disturbance of a systematic arrangement causing disorder & confusion.

It may be associated with parental overburdening or loss of significant others who served
as role models for children or support systems for family members.

Causes:-

• Lack of privacy

• Incompatibility like age, mentality, personality & culture.

• Interference of in laws & other persons.

• Unemployment

• Conflict

• Poor discipline
• Abuse

To improve the family disorganization, it is necessary to learn three R’s: rules, roles and
rights.

PARENT EDUCATION

It can be defined as any deliberate effort to help parents be more effective in caring for children.

Methods counted in parenting behavior divided into three categories:

1. Use of power by parents – Such techniques, in which parents attempt to force or

pressure their children to behave in certain ways, are associated with children who are less
socially competent.

2. Love withdrawal – In which parents show disapproval for behavior that displeases them.
It may include ignoring, shaming or isolating the child, the use of love withdrawal shows mixed
results in its effects on children.

3. Induction – It includes reasoning with children & helping them understand the effects of
their behaviour or on others.

Parenting programme divide into two categories:

Parent education program:

1. P.E.T (Parent Effectiveness training) is based on the Gordon model by Thomas Gorden.
Dr. Gordan taught the first P.E.T. Course in 1962.

P.E.T. is neither authoritarian nor permissive, both of which are win-lose approaches to parent –
child.

Skills are:

• Active listening

• I-Massage
• No- lose conflict Resolution

• Behavior window

2). Systematize Training for effective parenting (STEP)

STEP was developed & published by the psychologists Don Dinkmeyer.

Positive Parenting:-

Parenting is the process of promoting & supporting the physical, emotional, social & intellectual
development of a child from infancy to adulthood.

Community Education

The aim of community education is to equip communities with the skills they need to undertake
the activates they wish to undertake it is essentially about educating communities or groups, not
just individuals.

Adult & Communication Education (ACE) is a response to the life long learning needs of
the community.

Features are:-

• It is learner- Centered

• It is for everyone

• It covers a wide variety of learning

• It responds to the community

Principles bases on

• Empowerment

• Participation
• Inclusion, equality of opportunity & anti- discrimination

• Self – denervation

• Partnership

Wisconsin Model: - A philosophical base for developing community Education prog. is

provided through the five comports of the Wisconsin.

Model of community education:- A set of community education principles was developed by

larry horgna & larry Decker for the national for community Education in 1991, These include :-

• Self –determination

• Self-help

• Leadership Development

• Localization

• Maximum use of Resources

• Inclusiveness

• Responsiveness

• Life long learning

Parenting Styles:

Baumrind Parenting Styles: Four Types of Parenting

1) Authoritarian Parenting
 Authoritarian parents are often thought of as disciplinarians.
 They use a strict discipline style with little negotiation possible. Punishment is common.
 Communication is mostly one way: from parent to child. Rules usually are not explained.
 Parents with this style are typically less nurturing.
  Expectations are high with limited flexibility.

2) Permissive/ Indulgent Parenting

 Permissive or Indulgent parents mostly let their children do what they want, and offer
limited guidance or direction. They are more like friends than parents.
 Their discipline style is the opposite of strict. They have limited or no rules and mostly
let children figure problems out on their own.
 Communication is open but these parents let children decide for themselves rather than
giving direction.
 Parents in this category tend to be warm and nurturing.
 Expectations are typically minimal or not set by these parents.

3) Uninvolved Parenting
 Uninvolved parents give children a lot of freedom and generally stay out of their way.
Some parents may make a conscious decision to parent in this way, while others are less
interested in parenting or unsure of what to do.
 No particular discipline style is utilized. An uninvolved parent lets a child mostly do what
he wants, probably out of a lack of information or caring.
 Communication is limited.
 This group of parents offers little nurturing.
 There are few or no expectations of children.

4) Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parents are reasonable and nurturing, and set high, clear expectations. Children
with parents who demonstrate this style tend to be self-disciplined and think for themselves. This
style is thought to be most beneficial to children.
Parenting practices:

1) Attachment parenting: Strengthen the intuitive, psychological and emotional bond

between the primary care givers.
2) Helicopter parenting: Over parenting, parents are constantly involving themselves,
interrupting the child‘s ability to function on their own.
3) Narcissistic parenting: Parents are driven by their own needs; their children are
extension of their own identity. They use their children to live out their dreams. They
have two faces-the one they wear in public and the one they wear at home.
4) Positive parenting: unconditional support, guiding them and supporting them for healthy
development.
5) Slow parenting: Allowing the child to develop their own interests and allowing them to
grow into their own person and also allow children to make their own decision.
6) Spiritual parenting: respecting the child‘s individuality, making space for child to
develop a sense of their own beliefs through their personality and their own potentials.

