Cereal

The cereal grains are seeds of the grass family. The word cereal is derived from
„ceres’, the Roman Goddess of grain. The principal cereal crops are
rice, wheat, maize or corn, jowar, ragi and bajra.

Structure

The overall structure of all cereal grains is basically similar differing from one
cereal to another in detail. The percentage of endosperm, germ, and bran of cereal
are 83, 14 ½ and 2 ½, respectively.

1) Bran or pericarp
2) Aleurone cell layer
3) Endosperm
4) Embryo

Aleurone: The endosperm is surrounded by one or more layers of cells known as

aleurone. In wheat, the aleurone is a single layer of thick-walled cubicle cells and
constitutes 7 percent of grain weight. The cells contain about 20 percent each of
protein, oil, and mineral matter. The cells are also rich in nicotinic acid. The
aleurone cells also contain tiny grains of phytic acid with some protein.

Endosperm

The endosperm itself consists of cells of various sizes, shapes, and different
composition. The endosperm cell consists mainly of starch and protein, the
starch being in the form of spherical granules which are single or tightly packed
together and embedded in a matrix of protein. The size and shape of the starch
granule in the endosperm cells vary from one cereal to another.
Embryo

The germ or embryo consists of many parts. It is separated from endosperm by

scutellum which has the function if mobilizing the stored food in the endosperm
and transmitting them to the embryo when the grain germinates. The germ and
scutellum are rich in protein and fat. Most of the B vitamins in the grain are
present in the scutellum.

Nutritive value of different cereals:

 Energy: Cereals are the main source of energy, contributing 70-80 percent
of the requirement. Hundred grams give more than 340 kcal of energy.
 Carbohydrates: 80 percent of dry matter of cereals is carbohydrate. The
two carbohydrates present are crude fibre and soluble carbohydrate. The
fibre constituents are cellulose, hemicelluloses and pentosans which are
concentrated in all cereals. Small quantities of dextrin and sugars are also
present. Free sugars present include simple sugars such as glucose and
disaccharides like sucrose and maltose. Of all the cereals, whole wheat, ragi
and bajra contain high amount of fibre.

 Protein: The protein content of different cereals varies. Rice contains less
amount of protein compared to other cereals. The protein content of different
varieties of the same cereal also varies. Proteins are found in all the tissues
of the cereal grain. Higher concentrations occur in the embryo, scutellum
and aleurone layer than in the endosperm, pericarp and testa. Within the
endosperm the concentration of protein increases from the centre to the
 periphery. The types of protein present in cereals are albumins, globulins,
prolamines (gliadins) and glutelins. The proportion of these proteins differs
in different cereals. The gliadins and glutelins are known as gluten proteins.
The gluten has unique elasticity and flow properties which are used for
baking bread and other products.
Cereals contain 6-12 percent protein, which is generally deficient in lysine.
They provide more than 50 percent of protein requirement as they are consumed in
large quantities. Among cereals, rice protein is of better quality than the others.
Cereals, when consumed with pulses, the protein quality improves due to mutual
supplementation. Cereals are deficient in lysine and rich in methionine. Pulses are
deficient in methionine and rich in lysine. Hence, there is improvement in protein
quality of both proteins.

 Lipids: Lipids are present to the extent of 1-2 percent in wheat and rice, and
3 percent in maize. More lipids are present in germ and bran than in other
parts of the grain. Wheat germ contains lipids 6-11 percent and bran 3-5
percent and endosperm 0.8-1.5 percent. Lipid content of maize germ is 35
percent and the bran contains 1 percent. The lipids are mostly the
triglycerides of palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid. Cereals also contain
phospholipids and lecithin.

 Minerals: About 95percent of minerals are the phosphates and sulphates of

potassium, magnesium, and calcium. A considerable part of phosphorous in
cereals is present in the form of phytin. Phosphorous and calcium present in
phytin are not available for absorption. Phytates present in cereals decrease
 the absorption of iron. Unrefined cereals contain more phytates than refined
or polished cereals. Off germination of the grains, the phytate content
reduces due to enzymatic breakdown and iron availability is improved.

Some mineral elements like copper, zinc, and manganese are also present in very
small quantities in cereals.

Cereals are poor sources of calcium and iron particularly rice is a very poor
source of these two elements. The content depends upon the extent of polishing.
Ragi is a rich source of calcium and iron. Millets (ragi, bajra, jowar) are rich in
minerals and fibre. The iron content of wheat is increased during milling where
iron rollers are used.

 Vitamins: Whole grain cereals are an important source of B vitamins in our

diet. Since most of these vitamins are in the outer bran, refining or polishing
the grains reduces B vitamin content. Parboiling which includes soaking in
water and steaming of paddy results in seeping of vitamins present in outer
layer into the grain. Hence, milled and polished parboiled rice retains much
of the B vitamins. Maida has less B vitamins than whole wheat flour.
Cereals do not contain either vitamin A or C except maize which contains
small amount of carotenes. Oils from cereal grains are rich in vitamin E.

 Enzymes: Certain grains contain many enzymes and of these the amylases,
proteases, lipases and oxido-reducatases are of importance. Upon
germination α amylase activity increases. The proteases are relatively more
 in the germ. The lipases of the cereals are responsible for the fatty acids
appearing during storage of the cereals and their products.

Effect of cooking

 Antinutritional factors: Uncooked legume seeds contain antinutritional

factors tha can be toxic if large amounts are consumed. Trypsin inhibitors
and haemagglutinins disappear at 90 m, however, polyphenolic compounds
although decreasing with time are still found in the cooked material.

 Protein quality:
Protein quality of pulses is improved more by moist heat than by dry heat
treatment, as available lysine is decreased in roasted pulses as compared to boiled
and pressure cooked ones. Heat treatment causes loss of methionine, the most
important amino acid of legume.

 Minerals: Cooking has a little effect on calcium, magnesium and total iron
content of pulses.
 Vitamins: Loss of thiamine may occur due to heat applied.
 Colour: Sodium metabisulphite is found to be effective in maintaining
colour of lentils, other seeds acquire a darker colour during processing.

Factors effecting cooking quality

 Inherent character: Some varieties are hard – to – cook inherently. Cooking

time of whole seed is usually the highest in chick peafollowed by pigeon pea
and black gram and green gram.
 Environmental factors: Variation in cooking quality of pulses within and
between varities could be due to location, soil fertility, soil moisture and
other environmental factors.
 Storage condition: Cooking quality is influenced by time, temperature and
relatively humidity during storage. Cooking time for the same hardness
increases with storage time. Moisture content during storage above 10
percent may couse deterioration in the cooking quality.
 Seed maturity: High temperature at the time of maturing affects the cooking
time. Cooking time increases with the increase in seed maturity. The very
hard mature seeds take long time to cook.
 Dehulling: This reduces the cooking time by 70 percent and increases
digestability.
 Soaking: Whole grams are soaked in water to improve the cooking quality.
Whole grams like Bengal gram cannot be cooked to the desirable
consistency without this pretreatment.
 Salts: Hard – to – cook condition can be eliminated by soaking seeds in salt
solution consisting of 1 percent NaC1 and 0.75percent NaHCO3 instead of
only water. Separation of cotyledon cells occur in salt solution soaked seeds.
Carbonate or bicarbonate not only act as an alkaline agent and buffer but
also acts as a protein dissociating, solubilising or tenderising agent. Salts
such as trisodium phosphate, sodium bicarbonate and ammonium carbonate
in small quantities improves cooking quality without appreciably raising the
salt and altering the taste. These chemicals could be added to cooking water
or impregnate or coated on the surface of the dal as a final step in milling.
  Precooking: The cooking time for precooked lentil seeds is less compared to
untreated ones. Precooking is done by cooking, treating with enzymes and
dehydrating in controlled conditions.
 Phytin content: High available phosphorous in the soil contributes to high
phytin content in the seed and consequently to good cooking.
 Calcium and magnesium: Large amounts of insoluble calcium and
magnesium pectates are formed in the middle lamella of the cell walls when
the seed is high in calcium and magnesium or when the cooking water is
high in these elements.

 Cellulose: The thickness of the palisade layer and the content of lignin and
alpha cellulose in the seed coats are probably important factors in the
cooking quality of pulses. Hard shell seeds in legumes resist water
absorption and thereby delay the cooking process. Middle – lamella of the
cell wall and cell separation affects the cooking time. Compared to other
pulses, lentils require shorter time to cook due to their soft seed coat content.
 Sodium bicarbonate softens the cellulose and hastens cooking.
Wheat

Wheat belongs to the genus triticum..

Wheat can be broadly classified into three groups from the milling and baking
point of view:

Type of Wheat Protein Products Uses

content
(per
cent)
Soft wheat 8-9 Flour Biscuits, cakes, cookies, crackers
and breakfast cereals

Hard wheat 10-12 Flour Bread, macaroni products

Durum wheat 13-15 Semolina Macaroni products

Carbohydrate: The main carbohydrate of flour is starch which forms about 66-68 per
cent of flour. In addition, it contains sugars such as glucose, maltose and sucrose.

Endosperm Germ Bran

Carbohydrate

Starch 95.8 31.1 14.1

Sugar 1.5 36.4 76
Cellulose 0.3 16.8 35.2
Hemicellulose 2.4 15.3 43.1

Proportion of different proteins in wheat grain as percentage of total protein

 Albumin 5-10

Globulin 5-10

Prolamine 40-50

Glutelin 40-50

Wheat proteins are rich in glutamic acid and low in tryptophan. The high
concentration of amide is important in determining the characteristic of the gluten.
The biological value of endosperm proteins is much less than that of the
whole wheat protein.

Acarbose, an oligosaccharide present in wheat is a competitive inhibitor of sucrose

and pancreatic analyse. It lowers the postprandial blood glucose rise.

Malted Wheat

Malted cereal flour is inexpensive and can be made at home as well as

commercially. Malt is used in brewing and in the preparation of malt extract for
pharmaceutical purposes and in the preparation of malted milk powder.

Glutamic acid: It is derived from wheat. A familiar compound of glutamic acid is

“mono sodium glutamate,” a salt-like product generally available and used to bring
out the flavour of other foods or seasonings.
Wheat germ: Wheat germ is about 2-3% of wheat grain. It has a high nutritional
quality, comparable to animal proteins. Presently wheat germ is not separated
during milling, as it has a poor shelf life of only a few days and is lost in bran
fraction. Commercial germ samples contain 25-30 % protein, 9-11 % oil and 10-15
% sugars. Toasting or steaming of the germ increases the shelf life. Germ can
be used in bakery products and in weaning foods.

Wheat bran: It increases the stool weight by increasing the water holding capacity
of the bran. Wheat bran prevents constipation and may lower the risk of colon
cancer.

