Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

M.Sc. HOME SCIENCE (FOOD AND NUTRITION)

UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
2018
Semester II

T2.4: FOOD MICROBIOLOGY AND FOOD TOXICOLOGY Marks: 50 (Credit 4)

Syllabus: 6. Heavy Metal Toxicity: Cadmium, Lead and Mercury

Objective:

 To learn about the food contamination of heavy metals

 To learn about the common route of contamination of heavy metals
 To learn about the mode of action of toxicity of Cadmium
 To learn about the various sources of Lead
 To learn about the mode of action of toxicity of Lead
 To learn about the various sources of Mercury
 To learn about the mode of action of toxicity of Mercury

Food poisoning caused by toxic heavy metals

 Heavy metal poisoning is the accumulation of heavy metals, in toxic amounts, in the soft
tissues of the body.
 Symptoms and physical findings associated with heavy metal poisoning vary according to
the metal accumulated.
 Many of the heavy metals, such as zinc, copper, chromium, iron and manganese, are
essential to body function in very small amounts.
 But, if these metals accumulate in the body in concentrations sufficient to cause poisoning,
then serious damage may occur.
 The heavy metals most commonly associated with poisoning of humans are lead, mercury,
arsenic and cadmium.
 Heavy metal poisoning may occur as a result of industrial exposure, air or water pollution,
foods, medicines, improperly coated food containers, or the ingestion of lead-based paints.

1
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

Source of heavy metals in food:

 Contamination of foods by heavy metals has a number of different sources.

 Heavy metals are natural constituents of the earth’s crust and are persistent
environmental contaminants; they are not degradable and enter the body through food,
air, and water and bio-accumulate over a period of time.
 They can be released into the environment by natural and anthropogenic sources.
 Anthropogenic sources of heavy metal contamination include agricultural activities,
such as pesticide and herbicide application, contaminated irrigation water, municipal
waste used for fertilization, and even mineral fertilizer containing traces of heavy metals.
 Additional anthropogenic sources of heavy metals include direct waste disposal on
farmland, mining activities, use of lead as antiknock in petrol, traffic emissions,
cigarette smoking, metallurgy and smelting, aerosol cans, sewage discharge, and
building materials, such as paints.
 Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As) can be found naturally
occurring in soil and can leach into water. Humans have used, and still use these heavy
metals in manufacturing of various products.
 Lead was used in petrol, batteries, paints, water pipes and the soldered seams of tin
cans.
 Cadmium is used for many items, including electroplating, storage batteries, vapor
lamps, in some solders and pigments.
 Arsenic can be found in arsenic based pesticides, wood preservatives, feed additives
and silicon based computer chips.
 Mercury can be found in thermometers, barometers and dental amalgam fillings.
 Once in the air, water and soil, heavy metals are taken up by plants and animals and into
the food chain for humans.
 Since this contamination has so many different sources, there is a wide range of foods
contaminated by heavy metals, including products of plant origin (cereals, rice, wheat,
edible roots, mushrooms, etc.) as well as foods of animal origin (fish, crustaceans,
mollusks).

2
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

 Mercury comes in elemental, inorganic and organic forms. Inorganic mercury is

converted to organic forms in nature. Methylmercury, the most common organic form, is
easily absorbed into the intestinal system and readily enters the brain, especially the brain
of a developing foetus. Methylmercury is found in fish and other marine animals and in
higher amounts in long-lived predator fish.
 Cadmium in food is found in grains, cereals and leafy vegetables, but there is a low
absorption rate of about 5% through those sources. Inhalation of cadmium from fumes,
dust and cigarettes is absorbed at a rate of greater than 90%.
 Lead, because of prior use in various substances and as a pollutant, can possibly be found
in almost every food product.
 In particular, fish is one of the products most affected by heavy metal contamination,
because heavy metals are bioaccumulative in the food chain.
 When heavy metals accumulate in waters, fish ingest them through their diet and
accumulate them over the course of their lives. The heavy metals then reach the consumer
when that fish is consumed.
 The danger of heavy metals is especially severe, because they are not chemically or
biologically degradable.
 Once released into the environment, principally due to industrial or mining activities, they
can remain for hundreds of years, polluting the soil and accumulating in plants and organic
tissues.
 Moreover, their concentration in living beings increases as they move up the food chain.