Laws Related to Marriage

Hindu Marriage Act (1955)

According to this act marriage is valid only when it fulfills the following conditions otherwise it
is considered as void.

 Either spouse should not have an earlier living spouse.

 Both husband and wife should not have mental illness.
 At the time of marriage men should have completed 21 years and women 18 years of age.
 The parties should not be sapinda to each other unless the custom governing them permits
such marriage.

Child Marriage Restraint Amendment Act (1976): This act was proposed in 1929. This act
raises the age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys 18 to 21 years. Parents of the
children performing, conducting or directing such marriage are subjected to punishment.
Special Marriage Act (1954)

The special marriage act with its provision for divorce and succession to property was passed in
1872. The parties marrying under this act are required to declare that they did not believe in
religion in which they were born. Since most of them were not prepared to do so the law was
amended in 1923.

The law further amended in 1954

 Neither party must at the time of marriage have a husband or a wife living.
 The man must have reached the age of 21 years and women that of 18 years.
 Neither party should be an idiot or lunatic.
 The parties are not within any degree of prohibited relationship.

Dowry Prohibition Act (1961)

Under this act any property valuable thing given or agreed to be given in connection with
marriage to the bride or bridegroom or any other person before at any time person before or at
any time after the marriage is dowry. This act was amended in 1984 to make the offence
cognizable to enhance the penalty (both fine and imprisonment) to widen the scope of the act and
to make it effective. This act was further amended in 1986 and the minimum punishment for
taking of dowry has been raised to 5 years and a fine Rs.15, 000/- .

Minority and Hindu Guardianship Act (1956)

This act provides that the natural guardian for both boys and girls is first then father and after
him mother. The prior right of the mother is recognized only with respect to custody in the case
of children below 5 years.

Dissolution of Hindu Marriage Act (1955)

This act provides equal rights for women to obtain divorce on the following grounds.
  Adultery
 Change religion
 Lunacy
 Incurable diseases
 If the husband has more than one wife living
 If the husband deserted the wife for 7 years
 If the girl is married before the age of 18 years
 If the husband is impotent.

But however in this act divorce is given only after completion of one year from the marriage
date.

Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (1956) (HAMA)

It amends and codifies the laws relating to adoption and maintenance among Hindus.

 Any Hindu male or female who is major or single can adopt Hindu children below the
age of 15 years.
 A married female cannot adopt
 A married male can adopt with the consent of his wife
 If the adopter and adoptee are of different sexes, there should be an age difference of 21
years between the two
 Section 9 enjoins the court to consider the wishes of the child to be adopted before
granting permission

A Muslim marriage is void only if a prohibited relationship is discovered. A Muslim man can
divorce his wife without going to court. Muslim women can divorce her husband if he has earlier
delegated such powers to her or she pays him some consideration.
The Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act (1939)

A women married under Muslim law can obtain a decree for dissolution of marriage on any one
or more of the following grounds.

 Whereabouts of husband not known for 4 years.

 Husband has neglected/not provided for maintenance for 2 years.
 Husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of 7 years or upward.
 Husband has failed to perform within reasonable cause, marital obligations for 3 years.
 Husband was impotent at the time of marriage and continues to be so.
 Husband is insane/leprous/suffering from virulent venereal disease.
 If she was married before 15 years and repudiated it before 18 years, provided that the
marriage was not consummated.

Christian Marriage Act 1872

 It allows marriage with a non-Christian

 The boy should be over 21 years, the girl over 18 years.

Rights of children:

Children‘s rights were recognized after the 1st World war, with the adoption of the Declaration
of Geneva, in 1924. The process of recognition of children‘s rights continued thanks to the UN,
with the adoption of the Declaration of children‘s rights in 1959.

The recognition of the child‘s interest and his rights become real on 20 November 1989 with the
adoption of the International Convention on the Rights of the Child which is the first
international legally binding text recognizing all the fundamental rights of the child.