Triticale: it is a hybrid cereal from a cross between wheat (Triticum) and rye
(Secale). The grains have 14-18 % protein. The flour is suitable only for biscuit
making bread making quality of triticale could be considerably improved by
blending with equal quantity of maida.

Rice

It is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The germ, the pericarp and
aleurone layers which are richer than endosperm in nutrients like protein, minerals
and vitamins are separated from the grain during milling alongwith the husk.
  Carbohydrate: The major carbohydrate of rice is starch which is 72- 75 per
cent.
The amylase content of starch varies according to the grain type. The longer grain
and superior types containing upto 17.5 per cent amylase while some coarse type
are completely devoid it. Rice also contains free sugars like glucose, sucrose,
dexrine, fructose and raffinose.

 Protein: The protein content of rice is 7 per cent. Oryzenin is the principal
protein of rice. The proteins of polished rice have a lower biological value
but a higher digestibility than those of rice bran and rice polishing.
Parboiling has no effect on the biological value or digestibility of the
proteins. Rice is deficient in lysine and threonine.
 Minerals: Most of the minerals present in the rice are located in the pericarp
and germ. Polished rice is poor in calcium and Iron. Coloured types of rice
contain more iron than the white rice. The phosphorus content is high,
about 4 per cent of which is present as phytic acid.

 Enzymes: Rice contains amylases, proteases, lipases, oxidases,

peroxidises and phenolases. On storage the amylse, lipase, peroxidise
activites decrease. In fresh rice α amylase is responsible for its sticky
consistency after cooking.

 Pigments: Coloured rice contains anthocyanins and carotenoids.

Advantages of parboiling:

 Dehusking of parboiled rice is easy.

 Grain becomes tougher resulting in reduced losses during milling. By this,
parboiling eliminates breakage completely.
 Milled parboiled rice has greater resistance to insects and fungus.
 Loss of nutrients due to the removal of husk and bran in milling are
decreased. During harvesting the vitamin and mineral present in hull (outer
covering of the paddy) and bran coat are dissolved and seeped into the
endosperm. Part of the scutellum and germ which are rich in B vitamins get
fixed to the grain and hence losses of B vitamins are less.
 Losses of water soluble nutrients due to washing of rice are less in parboiled
rice compared to raw rice.
 Parboiling improves digestibility and protein efficiency ratio is higher
compaired to raw rice.
 Parboiled rice will not turn into glutenous mass when cooked
 Parboiled rice swells more when cooked to the desired softness.
 Parboiling stabilises the oil content of the bran. The discrete oil globules in
the aleurone layer of the native rice grain are ruptured into a band by
parboiling.

Disadvantages of parboiling:

Sometimes it has an unpleasant smell and change in colour and hence not
preferred. Modern methods of parboiling have eliminated this problem. By
controlling soaking and steaming, colour and cooking quality can be maintained.
Rice starch

Rice starch is used as food, especially in puddings, ice creams, pies and custard
powder. Its principal use is in laundry as a stiffening agent.

Millets

Maize or corn

In India, maize is consumed in the form of boiled or roasted as popcorn. In

countries like South America, Central America and Africa, it is converted into food
products by grinding, alkali processing, boiling, cooking and fermentation.

Nutritive value: Maize contains around 11.0% protein. Maize protein is deficient in
amino acids like tryptophan and lysine. Maize is a good source of carotene. It also
contains thiamine and folic acid in appreciable amounts.

Jowar

Nutritive value: Compared to rice, jowar is richer in protein but the quality is not
as good as rice protein. Lysine, methionine and cystine are present in low amounts
in jowar. Some varieties of jowar contain excessive amounts of amino acid called
leucine. The resulting imbalance between leucine and isoleucine interfere with
conversion of tryptophan to niacin causing deficiency of niacin. Jowar is rich in
carbohydrates and B-complex vitamins. It is poor in carotene and rich in dietary
fibre.
Bajra (Pearl Millet)

Among millets, bajra is the predominant crop in India. It has the same quantity of
protein as wheat. The protein contains a high proportion of prolamine followed by
globulin and albumins. Pearling improves appearance and taste of the products.

Nutritive value: The coarse grain contains 8-10 % husk. The average chemical
composition of bajra, 67.1; fibre, 1.2 and mineral matter, 2.7 percent. The mineral
matter is rich in calcium, phosphorous and iron. More than 50 percent of the
phosphorous is as phytin which is a major factor for the poor digestibility of the
bajra grain. The protein content of bajra varies from 8.8 to 16.1 %. Among the
amino acids tryptophan content is high and lysine content is average to low. The
carbohydrates consist mostly of starch with smaller amounts of sugars (1.2 %),
pentosans and hemicelluloses. The starch is composed of 32.1 % amylose and 67.9
% amylopectin. The grains are rich in thiamine, riboflavin and niacin.

Ragi (Finger Millet) “Milk of poor man”

Nutritive value: The nutritive value of ragi is better than that of rice and other
cereals. The husk forms 5.6 % of the weight of the grain.

It is rich in calcium, phosphorous and iron. The calcium content is higher than in
the common cereals and millets. Though its phosphorous content is high, much of
it (75.0%) is in the form of phytin phosphorous. It contains B vitamins, but is
poor in riboflavin. The major proteins of ragi are prolamins and glutelins.
They are adequate in all the essential amino acids.
Malting: Compared to other millets, ragi is most suitable, from the stand point of
product quality and enzyme release for malting. The malted ragi flour can be used
along with germinated green gram flour to formulate a high calorie dense weaning
food having excellent nutritional qualities. Ragi flour can be used with milk
beverages.

Parboiling of ragi helps in the quality of ragi dumpling by eliminating its slimy
texture.

Flour from puffed ragi has good flavour and can be used in snacks and
supplementary foods.

Pulses

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of pod-bearing plants belonging to the family of
the leguminous. Pulses are the “poor man’s meat”. Pulses can play an important
role in bridging the protein gap. An alternate name for pulses is “legumes”. The
term gram is commonly used for dry legume seeds with husk, while split
decorticated grains are called “dhal”.

Nutritive value:

 Energy: Pulses give 340 calories per 100g which is almost similar to cereal
calorie value.
 Protein: In a vegetarian diet, pulses are important sources of protein. They
give about 20-25 percent protein. The proteins of pulses are of low quality
 since they are deficient in methionine and tryptophan. Pulses are rich in
lysine.

The most effective combination to achieve maximum supplementary effect is 5

parts of cereal proteins and one part of pulse protein. In terms of grains 8 parts of
cereals and 1 part of pulses. This combination gives a protein quality equivalent to
animal protein.

 Carbohydrates: Pulses contain 55 to 60 percent starch. Soluble sugars,

fibre and unavailable carbohydrates are also present.
 Lipids: Pulses contain 1.5 per cent lipids on moisture free basis. They
contain high amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Along with cereals,
they meet the requirements of essential fatty acids for an adult. Apart from
linoleic acid, most legume seed oils contain high proportion of linolenic
acid. They undergo oxidative rancidity during storage resulting in loss of
protein solubility, off flavour development and loss of nutritive quality.
Oleic, stearic and palmitic acids are also present.

 Minerals: Pulses are important sources of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron,

potassium and phosphorus; 80 per cent of phosphorus is present as phytate
phosphorus. Phytin complexes with proteins and minerals and renders them
biologically unavailable to human beings and animals. Processing such as
cooking, soaking, germination and fermentation can reduce or eliminate
appreciable amounts of phytin.
  Vitamins: Legume seeds are excellent source of B complex vitamins
particularly thiamine, folic acid and pantothenic acid. Like cereals they do
not contain any vitamin A or C but germinated legumes contain some
vitamin C.

Processing

 Milling or decortications
Advantages:

 Protein digestibility is improved. Net protein utilization of dal is higher than

those of whole seeds.
 Removal of hull facilitates a reduction of fiber. Nutrients availability is
increased.
 Seed coats account for 80-90 per cent of the total seed polyphenols.
Dehusking removes this antinutritional factor.
 This improves appearance, texture, cooking quality and palatability.
 Keeping quality is improved.
In dehusking , germ may be removed with skin and may result in loss of thiamine.

 Soaking: Whole pulses are soaked in cold water overnight or in warm water
(60-70˚C) for 4-5 hours. Soaking makes the pulse tender and hastens the
process. It also reduces phytic acid and oligosaccharides.

Soaking in salt solution is preferred to loosen the seed coat and enhance water
absorption. Addition of soda to water reduces cooking time significantly by about
one-third. This saving in cooking time is compensated for the amount of thiamine
lost as a result of the alkaline environment.

 Germination: Whole grams are soaked overnight and should be drained

away and seeds should be tied in a loosely woven cotton cloth and hung.
Water should be sprinkled twice or thrice day. In a day or two germination
takes place. Moisture and warmth are essential for germination.

Advantages:

 Nutritive value is improved

 During sprouting, dormant enzymes get activated and digestibility and
availability of nutrients is improved. Starched and proteins are converted
to simpler substances as germination proceeds, the ratio of essential
amino acids changes providing more of essential amino acids, Sprouting
reduces trypsin inhibiting factors due to the release of enzymes.
Germinated seeds have more of maltose. The action of cytases and
pectinases are releases during sprouting and the cell walls are broken
down and the availability of nutrients increase.
 During sprouting minerals like calcium, zinc and iron are released from
bound form. Phytic acid amount is reduced so the availability of proteins
and minerals are increased.
 Riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, choline and biotin content are increased.
 Vitamin C is synthesised during germination hence germinated pulses
can be substituted for fruits. The increase in vitamin C is around 7-20 mg
 per 100 g of pulses. Vitamin C content is maximal after about 30 hrs of
germination.
 Sprouting decreases cooking time. The thick outer coat bursts open the
grain and the grain becomes soft making it easier for the cooking water to
penetrate the grain.
 Dehusking is easier when the grains are sprouted and dried.
 Germination decreases the mucus inducing property of legumes.
 Thickening power of starch is reduced due to conversion of starch to
sugars.
 Germination metabolises oligosaccharides and hence do not produce gas
or flatulence.
 Germination improves taste and texture and without much cooking also
sprouts like green gram can be consumed.
 Germinated pulses add variety to diet.

 Fermentation: This process increases the digestibility, since the microbial

enzymes break down the legume protein and enhances cooking process. It
also improves palatability and nutritive value (B and C vitamins).
Toxic substances of pulses can be eliminated by fermentation. In idli making,
fermentation process improves the availability of essential amino acids and thus
nutritional quality of protein is improved. Idli and dosa are examples of fermented
foods.