Toxicity of Heavy Metals

 Among the most significant heavy metals from the point of view of health here we
discussed the toxicity of mercury, lead, cadmium.
 Heavy metals become toxic when they are not metabolized by the body and
accumulate in the soft tissues.
 Toxicity of heavy metals refers to the harmful effects that result from exposure or
consumption of excessive amounts or more than the daily recommended limits.

3
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

 Although individual metals exhibit specific signs of toxicity, the general signs
associated with cadmium, lead, arsenic, mercury poisoning include gastrointestinal
disorders, diarrhoea, stomatitis, tremor, hemoglobinuria, ataxia, paralysis,
depression, convulsion, and vomiting.

Toxicity of Cadmium (Cd):

 The foods that are potentially most susceptible to cadmium contamination are
mushrooms, shellfish, freshwater fish, dried algae, and potable water, among
others.
 The onset of symptoms may be delayed for two to four hours after exposure.
 Overexposure may cause fatigue, headaches, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps,
diarrhea, and fever.
 In addition, progressive loss of lung function (emphysema), abnormal buildup of
fluid within the lungs (pulmonary edema), and breathlessness (dyspnea) may also
be present.
 In some cases, affected individuals may exhibit increased salivation; yellowing of the
teeth; an unusually rapid heart beat (tachycardia); low levels of iron within the red
blood cells (anemia); bluish discoloration (cyanosis) of the skin and mucous
membranes due to insufficient oxygen supply to these tissues; and/or an impaired
sense of smell (anosmia).
 Individuals with cadmium poisoning may also experience improper functioning of
the canals with the kidney (renal tubular dysfunction) characterized by excretion of
abnormally high levels of protein in the urine (proteinuria), minor changes in liver
function, and/or softening of certain bones (osteomalacia).
 Cadmium appears to cross the placental barrier and accumulate in the foetus, resulting
in neurodegenerative disorders.
 Itai-itai disease is caused by cadmium (Cd) exposure, produced as a result of human
activities related to industrialisation, and this condition was first recognised in Japan in
the 1960s.
 Itai-itai disease is characterised by osteomalaecia with severe bone pain and is
associated with renal tubular dysfunction.
4
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

 Itai-itai disease mainly affects women residing in rice farming areas irrigated by the
contaminated Jinzu River in Toyama, Japan.
 An epidemiological survey conducted between 1967 and 1968 revealed the largest-scale
epidemic of Cd pollution-induced Itai-itai disease in the world, affecting
individuals ≥30 years of age residing in the Jinzu River basin in Toyama.
 Cadmium is also known as human carcinogenic.
 Cadmium is poorly excreted and suspected to have a half-life of 25 to 30 years.

Sources of Lead (Pb):

 Lead poisoning may be caused by exposure (e.g. chewing or ingestion) to deteriorating

lead paint in older houses.
 Occupational exposure to lead in painting, smelting, firearms instruction,
automotive repair, brass or cooper foundries, printing, battery manufacturing,
mining, brass foundry, gasoline, glass, and bridge, tunnel and elevated highway
construction may also occur.
 Another cause of lead poisoning is through the contamination of food and water
especially from lead pipes.
 Additional causes of lead poisoning include calcium products, progressive hair dyes,
kajal, surma, kohl, and foreign digestive remedies.

5
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

Toxicity of Lead (Pb):