1) Right to Survival:

• Right to be born
• Right to minimum standards of food, shelter and clothing

• Right to live with dignity

• Right to health care, to safe drinking water, nutritious food, a clean and safe environment, and
information to help them stay healthy

2) Right to Protection:

• Right to be protected from all sorts of violence

• Right to be protected from neglect

• Right to be protected from physical and sexual abuse

• Right to be protected from dangerous drugs

3) Right to Participation:

• Right to freedom of opinion

• Right to freedom of expression

• Right to freedom of association

• Right to information

• Right to participate in any decision making that involves him/her directly or indirectly

4) Right to Development:

• Right to education

• Right to learn
• Right to relax and play

• Right to all forms of development – emotional, mental and physical

5) Rights to health and nutrition:

Rights of Women

The rights available to woman in India can be classified into two categories, namely as
constitutional rights and legal rights. The constitutional rights are those which are provided in the
various provisions of the constitution. The legal rights, on the other hand, are those which are
provided in the various laws (acts) of the Parliament and the State Legislatures.

Constitutional Rights to Women:

1) The state shall not discriminate against any citizen of India on the ground of sex [Article
15(1)].
2) The state is empowered to make any special provision for women. In other words, this
provision enables the state to make affirmative discrimination in favour of women
[Article 15(3)].
3) No citizen shall be discriminated against or be ineligible for any employment or office
under the state on the ground of sex [Article 16(2)].
4) Traffic in human beings and forced labour are prohibited [Article 23(1)].
5) The state to secure for men and women equally the right to an adequate means of
livelihood [Article 39(a)].
6) The state to secure equal pay for equal work for both Indian men and women [Article
39(d)].
7) The state is required to ensure that the health and strength of women workers are not
abused and that they are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to
their strength [Article 39(e)].
8) The state shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and
maternity relief [Article 42].
9) It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women [Article 51-A(e)].
10) One-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Panchayat
shall be reserved for women [Article 243-D(3)].
11) One-third of the total number of offices of chairpersons in the Panchayats at each level
shall be reserved for women [Article 243-D(4)].
12) One-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality
shall be reserved for women [Article 243-T(3)].
13) The offices of chairpersons in the Municipalities shall be reserved for women in such
manner as the State Legislature may provide [Article 243-T(4)].

Legal Rights to Women:

1) Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) is a comprehensive legislation

to protect women in India from all forms of domestic violence. It also covers women who
have been/are in a relationship with the abuser and are subjected to violence of any
kind—physical, sexual, mental, verbal or emotional.
2) Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act (1956) is the premier legislation for prevention of
trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation. In other words, it prevents trafficking in
women and girls for the purpose of prostitution as an organised means of living.
3) Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act (1986) prohibits indecent
representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings,
figures or in any other manner.
4) Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act (1987) provides for the more effective prevention
of the commission of sati and its glorification on women.
5) Dowry Prohibition Act (1961) prohibits the giving or taking of dowry at or before or any
time after the marriage from women.
6) Maternity Benefit Act (1961) regulates the employment of women in certain
establishments for certain period before and after child-birth and provides for maternity
benefit and certain other benefits.
7) Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (1971) provides for the termination of certain
pregnancies by registered medical practitioners on humanitarian and medical grounds.
8) Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection)
(PCPNDT) Act (1994) prohibits sex selection before or after conception and prevents the
misuse of pre-natal diagnostic techniques for sex determination leading to female
foeticide.
9) Equal Remuneration Act (1976) provides for payment of equal remuneration to both men
and women workers for same work or work of a similar nature. It also prevents
discrimination on the ground of sex, against women in recruitment and service
conditions.
10) Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act (1939) grants a Muslim wife the right to seek the
dissolution of her marriage.
11) Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act (1986)protects the rights of
Muslim women who have been divorced by or have obtained divorce from their
husbands.
12) Family Courts Act (1984) provides for the establishment of Family Courts for speedy
settlement of family disputes.
13) Indian Penal Code (1860) contains provisions to protect Indian women from dowry
death, rape, kidnapping, cruelty and other offences.
14) Code of Criminal Procedure (1973) has certain safeguards for women like obligation of a
person to maintain his wife, arrest of woman by female police and so on.
15) Indian Christian Marriage Act (1872) contain provisions relating to marriage and divorce
among the Christian community.
16) Legal Services Authorities Act (1987) provides for free legal services to Indian women.
17) Hindu Marriage Act (1955) introduced monogamy and allowed divorce on certain
specified grounds. It provided equal rights to Indian man and woman in respect of
marriage and divorce.
18) Hindu Succession Act (1956) recognizes the right of women to inherit parental property
equally with men.
19) Minimum Wages Act (1948) does not allow discrimination between male and female
workers or different minimum wages for them.
 20) Mines Act (1952) and Factories Act (1948) prohibits the employment of women between
7 P.M. to 6 A.M. in mines and factories and provides for their safety and welfare.
21) The following other legislation‘s also contain certain rights and safeguards for women:
22) Employees‘ State Insurance Act (1948)
23) Plantation Labour Act (1951)
24) Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act (1976)
25) Legal Practitioners (Women) Act (1923)
26) Indian Succession Act (1925)
27) Indian Divorce Act (1869)
28) Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act (1936)
29) Special Marriage Act (1954)
30) Foreign Marriage Act (1969)
31) Indian Evidence Act (1872)
32) Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (1956).
33) National Commission for Women Act (1990) provided for the establishment of a
National Commission for Women to study and monitor all matters relating to the
constitutional and legal rights and safeguards of women.
34) Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal). Act
(2013) provides protection to women from sexual harassment at all workplaces both in
public and private sector, whether organized or unorganized.