 Parching and puffing: Legumes such as Bengal gram and peas are parched
to give highly-acceptable products. The traditional Indian household practice
 for roasting or parching pulses involves initially sprinkling the grains with a
little water. Then the pulse is mixed with the pre-heated sand in a frying pan
kept on an open fire and maintained at a temperature ranging from 200 to
250o C depending on the pulse species for 2-3 minutes.

Puffed pulse grains are prepared in the country in a manner similar to that used for
roasting. Parched Bengal gram has been used successfully in the treatment of
protein calorie malnutrition in children.

Toxic Constituents

 Trypsin inhibitors: Trypsin inhibators are proteins that inhibit the activity
of trypsin in the gut and interfere with digestability of dietary proteins and
reduce their utilisation. Pancreas enlargement and growth retardation occur
in animals that consume diet containing trypsin inhibators. They are
generally heat labile and moist heat treatment like pressure cooking destroys
them. Autoclaving at 120˚ C for 15-30 minutes inactivates almost all trypsin
inhibators. These inhibitors prevent degradation of storage proteins during
seed maturation.

 Lathyrogens: Lathryism is a nervous disease that cripples man. The disease

now known to result from an excessive consumption of the pulse Lathyrus
sativus. It affects young men between the age of 15 to 45 yrs. Lathryus is
known by the common name “Khesari Dal”. The dehusked seeds resemble
Bengal gram dal or red gram dal. Hence, sometimes kesari dhal is used as an
 adulterant in other dals. The symptoms of lathyrism are muscular rigidity,
weakness, paralysis of the leg muscle.

Stages of Lathyrism

 First stage: It is characterised by a practical manner of walking with short

steps and jerky movements and a kind of scissors or crossed gait. This is
nonstick stage. The patient may remain in this condition for the rest of his
life, or he may pass on to the next stage.
 Second stage: The muscular stiffness is increased and this makes it
necessary to perform all walking by titling the pelvis to such a degree that a
stick is necessary to maintain balance. This is called one-stick stage.
 Third stage: The muscular rigidity is so great that the patient needs two
sticks for support and there is marked titling of the pelvis sideways to
maintain balance. This is called two-stick stage.

One-stick stage of lathyrism

 Final Stage: By this time, the patient is unable to walk upright on account of
considerable bending of the knees and extreme stiffness of the lower limbs.
The patient is then reduced to crawling by taking his weight on his hands.
The neurotoxin responsible for lathyrism is β-N-Oxalyl-L-α,β diamino propionic
acid. Toxin can be removed by steeping or parboiling.

 Favism: Favism is a disease characterised by haemolytic anaemia that

occurs when individuals who are deficient in glucose – 6 - phosphate
 dehydrogenase consume faba beans or broad beans. Three different
compounds present in faba beans have been implicated as playing a
causative role in the disease. Two of these are glycosides known as vicine
and covicine and the third is an amino acid derivative known as dihydroxy
phenyl alanine, DOPA.
Germinating and boiling reduce these toxic substances.

 Haemagglutinins: These are proteins in nature and sometimes referred to as

phyto agglutinins or lectins. Haemagglutinins reduce the food intake
resulting in poor growth. Haemagglutinins are isolated from soya bean, field
bean, white bean, double bean and horse gram. Haemagglutinins are heat
labile.

 Goitrogens: These substances interfere with iodine uptake by thyroid gland.

Thiocyanate, isothicyanates and their derivatives are present in soyabean
groundnuts and lentils. Excessive intake of these foods in the face of
marginal intake of iodine from foods and water may lead to precipitation of
goitre.

 Tannins: Tannins are condensed polyphenolic compounds. They are present

in high amounts in seed coat of most legumes. Tannins bind with iron
irreversibly and interface with iron absorption. Tannins also bind proteins
are reduced their availability. Removal of seed coat of legumes reduces the
tannin content. Removal of husk lowers tannin content and thus improve the
appearance, texture, cooking quality, palatability, digestability of the grain
and bioavailability of nutrients.
Nuts and Oil Seeds

Nuts may be divided into three main groups viz.

 Those with a high fat or oil content

 Those with a high protein content and
 Those rich in carbohydrate, the starches.
Nutritive value

 Like pulses, oil seeds and nuts are rich in protein particularly the amino acid
arginine. In addition they contain a high level of fat. Hence, they are not
only good sources of protein but are concentrated source of energy. Nuts are
low in saturated fatty acids and high in monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids. Nuts can be included in choles-terol lowering
diets that have desirable fat content and fatty acid profile. They reduce total
and LDL (bad) cholesterol without affecting the levels of HDL (good)
cholesterol. Nuts also contain n-3 fatty acids.

 They are good sources of several other important nutrients including

manganese, copper, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc. Most nuts particularly
almonds are good sources of vitamin E. most of the nuts are good sources of
B-vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin and folic acid. Groundnuts are excellent
source of niacin. Nuts are healthy snacks and can be eaten in moderation.
  The photochemicals in nuts include ellagic acid, flavonoids, phenolic
compounds, luteolin (a major antioxidant) and tocotrienols. Nuts are
included as part of balanced diet in the recently (2005) revised food guide
pyramid.

 Concentrated source of energy (9 k.cal / 1 gm) . By weight provides 2.25

times more energy than proteins and Carbohydrates.
 Reduce bulk in the diet.
 Excellent sources of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
 Play important role in the bio-synthesis of several long chain fatty acids.
 Provide EFA (linoleic acid) are components of membranes of living cells.
 Used in prostaglandlin synthesis which is involved in large variety of vital
physiological functions, like reducing the blood clotting rate and presents
clot blocking of coronary arteries.
 Slow in leaving stomach and lance retard digestion. Thus delays the pangs of
hunger.

Animal fats

 Butter: Cream pasteurized to inactivate lipase and destroy microorganisms.

Starter added to produce lactic acid which alters flavor. Cream churned by
agitation by adding H2O forms batter by the coalesee of fat globules by
rupturing the protein – surrounded by each globule. Salt can be added to
butter.
Ex. Oil in water emulsion
  Lard:
Lard is an animal fat of pigs. Prepared by heat rendering of fatty tissues. The
quantity of lard depends on the location of fatty tissues in the animal and the
method of heating.

Methods to delay the rancidity

 Autoxidation
 Bleaching
 Homogenisation
 Deodorisation
 Adding emulsifiers

 Margarine
Margarine is used as a substitute for butter made from vegetable oils like soya
bean, cotton seed etc., mixture of vegetable and animal fat by hydrogenation.

Made from one or more optional fat ingredients churned with cultured pasteurised
skimmed milk (SM) or whey. Vitamin A & D can also be added to enhance
nutritive value

Other ingredients that can be added are

 Lactin monoglycerdes and/or

 Fat forming fatty acids
 Emulsifying agents
 Artificial colors
 Salt
  Citric acid /certain citrates / sodium benzoate – as preservative to the extent
of 0.1%.

Emulsions

Emulsions are dispersion of one liquid in another liquid with which it is

immiscible.

Temporary emulsion: Oil + water shaken together – but on standing oil particles
separate from water.

Ex. French dressing rasam seasoned with oil.

Permanent emulsions: Apart from water and oil a 3rd substance called
emulsifying agent or emulsifier is necessary to stabilize the emulsion.

Stabilizer/ emulsifiers used

 Egg yolk
 Whole egg
 Gelatine
 Pectin
 Starch paste
 Casein
 Albumin
 Fine powders such as Parika, Mustard
Ex:
  Cake batter – egg, casein, gelatin, starch flour
 Sambar, payasam – proteins starch and oil
 Mayonnaise oil (liquid + lemon juice/vinegar (liquid + Egg yolk (lipo
protein) emulsifying agent

Soyabean

The whole dry grain contains about 40 % protein (twice as much as in most other
pulses) and also up to 20 % fat. The proteins of soyabean yield all the essential
amino acids in adequate amounts except methionine and cystine which are
deficient. Soyabean is rich in lysine. Soyabeans are rich source of iron and B-
vitamins like thiamin, riboflavin and niacin. Soyabeans are valued nutritionally for
their unsaturated fatty acids, protein and fibre content. Soyabean is rich in lecithin
and linolenic acid. Soya foods are rich in anti-carcinogens, particularly isoflavones.
One of the primary isoflavones in soya is genistein.

The main problems with soyabean are that it has an undesirable beany odour, has a
poor cooking quality and has haemagglutinins and contains trypsin inhibiting
factor. These are rendered inactive by suitable heat processing.

Soyabean products

 Soya protein
Defatted soya flours has about 50 % protein and have very little moisture. Soya
isolates are the chief component of many dairy like products, including cheese,
soya milk, infant formula, non-dairy frozen desserts and coffee whiteners. They are
used to add texture to meat products and are valued for their emulsifying
properties.

 Soyabean milk
A milk substitute can be created by dehulling, soaking, steaming, grinding and
extracting milk from soyabean. This fluid soya milk contains most of the bean‟s
protein, oil and other solids. Besides being rich in protein, vitamins and minerals,
soyamilk is lactose free cholesterol free and low in saturated fat. Lactose intolerant
children can use soyabean milk. A glass of soya milk gives 5 – 10 g of protein.

Soya milk is evaporated and spray dried to prepare soya milk powder. This can be
used directly in cooking. Preparation of baby food and bakery and confectionary .
Soya milk can be particularly substituted in making Mozzarella cheese. Soya
yogurt can be made from soyabean milk.

 Okara
This is the undissolved residual portion left after extracting soya milk from
soyabean, during the process of making soya milk. Okara is rich in protein and
fibre and is mainly used in the preparation of biscuits and other bakery items and
for the thickening of soup and gravy. Dry powder of Okara can be used in curries
or in traditional Indian dishes like halwa or laddu.
  Tofu
Tofu contains 25.8 g protein per 100g. Not only it is rich in protein but also has
disease fighting isoflavones, relatively low in saturated fat, low in sodium and is
cholesterol –free.

 Tempeh
It is an Indonesian product. Tempeh is a white mould covered cake produced by
fungal fermentation of dehulled, hydrated and partially – cooked soyabean
cotyledons. Tempeh is a dense, chewy textured soyafood with a nutty, slightly
smoky taste like mushrooms. It is a good source of isoflavones, fibre, protein and
due to fermentation even rich in Vitamin B12.

 Natto
It is a Japanese product. The soyabeans are soaked in water cooked and inoculated
with Bacillus subtilis or previously prepared Natto. They are then wrapped in barks
of pines and are allowed to ferment under vacuum conditions at 40˚ c for 20 hours.

 Miso
It is another fermented soyabean paste widely used in Japan. It is made from whole
soyabeans, salt, rice or barley and a fermented agent like Aspergillus Oryzae.