 Lead production workers, battery plant workers, welders and solders may be
overexposed to lead if proper precautions are not taken.
 The effect of lead poisoning varies depending on the age of the individual and the
amount of exposure.
 Some affected individuals may not have any noticeable symptoms. Symptoms usually
develop over a three to six week time period.
 In children, symptoms vary depending upon the degree of exposure to lead.
 Lead overexposure may cause children to be less playful, clumsier, irritable, and
sluggish (lethargic).
 In some cases, symptoms include headaches, vomiting, abdominal pain, lack of
appetite (anorexia), constipation, slurred speech (dysarthria), changes in kidney
function, unusually high amounts of protein in the blood (hyperproteinemia), and
unusually pale skin (pallor) resulting from a low level of iron in the red blood cells
(anemia).
 In children, even at low levels, lead is associated with impaired cognitive function,
including reduced IQ, behavior difficulties such as mental retardation and selective
deficits in language, balance, behavior, and school performance and other problems.
 Ingestion or inhalation of lead can cause damage to the brain, kidneys, bone marrow,
and other systems in children.
 Blood lead levels as low as 5µg/dL in infants and children is associated with
developmental problems, such as impaired cognitive function, behavioral disorders,
impaired hearing, and stunted growth, while levels above 75µg/dL result in coma,
convulsions, and even death.
 In adults, overexposure to lead may cause high blood pressure, damage to the
reproductive organs; affect the central nervous system, the kidneys and the
immune system.
 Additional symptoms may include fever, headaches, fatigue, sluggishness
(letheragy), vomiting, loss of appetite (anorexia), abdominal pain, constipation,
joint pain, loss of recently acquired skills, incoordination, listlessness, difficulty

6
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

sleeping (insomnia), irritability, altered consciousness, hallucinations, and/or

seizures.
 In addition, affected individuals may experience low levels of iron in the red blood
cells (anemia), peripheral neuropathy, and, in some cases, brain damage
(encephalopathy).
 Neurological symptoms associated with lead overexposure include an impaired ability
to coordinate voluntary movements (ataxia), brain damage (encephalopathy),
seizures, convulsions, swelling of the optic nerve (papilledema), and/or impaired
consciousness.
 Lead is excreted in urine and feces. However, it may also appear in hair, nails, sweat,
saliva, and breast milk.

Pathophysiology of Lead (Pb):

 Lead has no known physiologically relevant role in the body, and its harmful effects are
myriad.
 Lead and other heavy metals create reactive radicals which damage cell structures
including DNA and cell membranes.
 Lead also interferes with DNA transcription, enzymes that help in the synthesis
of vitamin D, and enzymes that maintain the integrity of the cell membrane.
 Anemia may result when the cell membranes of red blood cells become more fragile as
the result of damage to their membranes.
 Lead interferes with metabolism of bones and teeth and alters the permeability of blood
vessels and collagen synthesis.
 Lead may also be harmful to the developing immune system, causing production of
excessive inflammatory proteins; this mechanism may mean that lead exposure is a risk
factor for asthma in children.
 Lead exposure has also been associated with a decrease in activity of immune cells such
as polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
 Lead also interferes with the normal metabolism of calcium in cells and causes it to
build up within them.

7
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

 One of the main causes for the pathology of lead is that it interferes with the activity of
an essential enzyme called delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase, or ALAD , which
is important in the biosynthesis of heme, the cofactor found in hemoglobin.
 Lead also inhibits the enzyme ferrochelatase, another enzyme involved in the
formation of heme.
 Ferrochelatase catalyzes the joining of protoporphyrin and Fe2+ to form heme.
 Lead's interference with heme synthesis results in production of zinc protoporphyrin
and the development of anemia.
 Another effect of lead's interference with heme synthesis is the buildup of heme
precursors, such as aminolevulinic acid, which may be directly or indirectly harmful to
neurons.

Sources of Mercury (Hg)

 Mercury poisoning may be caused by exposure to large amounts of mercury in the

manufacturing of thermometers, mirrors, incandescent lights, x-ray machines, and
vacuum pumps.
 Another cause of mercury poisoning is contaminated water and fish.
 Children often are exposed to mercury through paint, calomel, teething powder, and
mercuric fungicide used in washing diapers.
 Additional cause of mercury poisoning is exposure to mercury in thermometers, dental
amalgams, and some batteries.

Toxicity of Mercury (Hg):

 Mercury is considered to be a highly toxic heavy metal.
 Mercury is highly volatile; when it is present in the air, we can breathe it in through
our lungs or absorb it through our skin and accumulates, and remains for a long time.
 Most of the mercury may enter our bodies through fish, because fish consume large
quantities of mercury, which is one of the most prevalent heavy metals in seas and
rivers.