Important point (from previous paper)

 The right to Education in India was operationalized in the year: 2009

 The child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was enacted by the Parliament in the
year: 1986
 A person copes with anxiety by retreating to a childish or earlier forms of behavior is
called: Regression
 Acts deal with protection of women and girls against violence: DV Act, 2005 and
PCPNDT Act,1994
 Disabled persons: PWD Act
 Child sexual offences: POCSO
 Child labor: CL (P and R) Act
 Children in conflict with law: JJ (C and P) Act
 Hindu adoption: HAMA
 Bell Bajao Andolan (2008): Anti-domestic violence
 Red Ribbon Express (2007): HIV/AIDS awareness
 Navdanya: Eco-feminism
 Mudra Yojana (8, april 2005): Credit for micro-enterprises
 Vandana Shiva: Environmental Sustainability
 Aruna Roy: Right to work
 Medha Patkar: Narmada Bachao Andolan(1989)
 Ila Ben Bhatt: Self-employment for Women (1972)
 POCSO: 2012
 PCPNDT: 1994
 PWD: 1995
 CL (P and R): 1986
 JJ (C and P): 2000
 73rd and 74th Amendments to Indian Constitution are important milestones for women‘s
development in India.
 Political participation of women is important for empowerment of women.
 A family functions as a system
 It is a set of parts coordinated to accomplish a set of goals.
 Methods to increase effectiveness of punishment: explanations given, warm parent-child
relationship, consistency
 The objective of the amendment of the Child Labour Act is to ensure that all children
between 6 to 14 years are in schools.
 The potential of women to participate in development is limited by the opportunities and
exposure available to them.
 Scholars have repeatedly suggested that everyone is born into a culture that has pro-set
notions about males and females and what is appropriate for male and females.
 Authoritative: Warm and nurturant
 Authoritarian: Punitive
 Indulgent: Low control
 Neglectful: uninvolved
 Sex ratio at birth is an indicator of the discrimination against girl children and heinous
crimes such as female foeticide.
 Gender equality should lead to sex ratio being less skewed.
 NCPCR (National Commission for Protection of Child rights, 2005): Child right
 NHRC (1994-95): Human rights
 NCW (1992): Women‘s rights
 RCI( rehabilitation council of India, 1992): Disability issue
 Legal blindness is defined as visual acuity (vision) of 20/200 or less in the better eye or
with correction.
 8th March: International Women‘s Day
 Child labor is a gross violation of a child‘s right to development. Children who work in
factories are unable to attend school, are exploited physically and paid low wages.
 Stages of acquisition of skills as given by Seymour:
1) Learning the sequence of activities
2) Determining the sensory channel foe each item of activity.
3) Attaining the right set in the sensory channel.
4) Using information more efficiently.
5) Structuring sensory-motor patterns.
6) Diminishing conscious attention.
 The Protection of children from sexual offences Act (POCSO): 2012
  Gardner‘s multiple intelligences include which of the following: Linguistic, Musical,
interpersonal
 Egocentrism leads to a variety of illogical features of thought in pre-schoolers:
animistic thinking, irreversibility and perception bound
 Statutory bodies required to be set-up under the Juvenile Justice Act ,2000: Observation
Homes, Juvenile Welfare Boards and Child Welfare Committees
 Indians are at increase risk to develop metabolic syndrome X.
 Primary indicators of syndrome X are central obesity, abnormal glucose tolerance, and
low level of HDL.
 Authoritative parenting styles are a democratic, rational approach in which children‘s
rights are respected.
 To uncover cultural meanings of children and adults behavior human development
researchers have borrowed ethnographic methods from the field of anthropology. It uses
participant observation to understand the unique values and social processes of a culture.