 Edamame
It is prepared by cooking soyabean in their pods in boiling salted water. Edamame
is Japan‟s favourite and used as appetiser.
Nuts and oilseeds as source of Antioxidants

 Soyabeans are rich in isoflavones like genistein and diadzein which protect
against cancer, heart disease and osteoporosis.
 Canola and mustard possess strong antioxidant activity.
 Sesame seeds contain sesamol which has superior oxidative stability.
 Groundnuts are rich in the antioxidant flavonol.

Toxins

 Aflatoxins
These are mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus flavus. Groundnuts and grains
produced and stored in warm, moist climates are most likely to be affected.

Aflatoxins have cumulative effects. Regular consumption of small concentration of

aflatoxine from contaminated grains over long periods of time has been linked to
liver cancer. The clinical features are jaundice, ascites, portal hypertension and
cirrhosis of liver.

 Gossypol
Cotton seed endosperm has pigment glands which contain the toxic pigment
gossypol. The gossypol that gets into the oil is largely removed during oil refining.

Vegetables

Nutritive value of green-leafy vegetables:

 The crispness of greens depends on the water in the cells. Partial dehydration
of cells results in a change from crisp to a limp leaf. The leaves in
consequences are low in carbohydrates and energy but they are good sources
of β- carotene, calcium, riboflavin, folic acid, ascorbic acid, iron and vitamin
K.
 Generally green leafy vegetables are good sources of vitamins and minerals.
They are excellent in carotenes which are converted to vitamin A. Among all
the greens colocasia leaves contain highest amount of carotene and cabbage
has the least. The greener the leaves the higher the carotenes. β –carotenes
are also good antioxidants.
 Greens are good sources of B-vitamins particularly riboflavin and folic acid.
Drying and withering reduce B-vitamins.
 Green-leafy vegetables also contain vitamin C and can be used as substitute
for fruits if needed. Agathi, drumstick leaves and coriander leaves contribute
to vitamin C. The practice of using coriander as garnishing agent is good as
heating results in some loss of vitamin C.
 Green leafy vegetables are also rich in iron. The leaves normally discarded
like cauliflower leaves and beetroot leaves are excellent sources of iron.
Mint and mayalu (red bacchali) are good in iron content.
 Agathi, colocasia leaves, drumstick leaves and fenugreek leaves contribute
calcium in our diet. The availability of calcium and iron to the body is
limited as greens also contain oxalic acid.
 Greens generally are high in moisture and easily withered and need to
preserve properly.
 Greens are not good sources of protein, fat and carbohydrate and hence they
do not contribute to the energy value of food.
Nutritive value of roots and tubers

 Roots and tubers give more calories compared to green-leafy vegetables

because they contain more starches.
 Carrots contain high amount of carotene though this amount is lower when
compared to the content present in green leafy vegetables.
 Roots and tubers are fairly good source of vitamin C.
 They are poor source of calcium, iron and B- vitamins.
 They are poor source of protein.

Nutritive value of other vegetables

 They contain high amount of moisture and hence they are highly perishable.
 They are generally poor in all nutrients.
 They are fairly good source of vitamin C.
 They contribute to the fibre content of the diet.
 Plantain green contains high amount of iron.
 Capsicum contains vitamin C.

Other chemical compounds occurring in vegetables:

 Pigments
The chief pigments of vegetables and fruits can be classified as water insoluble and
water soluble.

1) Water-Insoluble Pigments
a) Chlorophyll: The green pigments of leaves and stem are usually held close to
the cell wall in small bodies called chloroplasts along with some carotenes and
xanthophylls. Chlorophyll-a is intense blue green in colour and chlorophyll-b is
dull yellow green in colour. Chlorophylls are mostly insoluble in water and
dominant in unripe fruits. This pigment is present in green leafy vegetables,
capsicum, beans, peas and chillies.

b) Carotenoids: In greens though carotenoids are present the colour is masked by

the chlorophyll.

In plants, carotenoids are present as α- carotene, β- carotene, ϒ- carotene,

xanthophylls and cryptoxanthin. β- Carotene is valuable in the synthesis of vitamin
A.

Carotenoid pigments present in foods

Food Pigments

Yellow corn Cryptoxanthin

Tomatoes Lycopene, β-carotene

Red capsicum Cryptoxanthin, capsorubin, β- carotene, violaxanthin,

capxanthin.

Green capsicum Lutein, β- carotene, violaxanthin, neoxanthin.

Carrots β- carotene, α- carotene,¥- carotene, lycopene, xanthophylls.

1) Water-Soluble pigments
These pigments are not membrane-bound molecules but are dissolved in the cell
sap of epidermal cells of these parts. Flavonoids are classified into anthocyanins
and anthoxanthins. Anthocyanins are highly water-soluble pigments that range in
colour from red to purple. The anthoxanthins are colourless or white. Anthocyanins
and anthoxanthins are important cyaniding based compounds.

a) Anthocyanins: Anthocyanins have cyaniding with attached sugar. Cherries,

red apples, various berries blue and red grapes, pomegranates, and currants
archive their colour appeal because of predominance of anthocyanins. The
red colour in the skin of radishes and sweet potatoes and the leaves of red
cabbage is due to anthocyanins too. Anthocyanin pigment in purple brinjal is
water insoluble.

b) Betalins: Anthocyanin pigments are absent in some families and are replaced
by highly different compounds, betacyanins and betaxanthins. These two
pigments together are known as betalins. High ratio of betacyanin to
betaxanthin lead to violet, medium to red and low to orange tuber colours. A
somewhat yellow pigment is contributed by the betaxanthins.

c) Anthoxanthins: These are colourless or pale yellow pigments closely

related to anthocyanins depending on the pH, Anthoxanthins give colour to
cauliflower, onion and spinach or other leafy vegetables.

 Organic acids: Vegetables contain a number of organic acids, metabolic

products of the cells. Formic, succinic, citric, acetic, malic, fumaric, tartaric,
 and benzoic acids are present in fruits and vegetables. The concentration of
acid is lower in vegetables than in fruits. Tomatoes and vegetables with the
concentration of acid have a pH Ranging from 4 to 4.6. Foods like lemon,
mango green, tamarind (tartaric acid), gooseberries, raw citrus fruits and
grapes have low PH. Most of the vegetables have pH 5.0 to 5.6. Potatoes and
peas have PH 6.1 to 6.3, more neutral in taste.
 Polyphenols and tannins: These include anthocyanins, flavones, flavonols
and tannins. They are responsible for the astringent taste of some vegetables
and for the astringent taste of some vegetables and for the discolouration of
some vegetables after cutting, cooking or processing.
 Enzymes
Enzymes are found in plants cells. They function as chemical reactions. Enzymes
bring ripening of tomatoes and bananas. If this enzymatic reaction continues the
fruit gets spoilt. They also bring browning in potato, brinjal and plantain. Two of
enzymes namely ascorbic oxidase and phenoloxidase are important as the former
oxidises ascorbic acid and the latter causes oxidation of polyphenols and enzymic
browning in vegetables.

Raw papaya contains an enzyme called papain. Papain is used as a stabilizer in

beer and other beverages and as a meat tenderizer.

Enzymes also can cause detrimental changes in anthocyanin pigments. Peroxidases

and phenolases naturally present in some fruits and vegetables can catalyse
oxidative reactions that are harmful.
  Flavour compounds
Two types of vegetable have strong flavours resulting from the presence of various
sulphur containing compounds. Allyl sulphide found in onions, garlic and leeks.
Brussle sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, turnips, cauliflower, kale and mustard are
members of the family cruciferae, which also contain prominent volatile sulphur
compounds.

Flavour components of sulphur containing vegetables

Vegetables Precursor Reaction with Final volatile

treatment compound

Garlic Alliin s-2-Propenyl (allyl) Cutting/ Crushing results in Disulphide further

cysteine sulphoxide allicin formation decomposes to a complex
This undergoes mixture of mono-sulphide
nonenzymatic decomposition and tri-sulphide –
to disulphide and characteristic flavor
thiosulphinate

Onion S-1-Propenyle cysteine Cutting/ Crushing results Thiopropanal-S-oxide-

sulphoxide in formation of sulphenic lachrymatory factor
acids which is unstable
and undergoes
rearrangement

Brassica S-methyl-cysteine Cooking Dimethyl sulphides and

family- sulphoxide and isothiocyanates- give off-
Cabbage, thioglucosides flavour
cauliflower
An amino acid s-methyl 1- cysteine sulphoxide is also present in raw cabbage and
appear to be a precursor of cooked cabbage flavor.

 Bitter compounds
Potatoes that have been exposed to light, mechanical damage and sprouting may
become green due to rapid increase in the concentration of certain toxic steroidal
glycoalkaloids such as solanine and chacomine. These impart to the potatoes a
bitter taste. Gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms may develop due to
solanine poisoning. These alkaloids are not destroyed during the process of
cooking, baking and frying. The best way to minimize the hazards from these
toxins is taking appropriate precautions against damage/ insect attack during
growing, harvesting, storing and processing potatoes.

Effect of prolonged cooking and acid

 As the cooking process continues the colour of the green vegetables varies
from the bright green colour of chlorophyll to the olive green.
 Magnesium present in the structure of chlorophyll is rather easily displaced
by hydrogen molecule when it is heated in the presence of organic acids.
 A pale greenish grey compound known as Pheophytin-a or an olive-green
Pheophytin-b results.
 Green vegetables which are lower in acid retain a higher percentage of
chlorophyll when they are cooked than do more acid vegetables ex. Gogu
which is very sour becomes olive green as soon as it is put in hot water.
 Cooking vegetables in an uncovered pan to eliminate volatile acids and by
using enough water to cover the vegetables to dilute those acids which are
 not volatile. Hence greens should be cooked without lid for the first few
minutes to allow the volatile acids to escape.
 Destruction of chlorophyll increases with cooking time. Chlorophyll-a is
more readily converted to pheophytin than chlorophyll-b. Green vegetables
should be cooked for a very short time, less than 7 minutes to retain the
colour.

Effect of canning

 During canning, chlorophyll gets converted to pheophytin due to the high

temperatures used.

Effect of sodium bicarbonate

 When sodium bicarbonate reacts with chlorophyll the phytyl and methyl
groups displaced and a bright green water-soluble chlorophyllin is formed.
 The sodium salt of chlorophyllin gives the cooked green vegetables an
intense artificial greenness.

Effect of freezing

The better retention of colour of frozen green vegetables is due to elimination of

major part of the plant acids by blanching prior to freezing.

Effect of copper

The colour of chlorophyll is enhanced in the presence of copper and weak acid.
Effect of calcium salt

Addition of a small amount of calcium acetate or other calcium salt prevents the
mushiness by blocking the breakdown of the hemicelluloses.

Eggs

The different parts of an egg are:

a) Shell: It forms the protective covering of the inner contents of the egg along
with the two membranes. Shell is made up of protein polysaccharide complex and
calcium carbonate. An egg shell is bride and easily breaks. Some shells are glossy
others dull. Some may be smooth and others may be rough.