8
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

 Mercury comes in elemental, inorganic and organic forms. Inorganic mercury is

converted to organic forms in nature.
 Methylmercury, the most common organic form, is easily absorbed into the intestinal
system and readily enters the brain, especially the brain of a developing foetus.
 Methylmercury is found in fish and other marine animals and in higher amounts in
long-lived predator fish.
 Methylmercury’s primary effect is impaired neurological development in foetuses,
infants and children.
 Mercury can affect the lungs, kidneys, brain, and/or skin.
 Symptoms of mercury poisoning include fatigue, depression, sluggishness
(letheragy), irritability, and headaches.
 Respiratory symptoms associated with inhalation to mercury vapors include
coughing, breathlessness (dyspnea), tightness or burning pain in the chest, and/or
respiratory distress.
 Some affected individuals may experience abnormal buildup of fluid in the lungs
(pulmonary edema); pneumonia; and/or abnormal formation of fibrous tissue
(fibrosis).
 In some cases, other affected individuals may experience stomach and intestinal
disturbances; kidney damage; dehydration; acute renal failure; inflammation of
the gums (gingivitis); severe local irritation of the mouth and pharynx, accompanied
by vomiting; and/or abdominal cramps with bloody diarrhea.
 Minamata disease, sometimes referred to as Chisso-Minamata disease, is
a neurological disease caused by severe mercury poisoning.
 Signs and symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle
weakness, loss of peripheral vision, and damage to hearing and speech.
 Methylmercury is excreted from the body at a half-life of 50 days
 Mercury is mainly excreted through the urine and feces.

Pathophysiology of Mercury (Hg):

9
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

 The primary mechanism of mercury toxicity involves its irreversible inhibition of

selenoenzymes, such as thioredoxin reductase (IC50 = 9 nM).
 Although it has many functions, thioredoxin reductase restores vitamins C and E, as
well as a number of other important antioxidant molecules, back into their reduced
forms, enabling them to counteract oxidative damage.
 Since the rate of oxygen consumption is particularly high in brain tissues, production of
reactive oxygen species (ROS) is accentuated in these vital cells, making them
particularly vulnerable to oxidative damage and especially dependent upon
the antioxidant protection provided by selenoenzymes.
 High mercury exposures deplete the amount of cellular selenium available for the
biosynthesis of thioredoxin reductase and other selenoenzymes that prevent and
reverse oxidative damage, which, if the depletion is severe and long lasting, results in
brain cell dysfunctions that can ultimately cause death.
 Mercury in its various forms is particularly harmful to fetuses as an environmental toxin
in pregnancy, as well as to infants.
 Women who have been exposed to mercury in substantial excess of dietary selenium
intakes during pregnancy are at risk of giving birth to children with serious birth
defects.
 Mercury exposures in excess of dietary selenium intakes in young children can have
severe neurological consequences, preventing nerve sheaths from forming properly.
 Exposure to methylmercury causes increased levels of antibodies sent to myelin basic
protein (MBP), which is involved in the myelination of neurons, and glial fibrillary
acidic protein (GFAP), which is essential to many central nervous system (CNS).
 This causes an autoimmmune response against MBP and GFAP and results in the
degradation of neural myelin and general decline in function of the CNS.

10
 Class notes on Food Microbiology, M Sc, FNT/Dr T K pal 2021

Conclusion and Recommendation:

 Contaminated food is one of the main sources of exposure to heavy metals.

 Increased dietary heavy metal intake may contribute to the development of various
disorders.
 It is therefore necessary to monitor the levels of these metals in food and in the body.
 Long-term accumulation of heavy metals in soils results in contamination of food crops,
and studies have proven that heavy-metal-contaminated food crops, fruits, and
vegetables can contain levels higher than the recommended tolerable values proposed
by the European Union (EU), USEPA, FAO, and WHO.
 It is recommended that people living in highly polluted urban areas should not eat large
quantities of these foods in order to avoid excessive accumulation of heavy metals in
the body.
 Regular monitoring of foods for these toxic heavy metals from effluents and sewage is
essential to prevent their excessive buildup in the food chain.

11