 Arrange in correct sequence according to cognitive attainment:
1) Reflexive schemes
2) Object permanence
3) Deferred imitation
4) Centration
5) Hierarchical classification
 Normal nuclear family: Beginning, expanding and contracting family
 Childless family: Beginning stage continue
 Single parent family with adopted child: expanding and contracting stage
 Joint family: Expanding stage continue
 Extended family: Beginning stage with expanding stage
 Anorexia nervosa: eating disorder
 Dementia: Neurological disorder
 Addiction: learning by doing
 Pragmatism: psychological dependence
 Development period from birth to 8 to 12 months known as: Infancy
 The term pre-basic education is given by: Mahatma Gandhi
 Psychosocial theory is given by : Erickson
 The function of ego is based on: reality principle
 Sixth five year plan onwards there has been a marked shift in the approach to women‘s
issues from ‗Welfare‘, to ‗Development‘.
 The appropriate way to stimulate sense of touch: massage, expose to different texture,
gentle care and touch and playing with the child.
 Parental role in the family changes during: child rearing stage, establishing stage and
reconstruction stage
 Helping the needy, homeless, abused and street children should be made compulsory to
all the government employees and business holders for the nation‘s progress.
 Sequence of mentally challenged children considering their IQ level:
1) Moron
2) TMR
3) EMR
4) Gifted
5) Genius
 Frobel: Father of Kindergarten
 Mc. Millan sisters: Nursery school
 Science experience: Germination
 Story telling: Puppet‘s show
 Mobile crèches: Child‘s health
 IWS: exports
 ICAR: Research
 UNESCO: Culture
 Sociometry is a tool to measure child‘s: relationship with peers
 Arrange constituent processes of observational learning in correct sequence:
1) Attention
2) Retention
3) Production
4) Motivation
 First menstruation: Menarche
 Authoritative parenting: Democratic parenting
 Observational learning: Albert Bandura
 ICCW: Balwadis and day care centers
 Level of intelligent quotient of educable mentally challenged child is: 75-100
 Dominant emotions are always: pleasant, unpleasant and strong
 Goals of the elderly include: family relations and goal health
 Voluntary organization are involved in the following activities: Welfare, Advocacy and
networking
 Arrange the following in order of establishment in correct sequence:
1) Central Social Welfare Board (CSWD)
2) National Council of Education, Research and Training (NCERT)
3) Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
4) Convention on the Rights of Child (CRC)
 Correct sequence of early language development stages:
1) Crying
2) Cooing
3) Babbling
4) Gestures
5) Utterance
 DPT: Whooping cough
 Jealousy: Negative emotion
 Maria Montessori: Sensorial training
 Havighurst: development tasks
 Active learning: First hand experiences
 Heightened emotionally: Adolescence
 Electra complex: Freud
 Visit to post office: field trip
 Releasing pent up emotional energy is: emotional catharsis
 Clay modeling: imagination and creativity
 Pre basic education: M K Gandhi
 International women‘s day: 8th March
 Beneficiaries of supplementary nutrition in ICDS: 6 months to 72 months children
 The female sex hormone is: estrogen
 Family directly influences personality of the child by: communication and moulding
 Discipling is a way of improving: mannerism, moral values and educational values
 Right to survival of children includes: right to birth and registration and right to health
and nutrition
 Adopting a child carries special challenges as the adoptive parents need to deal with
integrating the child into the family.
 Stages of child development:
1) Prenatal
2) Antenatal
3) Neonatal
4) Infancy
5) Toddlerhood
 Germination: science experience
 Equilibration: Piaget
 TAT: Projective technique
 Cooperative and helpful behavior: Prosocial behavior
 BCG: Immediately afterbirth
 Development: Qualitative