It is previous and contains thousands of small holes which allow gases to pass in
and out of the egg for the developing embryo. The small holes are covered with a
thin layer of gelatinous material mucoprotein called cuticle or bloom. The cuticle
seals off the pores of the shell to some extent and helps avoid an excessive
evaporation from the inner contents of the egg. It also restricts the entry of micro-
organisms into the egg and thus protects the inner contents from various infections.
The cuticle is soluble in water and easily removed by washing which results in
hastening the deterioration of egg quality.

It is primarily calcium carbonate in an organic matrix.

 Percentage composition of egg shell

Component Percent

Calcium carbonate 93.07

Magnesium carbonate 1.39

Phosphorus pentoxide 0.76

Organic matter(matrix protein and 4.15

polysaccharide)

b) Shell membranes: Within the shell are inner and outer membranes that also
protect the quality of the egg. Both the membranes are porous and composed of
fibres. The outer membrane which is thicker (48µm) than the inner one (22µm) is
firmly attached to the shell. The outer membrane has six layers of fibres, whereas,
the inner one has three layers. The inner membrane is attached to the outer and the
two membranes are loosely attached to one place usually at the broad end of the
egg. The membranes are composed of protein and polysaccharide.

Eggs contain little or no air cells when they are laid. After being laid because of the
lower temperature of the outer surroundings of the egg than when it was in the
hen‟s body, there is contraction of the inner contents of the egg. This results in air
being drawn into the shell resulting in a small air cell formation between the shell
membranes usually at the large end of the egg.
The condition of the shell and the membrane influence moisture and carbon
dioxide, breaking strength and susceptibility to microbial invasion.

c) Egg white: The white of the egg consists of three layers, two areas of thin white
encompassing one area of thick white. Some hens secrete a higher ratio of thick to
thin white than do others. Storage conditions also affect the thickness of the
albumin and the ratio of thick to thin egg white.
d) Egg yolk: The yolk of the egg is enclosed in a sac called the vitelline
membrane. Immediately adjacent to the vitelline membrane, the thin membrane
that surrounds the egg yolk, is chalaziferous or inner layer of firm white. This
chalaziferous layer gives strength to the vitelline membrane and extends into the
chalazae. The chalazae appear as two small twisted ropes of thickened white, one
on each end of the yolk and anchor the yolks in the centre of the egg. Chalazae
appear to have almost the same molecular structure as ovomucin.
The yolk carries the indistinct germinal disc or germ spot which under suitable
conditions develops into a chick. Beneath the germ spot extends a white part called
latebra. The yolk itself is layered into sections of white and yellow yolk but they
are not readily distinguishable.

In infertile eggs, the female reproduction nucleus is not fertilized by union with the
sperm of the cock. These are incapable of producing chicks and therefore called
lifeless or vegetarian eggs. Infertile eggs are produced when a male bird is not kept
with the laying hens.

Percentage distribution of component of egg

Part Weight

Shell 8-11

White 56-61

Yolk 27-32

Percentage composition of egg white and yolk

Nutrients Egg white Egg yolk

Water 88.0 48.0

Protein 11.0 17.5

 Fat 0.2 32.5

Minerals 0.8 2.0

Egg white

Different types of proteins are present in egg white.

 Ovalbumin
 Conalbumin
 Ovamucoid
 Ovomucin
 Lysozyme
 Avidin
 Ovoglobulin
 Ovoinhibitor
Egg yolk

The major proteins in egg yolk are lipoproteins which include lipovitellins and
lipovitellinin. The lipoproteins are responsible for the excellent emulsifying
properties of egg yolk, when it is used in such products as mayonnaise.

Percent of total
Fatty acid
fatty acids

C16: 0 Palmitic 23.5

C18: 0 Stearic 14.0

 C18: 1 Oleic acid 38.4

C18: 2 Linoleic acid 16.4

C18: 3 Linolenic acid 1.4

C20: 4 Arachidonic acid 1.3

Pigments

 Shell: The color giving substances in the egg-shell are ooporphyrins,

derivatives of haemoglobin give brown color and oocyanin, a product of bile
formation gives bluish green color to the shell.
 Egg white: Egg white contains small amounts of ovoflavin due to which a
greenish tinge can be seen. The more the riboflavin in the egg white, the
greener is the color.
 Egg yolk: The color of the egg yolk varies from a pale yellow to brilliant
orange depending upon the amount and type of the pigment present in the
diet of the hen. The color is due to the presence of carotenoids and
xanthophylls.
Vegetarian eggs

Vegetarian eggs are unfertilized eggs of hen and they are formed without the
function of sperm. The leghorns are genetically improved birds which produce
through successive generations under improved breeding methods. Leghorns which
are suitable for egg production lay only unfertilized eggs as they are not allowed to
mate with cocks.
Evaluation of egg quality

 Candling: The quality of the egg in the shell is evaluated by candling. The
egg is held against a source of strong light. Candling will reveal:
 A crack in the shell.
 The size of the air cell.
 The firmness of albumin.
 The position and mobility of yolk
 The possible presence of foreign substances like blood spots, moulds and
developing embryo.

As the eggs deteriorate, the chalaza weakens and the yolk tends to settle toward the
shell rather than remain suspended in the firm white. Under such circumstances,
the yolk is more fully visible when the egg is candled. Dark yolks cast a more
distinct shadow than light-colored yolks.

 Floating in water: If the egg sinks it is considered as good. Poor quality

eggs float due to increase in size of the air cell and due to loss of moisture.
 Haughs Unit: Measurement of the height of the thick white in relation to the
weight of the egg gives haughs unit. Good quality egg has 72 haugh units
and as the quality deteriorates it comes down to 30-60. Micrometer is used
to measure the height of thick white.

 White Index: The height of the thickest portion of the white is divided by
the diameter of the egg gives white index.
  Yolk Index: Measurement of the height of the yolk in relation to the width
of the yolk gives the yolk index.

Grading

In India, eggs are graded according to the weight into 4 grades.

 Extra large-more than 60g,

 large- 53-59 g,
 medium- 45-52 g,
 small- 38-42 g.
Clean eggs with unbroken shell are graded on quality depending upon depth of the
air cell. Centering of the yolk and free defects are given grade A and B in India.

Egg grades

 Grade A:

 Thick white
 Round, well centered yolk
 Small air cell (less than 5 mm deep)
 Clean, uncracked shell with normal shape

Grade B:

These eggs are mostly used for commercial baking or go to hospitals, restaurants,
etc. Very few are sold at retail stores.
  Yolk is slightly flattened; white is thinner.
 Shell is uncracked and may have a rough texture; and/or be slightly soiled
and stained.
Grade C:

The lowest egg grade, these are used in the production of processed egg products
only. They are not sold in grocery stores.

 Yolk is flattened and may be oblong in shape; white is thin and watery.
 Shell may be cracked and/or stained.
 Application of Heat

The terms denaturation, coagulation and gelation are used in egg cookery.
Denaturation refers to loss of certain properties of the raw egg proteins. Gelatin is
used to denote the formation of gel. Coagulation refers to the separation of the
protein as an insoluble mass.

 Coagulation temperature of egg white: 60˚C

 Coagulation temperature of egg yolk: The egg yolk requires a higher
temperature for coagulation than egg white. It begins to thicken at 65˚C and
the coagulation is complete at about 70˚C.

Milk

The composition of milk varies with the species, breed, diet, lactational period and
interval between milking. There is also individual variation among various factors.
 Milk Fat: Buffalo‟s milk contains 6.5 % fat. Cow‟s milk contains 4.1 % fat.
Milk fat or butter fat is of great economical and nutritive value. The flavour
of milk is due to milk fat. Milk is a true emulsion of oil-in-water. The lipid
portion includes both phospholipids and triglycerides. Other lipid materials
present in milk are phospholipids, sterols, free fatty acids, carotenoids and
fat-soluble vitamins. Carotenes are responsible for the yellow colour of
milk fat. Gerber test is used to know the percentage of fat present in
food.

 Milk Proteins: The main protein in milk is casein and it constitutes about
3.0- 3.5 % of milk. It is present as calcium caseinate in colloidal suspension.
When milk is converted into curd by lactic acid bacteria, a fine precipitate of
casein is formed. When milk is curdled by the addition of lemon juice,
casein is precipitated as a flocculent precipitate. When milk is acted upon by
rennin or pepsin in the presence of calcium salts, a thick curd of calcium
paracaseinate is formed. This is the basis of manufacture of cheese. In
addition to casein, milk contains an albumin( lactalbumin) at a level of 0.5 %
and a globulin ( lactoglobulin) in small amounts ( 0.1 %). The normal
acidity of fresh milk is about pH 6.6. Casein is a good source of essential
amino acids. Casein contains 8.2 % calcium and 5.7 % carbohydrates.

 Whey proteins: Whey proteins are made up of α- lactalbumin and β-

lactoglobulin, serum albumin, immune globulins, enzymes and proteose-
peptones. β-lactoglobulin accounts for about 50 % of total whey proteins.
 These are not precipitated by acid or rennin. They can be coagulated by heat.
Whey also contains small amounts of lactoferrin and serum transferrin. By a
process of ultra-filtration, whey protein concentrate and isolates were
produced. Whey protein isolate can be given in lactose intolerance.

 Carbohydrates: Milk contains 4-5 % carbohydrate. The chief carbohydrate

present in milk is lactose. It is present to the extent of about 4.4 to 4.8 %.
When milk is autoclaved, the colour becomes light brown. This is due to
reaction between the reducing group of lactose and the amino group of
lysine residue in casein. This reaction is known as Maillard reaction.

 Minerals: The important minerals present in milk are calcium, phosphorus,

sodium and potassium. The salts of these minerals function as buffers
maintaining the PH of milk at a constant level at about 6.5-6.6. At this PH,
casein exists mostly as calcium salt in colloidal suspension. Calcium is
essential for the formation of curd from milk by the action of rennin.

 Enzymes: The enzymes found in milk can originate from the mammary
glands or may be released by contaminating bacteria. Alkaline phosphatase
exists as lipoprotein and is distributed between the lipid and aqueous phases.
This enzyme is inactivated by normal pasteurization procedures and its
activity is tested to determine the effectiveness of pasteurization.

Milk lipase is responsible for the development of rancid flavours in milk. Lipases
may be important in the development of desirable flavours in some cheeses.
  Colour: White colour of milk is caused by the reflection of light by the
colloidally-dispersed casein, calcium and phosphorus. Yellowish colour of
milk is due to the presence of carotene and riboflavin. Fat-soluble carotenes
are found in milk fat; riboflavin is water soluble which can be visible clearly
in whey water.

 Flavour and Aroma: Milk is slightly sweet because of its lactose content.
Flavour sensation of milk in mouth is due to fat protein and salt calcium
phosphate. The slight aroma of fresh milk is produced by a number of low
molecular weight compounds such as acetone, acetaldehyde, dimethyl
sulphide and short chain fatty acids. Boiling changes in the flavour of fresh
milk is more when milk is boiled than in pasteurized milk.

Off flavour in milk may be influenced by the health of the cow or the feeds that are
consumed by the cow, action of bacteria, chemical changes in milk, or the
absorption of foreign flavours after the milk is drawn.

Off flavours are also produced when milk is exposed to light. In this reaction,
tryptophan and riboflavin may be involved and their content decreases when the
off-flavour develops.

Physical properties

Physically, milk is a dilute emulsion, colloidal dispersion and true solution.

  Acidity: Fresh milk has a pH of about 6.5-6.7 at 25˚C. As milk stands
exposed to air, its acidity decreases slightly because of the loss of carbon
dioxide. Raw milk, which normally contains some lactic acid producing
bacteria gradually increase in acidity on storage. Pasteurisation destroys
lactic acid bacteria.
 Viscosity: Factors affecting viscosity of milk are concentration of protein
and fat, temperature of milk, age of milk etc. Homogenisation and ageing
increase the viscosity.
 Freezing point: The freezing point of milk is - 0.55˚C. The freezing point is
affected by the soluble constituents, lactose and ash which are constant. This
fact makes it possible to determine whether or not milk is diluted. Addition
of 1 % of water to milk decreases freezing point by -0.0055˚C.
Nutritive Value

 Milk has good quality protein and the biological value is > 90, though milk
contains only 3-4 % protein. Lysine is one of the essential amino acids
which is abundant in milk proteins.
 Milk is the only substance that contains lactose.
 The fat of milk is easily digestible. It contains linoleic acid (2.1 %) linolenic
acid (0.5 %) and arachidonic acid (0.14 %). Skimmed milk does not contain
any fat. Buffalo milk contains high amount of fat.
 Dairy foods are a major source of calcium. The calcium to phosphorus ratio
(1.2:1) in milk is regarded as most favourable for bone development. In
addition, dairy products contain other nutrients such as vitamin D and
lactose which favour calcium absorption. The calcium requirement cannot
be met easily without taking milk.
  Milk is a poor source of iron. Khoa contains more amount of iron because
during the process it gets from the containers.

Effects of heat on milk constituents

Effect on milk proteins

When milk is sterilized, the albumin is completely coagulated. Even in the milk
which has been boiled for 10 minutes, a greater part of the albumin is coagulated.
When milk is boiled in an open pan and allowed to cool, the „skin‟ formed at the
surface contains about 13 per cent of the solids of milk. This includes a greater part
of the albumin and about ¼ of the fat present in milk. Casein is relatively stable to
heat. It does not coagulate at pasteurization temperature or when milk is boiled for
5 minutes. Casein undergoes coagulation when milk is heated at 100˚ C for 12
hours or 1 hour at 135˚ C or 3 minutes at 150˚ C.

Effect on fat

The layer of fat that may form on milk that has been boiled results from the
breaking of the films of proteins that surround the fat globules in the unheated
milk. The breaking of films of emulsifying agents permits the coalescence of fat
globules.

Effect on milk salts and pH

The pH of fresh milk ranges from 6.5 - 6.7. When milk is heated at 80˚ C for 30
minutes there is loss of CO2, which causes an increase in pH. At the same time,
some of the soluble calcium and phosphate are converted into insoluble calcium
phosphate with the liberation of acid phosphates. These two opposing factors
counter balance each other and there is no net change in pH. Heat treatment at high
temperature (110-120˚ C) leads to the production of lactic and formic acids.

Iodine is a volatile substance and when heated tends to be lost from milk. The
dispersion of calcium phosphate in milk is decreased by heating and part of it is
precipitated. Some of it collects on the bottom of the pan with coagulum of
albumin and some is probably entangled in the scum on the top surface of the milk.

Effect of Acid

At pH 6.6, casein is present largely as calcium caseinate. When the acidity of milk
is increased either by the addition of acid or by natural souring, the acid removes
calcium and phosphate from calcium caseinate changing it into casein . Casein
coagulates when the pH has been reduced to about 5.2 and is least soluble at its
iso-electric point pH 4.6. When the pH reaches about 4.6, the colloidally dispersed
casein particles become unstable. They adhere together and form a coagulum or
curd.

Effect of enzymes

 Rennin (Chymosin)
Rennin, an enzyme secreted by the young calves, brings about the coagulation of
milk.
When casein is precipitated by the action of rennet, the calcium is not released to
the whey but remains attached to the casein. Therefore, cheese made with rennet is
a much better source of calcium than cheese made by acid precipitation alone.
Cottage cheese is often made by acid precipitation.

Factors affecting rennin coagulation

 Temperature: The optimum temperature is 40-42°C. Low temperature

retards the reaction and produces a more tender coagulum. Higher
temperature within the range of activity tends to toughen the coagulum.
 PH of the milk: Rennin acts best in a faintly acid medium at 5.8 PH but
milk that is acidic enough to curdle is not coagulated by rennin. Rennin
action does not occur in an alkaline medium.
 Concentration of constituents: Diluting milk, dilutes the casein and
calcium. Rennin reacts with diluted milk to form less firm clots and the
reaction is noticeably retarded. An excess sugar may tend to prevent the
formation of clot by rennin.
 Salts: Monovalent ions reduce clotting tendencies and divalent and trivalent
cations hasten coagulation.
 Agitation: The clot formed by rennin is easily broken by stirring and cause
sineresis or separa-tion of the watery portion of the milk.

 Fruit enzymes
Bromelin, a proteolytic enzyme, from pineapple digests proteins hence changes the
gelation to com-pounds that do not form a gel. The enzyme bromelin clots the milk
and digests the clot. All fruits contain some organic acids but not always in
sufficient concentration to cause the curdling of milk. Destroying of the enzymes
before combining the fruit with milk prevents curdling caused by the enzyme
action, by blanching or by using canned fruits.

Effect of phenolic compounds (Tannins) and salts: Fruits and vegetables contain
tannins chiefly in green stages. Curdling of milk may occur if tannin containing
foods such as potatoes are cooked in the milk. Tannins are also present in brown
sugar and cocoa products.

Processing of milk

1) Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation derives its name from the French scientist Louis Pasteur who,
found that heating of certain liquids to a high temperature improved their keeping
quality. In general terms, it is the heating of milk to a temperature which destroys
organisms responsible for tuberculosis and fever and nearly all the other micro-
organisms present in that product without seriously affecting the composition or
properties of the product. Pasteurisation should be followed by immediate cooling
of the product to the temperature sufficiently low to check the growth of micro-
organisms which are resistant to the temperature used. At present, pasteurisation is
considered as an essential feature in the manufacture of butter, ice-cream and also
in cheese industries. Pasteurisation also inactivates some of the natural enzymes
like lipase.

Three general methods are:

i) Holding or Batch System: The holding system consists in bringing the milk or
cream to a temperature usually 65°C and holding at that point for at least 30
minutes followed by rapid cooling. A higher temperature is sometimes used in
which case the time of holding may be shortened. For exampIe, holding at 68.3°C
for 20 minutes. Careful control of both temperature and time of heating is
important.

ii)High Temperature Short Time Method (HTST) or the Continuous System:

The machines are so constructed for continuous operation and for this reason the
system is called as "continuous flow or flash pasteuriser." The system depends
upon the raising of the temperature of the milk to at least 72˚C for 15 seconds as it
passes through the machine. This is followed by cooling. This method does not
impart cooked flavour and cream line is not affected.

iii) Ultra High Temperature System: This UHTS system results in a complete
pasteurisation of milk. In this system, milk is held for 3 seconds at 93.4°C or for
one second at 149.5°C. This system is also used extensively for the treatment of
milk or cream in dairy industries. This product has a longer shelf life than milk
pasteurised by other methods. After pasteurisation, the milk is cooled rapidly to
70˚C or lower.

Pasteurised milk is not sterile. It must be quickly cooled following pasteurisation to

prevent multiplication of surviving bacteria.
2)Homogenisation

The process of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum by mechanical
treatment and rendering the mixture homogeneous is homogenisation. This is
achieved by passing warm milk or cream through a small aperture under high
pressure and velocity. Homogenised milk has a creamier structure, bland flavour
and whiter appearance. It has a greater Whitening power when added to coffee and
tea. Homogenisation accelerates the action of lipase and rancidity of fat takes
place. Homogenisation is done before pasteurisation.

The steps involved in the Maillard reaction between reducing sugars and
amino acids or proteins are as follows:

 Condensation of the aldehyde or ketone group with the amino group.

 Rearrangement of condensation products.
 Dehydration of the rearranged products.
 Further degradation.
 Polymerization to brown pigments.

Acid: When milk is heated, its acidity decreases at first owing to the release of
dissolved carbon dioxide and then increases because hydrogen ions are liberated
when calcium and phosphate forms insoluble com-pounds. A balance between
these opposing factors prevents large changes of pH during heating.
Minerals: Iodine is a volatile substance and when heated tends to be lost from
milk. The dispersion of calcium phosphate in milk is decreased by heating and part
of it precipitated. Some of it collects on the bottom of the pan with coagulum of
albumin and some is probably entangled in the scum on the top surface of the milk.

Scum formation: Scum is formed when milk is heated in an uncovered pan on the
surface due to drying out.

Scorching of milk: Scorching is due in part to the film of coagulated albumin and
other whey proteins that collect on the bottom and sides of the pan. Non-enzymatic
browning may be responsible for the brown colour of scorched milk.

Milk products

1)Non-Fermented products

 Whey protein concentrate

 Skim Milk
Fat content is reduced to 0.5-2 per cent by centrifugation. By removing fat from
the milk not only taste or flavour is reduced but fat-soluble-vitamins like vitamin A
and D are reduced. Usually this milk is fortified with vitamins A and D.
Condensed skim milk finds extensive use in the baking industry and manufacture
of confectionery. Skim milk is used for low calorie diets and for children who need
high protein.

 Evaporated milk
This is the milk from which about 50-60 per cent of the water has been evaporated.
Raw milk is clarified and concentrated in a vacuum pan at a temperature of 74-
77°C. It is fortified with vitamin D, homogenised, sterilised in cans at a
temperature of 118°C for 15 minutes and cooled. This heat treatment gives
evaporated milk a light brown colour owing to sugar protein interaction and its
character-stic flavour. As per PFA rules, the condensed milk should contain 26 per
cent milk solids of which 8 per cent is fat.

 Sweetened condensed milk: Sugar concentration is 65 per cent.

 Milk powder:
Two methods are commonly used for the preparation of milk powder

1)Drum or roller drying

The steps involved in roller drying are (1) Filtration and pasteurization, (2)
Homogenisation, (3) Drying and (4) Powdering and packaging.

2)Spray drying

The spray drying process consists of the following steps: (1) Filtration and
pasteurization, (2) Concentration and homogenization and (3) Spray drying and
packing.
  Khoa
 Chhaina:
 Cream
 Colostrum: The milk from newly calved animals has high acidity and rich in
protein and carotenoids. It gets coagulated at very low temperatures and the
milk is diluted with ordinary milk and steam cooked with jaggery and
cardamom. It can be cut into pieces.

2)Fermented milk products

 Butter
 Cheese: steps
i) Curd formation
ii) Curd cutting
iii) Curd cooking:
iv) Curd drainage:
v) Cheddaring:
vi) Salting the curd:
vii) Pressing:
viii) Ripening: .

 Curd
During curd formation the lactose of milk is converted into lactic acid. Acid
curdles the milk protein. The fat globules coalesce and distribute themselves on the
top. Organisms involved in curd formation belong to the group of lacto bacillus
and streptococcus -L. Casei, L. brevis, L. bulgaris, S. Lactis and S. Thermophilus.
Starter culture containing a combination of lacto bacillus bulgaris and
streptococcus, organisms is good. Starters containing yeasts, moulds and gas-
containing organisms spoil the quality of curd.

Types of milk on the market

 Homogenised milk: In homogenised milk, the fat globules are broken up

mechanically to less than 1 micron in diameter so that fat does not rise to the
surface to form a cream layer.
 Standardised Milk
In standardised milk, the fat content is maintained at 4.5 per cent and S.N.F. at 8.5
per cent. It is prepared from the mixture of buffalo milk and skim milk.

 Toned Milk
Toned milk is prepared by mixing reconstituted from skim milk powder with
buffalo milk containing 7.0 per cent fat. The fat content of the toned milk should
not be less than 3 per cent and S.N.F. 8.5 per cent.

 Double toned milk

This is prepared by admixture of cow's or buffalo's milk or both with fresh
skimmed milk or by admixture with skim milk reconstituted from skim milk
powder or by partial removal or addition of milk to skim milk. It should be
pasteurised and show negative phosphatase test. Its fat content should be less than
1.5 per cent and S.N.F. not less than 9 per cent.

 Recombined Milk
Recombined milk is a homogenised product prepared from milk fat, non-fat milk
solids and water. It should be pasteurised and show a negative phosphatase test. Its
fat content should be less than 3 per cent and S.N.F. 8.5 per cent.

 Filled milk: Filled milk is a homogenised product prepared from refined

vegetable oil and non-fat milk solids and water. Its fat content should not be
less than 3 per cent and S.N.F. 8.5 per cent.
 Sterilised milk
Standardised cow's or buffalo's milk is sterilised in bottles by heating continuously
to a temperature of 115˚C for 15 minutes to ensure destruction of all micro-
organisms and preservation at room temperature for not less than 85 days from the
date of manufacture. It shall be sold only in the container, in which milk was
sterilized.

Fruits

Nutritive value of different fruits:

 Fruits are very poor source of protein and fat. Avocado is the exception
containing 28 per cent fat.
 Fruits are not very good sources of calories. Fruits like bananas give fairly
good amount of calories. Ripe fruit contains a higher percentage of sugar
 than unripe fruit and the sugar is chiefly in the form of sucrose, fructose and
glucose.
 Generally fruits are poor source of iron. Seethaphal is also a good source of
iron.
 Mangoes are the excellent source of carotenes. Alphonso variety was found
to be the richest source of β- carotene. Banginapally and peddarasalu are
fairly good source of β- carotene. Apart from mango, Indian dates and
papaya are good sources of β- carotene. Oranges are fairly good source of β-
carotene.
 Guavas are the best source of vitamin C. Citrus fruits are also rich in vitamin
C . Cashew fruits are inexpensive and rich in vitamin C. Although there is
variation of vitamin content from fruit to fruit most fruits in the raw state
contain some ascorbic acid. Amla is the richest source of vitamin C. If fruits
are bruised, peeled, cooked or exposed to air, alkali or copper, large amounts
of the vitamin may be oxidized.
 Apples, pears, cherries, grapes and citrus fruits contain flavonoids which act
as antioxidants.

Pigments

 Chlorophyll : Guava, gooseberry, country apple.

 Carotenoids : Mango, papaya, orange, watermelon (lycopene), musk melon
(β- carotene), jackfruit, peaches, (violaxanthin) tomatoes, grape pink
(lycopene, b- carotene) pine apple (violaxanthin b- carotene)
 Anthocyanins : Grapes, blueberries, plums, cherries.
  Anthoxanthins: Guava, apple, gooseberry, pears, custard apple, banana.

Anthocyanins: Sometimes, strawberry jam changes gradually from the pleasing red
to a dull reddish brown occurs if such factors as a high pH, oxygen in the head
space and or a high storage temperature are present.

The metal iron precipitates anthocyanin. This reaction may cause „pin-holing‟ of
cans used for foods containing anthocyanins.

Effect of canning or preserving: Whether canned in tin or glass, the colour of the
fruits containing anthocyanins deteriorate on storage for extended periods.
Deterioration is delayed by storage in a cool dark place.

Effect of sulphur dioxide: Potassium metabisulphite is routinely used as an

antimicrobial preservative in squashes and crushes. At high concentrations (1.0 -
1.5 %) it causes a total irreversible bleaching of anthocyanins. Foods containing
anthocyanins should not be preserved by potassium metabisulphite. Ex. grape
squash or crush.

Polyphenols: Polyphenols or tannins comprised catechins, the leucoanthocyanins

and hydroxyl acids. Skin and seeds contain high amount of tannin. When a fruit is
pressed, such as apples in the preparation of cider or grapes in making juice or
wine, the tannins flow out in the juice.

Effects of polyphenols on fruit quality

The cause of the undesirable astringency in some fruits and desirable astringency
in ciders and wines is due to polyphenols. Astringency is the feeling of puckering
that occurs in the mouth when certain compounds, notably flavanols are present.

The formation of troublesome haze and precipitates in apple juice, beer and wine
has been attributed to the interaction of proteins and phenolic polymers.

Development of brown discolouration occurs in cut fruits due to oxidation of

phenolic substances (chlorogenic acids, catechins) by the polyphenolase enzymes.

The formation to dark- be naturally occurring in citrus products.

Ripening of fruits

Fruit ripening is a genetically programmed highly co-ordinated physiological

process. The process of fruit ripening is chiefly regulated by a gaseous plant
hormone called ethylene. Most fruits have elevated ethylene levels during ripening.
Ethylene regulates the expression of several genes involved in fruit ripening so as
to modulate the activity of various enzymes involved in the process of ripening.
The hydrolytic enzymes bring structural and chemical modifications. Enzymes
observed to increase during ripening of fruits include lipase, pectic enzymes,
invertase, chlorophyllase and peroxidase. Changes occur during ripening due to the
presence of enzymes present in the plant tissue.

The colour changes from green to yellow or orange red in colour. There is
breakdown of chlorophyll. Synthesis or exposure of carotenoids and anthocyanin
pigments occur.
Softening of the flesh occurs during ripening. Protopectin is converted to pectin
and in overripe fruits, pectin is converted to pectic acid. During ripening,
hydrolysis of hemicelluloses occurs resulting in softening of the fruit.

There is decrease in acidity, increase in sugar, increase in volatile substances and

increase in essential oils. Increase in sugar and decrease in starch causes change in
the soluble solids. When harvested, a banana contains about 20 percent starch and
only 1 percent sugar. By the time the fruit is ripe, the proportions are reversed.
Astringent property decreases. All these changes produce a pleasant flavour.

The optimum temperature and humidity for ripening are about 20˚C and 90-95
percent relative humidity. Ripening of fruits can also be done artificially by
smoking.

Chemical fruit ripening

Natural process of fruit ripening is accelerated by using certain chemicals. The

chemical commonly to ripen fruits commercially is ethephon (2-Chloro ethyl
phosphonic acid) which penetrates into the fruit and decomposes to ethylene.
Incidentally, chemicals like calcium carbide that produce acetylene, an analogue of
ethylene, are also used in some places posing dangers of explosion and carryover
of toxic materials to consumers. Higher levels of ethylene and enhanced respiration
might contribute to ripening when stored at higher temperatures. Since the amount
of carbide needed to ripen the immature fruit is more, it makes the fruit become
more tasteless and toxic. Presence of trace amount of arsenic and phosphorus in
carbide makes the healthy fruits poisonous. One can distinguish the artificially
ripened fruit by the uniform skin colour in fruits like tomato, mango, papaya and in
the case of banana, yellow colour fruit with dark green stem.

Enzymatic browning

The rapid darkening of the cut surface of apple, (brinjal and potato) and banana are
examples of enzymatic browning. Normally the natural enzymatic compounds
present in intact tissues and do not come into contact with the phenol oxidases
present in some tissues. When the tissues are cut, or injured and the cut surface is
exposed to air, phenol oxidase enzyme released at the surface, act on the
polyphenols present, oxidising them to orthoquinones. The orthoquinones rapidly
polymerise to form brown pigments. Tyrosine, chlorogenic acid, the various
catechins and several mono and dihydroxyphenols are among the many
compounds that can serve as substrates for oxidation by poly phenoloxidase to
cause browning or other discolouration in these foods. Phenolase is also known by
other names as polyphenol oxidase, tyrosinase or catecholase, each is specific for
certain substrate. The optimum pH for the activity of the enzyme polyphenolase is
between 5 and 7.

 Banana peels can turn brown or black when refrigerated. The cells on the
peels of tropical fruits like bananas get damaged when stored under cold
conditions. This releases some phenolic compounds that get oxidised by
enzymes like polyphenol oxidase leading to the darkening of the peel.
 However the quality of the edible part of the banana fruit is not affected by
refrigeration. In fact, refrigeration may delay the ripening of banana fruit for
a few days. Temperate fruits like apple and pears do not get their cells
damaged due to cold conditions and hence they can be refrigerated.
Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning:

 Developing color and flavor in Coffee, Cocoa beans, and tea.

 Developing color and flavor in dried fruit such as figs and raisins

Prevention of enzymatic browning

 Enzymatic browning can be prevented either by inactivating the enzyme or

cutting off the oxygen.

 Temperature: The most commonly used method is blanching. The optimum

temperature for browning is 43˚C-50˚C. If food is kept at higher or lower
temperature browning is reduced. Coagulation of protein occurs during
blanching, thereby inactivating the enzyme. When fruit is canned or made
into jams or jellies, the browning reaction stops as soon as the fruit is heated
sufficiently to denature the enzyme.
  Change in pH: The optimum pH for polyphenolase activity is between 6.0
and 7.0, lowering of the pH to 4.0 by the addition of citric acid inhibits the
phenolase activity. It is also possible citric acid reacts with the copper
present in the enzyme. Malic acid also has been found to be effective.
Lemon juice contains both citric acid and ascorbic acid and both are
effective.

 Use of antioxidants:
 Prevention of contact with oxygen: Contact with oxygen can be reduced by
immersing the fruits in water, or liquids like milk, curd, fruit juice or honey
or by covering with a wet cloth after cutting.
 Addition of sodium chloride or sugar to the cut fruit prevents browning. Due
to osmosis, fruit is covered by leached solution and prevents contact with
oxygen.

Non-enzymatic browning

Non-enzymatic browning in lime juice is accompanied by an increase in off

flavour, which also limits shelf life. During evaporative concentration of lime
juice, rise in temperature leads to browning pigment formation. Clarified lime juice
remains free from non-enzymatic browning when subjected to vacuum evaporation
at a temperature range of 30-50˚C.

Ascorbic acid is responsible for the development of browning reactions in fruit

juices, concentrates and in canned vegetables. Mixtures of ascorbic acid and amino
acids develop brown colour more rapidly than mixtures of reducing sugars and
amino acids. Dehydro-ascorbic acid highly reactive and can react with amino
acids. In the decomposition of ascorbic acid or dehydro ascorbic acid furfural and
ozone of L-xylose are formed which are highly reactive.

The tamarind fruit pericarp (pulp) contains several phenolic compounds most of
which are proanthocyanidins. In addition tamarind pulp contains tartaric acid and a
small amount of ascorbic acid. All these compounds are easily prone to oxidation.

Oxidation of phenolic compounds leads to darkening of tamarind pulp. Darkening

due to ageing and exposure to air also occurs in some kinds of wine and ketchup
preparations. The speed at which they turn dark depends on the chemical
composition of phenolic compounds present in the fruit ingredients.

In the case of tamarind darkening due to age, oxidation occurs primarily as a non-
enzymatic chemical reaction. Refrigerator would significantly reduce the rate of
oxidation and thus darkening of tamarind pulp.

Vegetables and fruits as functional foods

 Carotenoids present in carrots, oranges and spinach prevent oxidation of

vitamin A and E. Limonoids present in citrus peel act as antioxidants
protecting lung tissues from free oxygen.
 Phenolic compounds present in berries, grapes and brinjals protect against
oxidative damage of tissues and inflammation.
 Cruciferous vegetables form rich sources of glucosinolates. They activate
liver detoxification enzymes and can reduce tumour. Allylic sulphides are
potent antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic.
  Indoles found in fruits and gooseberry bind carcinogens and protect against
cancer.

Sugar and Related Products

Properties

1) Solubility

In the natural state of foods, sugars are in solution. Crystallisation of sugar occurs
from a sufficiently concentrated sugar solution, and use of this is made in the
commercial production of sugar from sugarcane and beets. The most-soluble sugar
is fructose, followed by sucrose and lactose. The sugar that is the most soluble
such as fructose is most difficult to crystallise than that the least-soluble sugar,
lactose.

2) Absorption of moisture

Sugars are hygroscopic. Fructose is more hygroscopic than the other sugars. Cakes
made with honey, molasses remain moist for a long time.

3) Fermentation

Most sugars, except lactose, may be fermented by yeasts to produce carbon dioxide
gas and alcohol. This is an important reaction in making bread and other baked
products. The carbon dioxide leavens the product and the alcohol volatilises during
baking.

4)Acid hydrolysis

Sucrose is easily hydrolysed by acid but maltose and lactose are slowly acted on.
The end products of sucrose hydrolysis are a mixture of glucose and fructose. This
mixture is commonly called invert sugar. The monosaccharides are not appreciably
affected by acids. Heat accelerates the action of acid.

5) Enzyme hydrolysis

The enzyme sucrose also called invertase is used in the candy industry to hydrolyse
some of the sucrose in cream fondant to fructose and glucose. This is done to
produce soft, semi fluid centres in chocolates. The enzyme is commonly added to
the fondant layer around the fruit in chocolate coated cherries.

6)Caramelisation

With the application of sufficient dry heat, sugar melts or changes to a liquid state.
Heating beyond the melting point brings about a number of decompositional
changes. As sucrose melts around 160˚C, a clear liquid forms that gradually
changes to a brown colour with continued heating. At about 170˚C, carmelisation
occurs with the development of a characteristic caramel flavour along with the
brown colour.

Caramelisation is a complex reaction, involving the removal of water and eventual

polymerisation. Caramel has a pungent taste, is often bitter, is much less sweeter
than the original sugar from which it is produced, and is non-crystalline. It is
soluble in water. Fructose caramelises at 110˚C, and maltose caramelises at about
180˚C, galactose at 170˚C.

7)Decomposition by alkalies

The monosaccharides are markedly decomposed by alkalies and flavour may

become strong and bitter. Sucrose is least affected by alkalies.
8) Sweetness

Of the sugars, lactose is the least, followed by maltose, galactose, glucose and
sucrose with fructose being the most sweet. A maximum sweetness from fructose
is most likely to be achieved when it is used slightly with acid, cold foods and in
beverages.

9)Crystallisation

A crystal is composed of closely packed molecules arranged in a pattern.

Crystallisation occurs only if the solution is supersaturated. The size of the crystals
produced will depend on the rate of the formation of nuclei about which the
crystals grow and the rate of growth of crystals around the nuclei. If only one or
two nuclei are formed, the size of the crystals produced will be large but if the rate
of formation of nuclei is very rapid, many small crystals will form. Both the rate of
crystallisation and the rate of nuclei formation are modified by many factors.

Factors affecting crystallisation

 Nature of the crystallising substances

Some sugars like glucose do not have the ability to produce very large crystals,
rather they produce nuclei rapidly. Thus formation of many small crystals takes
place. Probably because it causes the breaking of many nuclei from crystals
already formed.

 Concentration of the solution (saturation)

Fairly large amounts of sugar dissolve easily in water. The higher the temperature
of water, the greater the amount of sugar that will dissolve in water. Maltose and
glucose are less soluble than sucrose. Hence, when syrups containing a large
proportion of these sugars are used, more water must be added to dissolve them.
The right conditions for rapid crystallisation is to have the syrup to heat upto the
right temperature or adjust to the right concentration. The lower the temperature
the smaller the size of the crystals. Gulab jamun and jalebi syrups are not
supersaturated solutions hence do not crystallise.

 Agitation or stirring
Agitation favours the formation of finer crystals than are produced spontaneously.
Stirring brings the supersaturated solution in contact with each crystal. It is
important to stir crystalline candy not only until crystallisation starts, but until it is
complete.

 Impurities
Impurities that may be deposited on the crystals reduce the growth of the crystals.
The presence of glucose interferes with the crystallisation of sucrose. Another way
an impurity may interfere with crystallisation is by coating the crystals. The use of
fat, flour, milk, coconut, nuts, interfere with the crystal formation. For example, in
making mysore pak, flour and fat are added which interfere with crystallisation.

 Addition of acid
An acid ingredient like cream of tartar, lemon juice or vinegar may be added to
hasten the inversion of sucrose to glucose and fructose. For example, addition of
citric acid to jams and jellies prevent crystallisation. In sweet pickles when mango
is used crystallisation is prevented.

Boiled sugar solutions may be treated to produce either crystalline or non-

crystalline candies. Crystalline candies are generally soft. If properly made, they
are so smooth and creamy that the tiny sugar crystals that make up their
microscopic structure cannot be felt on the tongue. The principal crystalline
candies are fondant, mysore pak and coconut burfi.

Non-crystalline candies are sometimes called amorphous which means “without

form”. In their preparation, by use of various techniques, crystallisation of sugar is
prevented. Non-crystalline candies may be chewy, such as caramels or hard such
as butter scotch, toffees and brittles

Candies

Crystalline candies

Fondant is the soft smooth candy that results from the cooking of a sucrose
solution to a certain temperature, after which the solution is cooled and beaten until
crystallisation occurs. Additions of acid accelerate inversion and use of milk or
cream as the liquid, increases the creamy character of fondant.
Method of making fondant

As the hot syrup cools to 40˚C it becomes saturated and then super-saturated
because it is holding in solution more solute (sugar) than is normally soluble at the
lower temperatures.

An important aim in making crystalline candies is to produce a very smooth

texture. For this, many fine crystals, rather than few large crystals must be formed.
For this many nuclei are required. These act as centres around which crystal
formation may begin.

Ripening

As crystalline candy stands after crystallisation is complete, it becomes somewhat

more moist, smooth and kneads more easily, because some of the very small
crystals dissolve in the syrup. Changes that occur during the initial period of
storage are called ripening. Absorbed substances that interfere with crystallisation
aid in retarding the growth of crystals during storage. Fondants are used in making
mints. Fondants are used in confectioneries for numerous purposes. Softened
fondant is used in coating fruit and nut mixtures that are moulded and sliced.

Fudge

The principles of making fudge do not differ from those of making fondant.
Usually, the butter or margarine, the fat of chocolate and the milk furnish the
substances that interfere with crystallisation.
Beverages and Appetisers

Coffee

Coffee is an important beverage used all over the world. The ripe berries are used
for coffee beverage. Fruit resembles a small cherry with dark red purple cover. The
fleshy mucilaginous pulp of fruit encloses two oval greenish grey seeds or beans.
Each covered by a thin membrane, the silver skin. Both seeds are enclosed in a
common husk like membrane or parchment.

The important varieties of coffee grown in different countries are

 Coffee Arabica
 Coffee Robusta
 Coffee Liberica
Of these, Arabica and Rubusta varieties are cultivated in India.

Processing

Coffee processing consists of removing the skin, pulp, parchment and silver
screen. The quality of the final product depends upon the method of processing.

Two methods are employed for processing

Dry method

In the dry method, the beans are sun dried.

Wet method

In the wet method, known as the washed coffee process, pectin enzymes are used
on selectively picked cherries to replace spontaneous fermentation.

The manufacture of coffee powder involves roasting, grinding, blending and

packing.

 Roasting: The degree of roasting is one of the important factors influencing

the quality of coffee. The typical coffee aroma is developed during roasting.
The flavour and aroma of coffee are best when it is freshly roasted and deteriorate
on standing. The flavour is largely due to 2-thiofuran and its methyl and ethyl
esters, together with some other sulphur compounds. The aroma of coffee is partly
attributable to mercaptans present in the roasted beans.

 Grinding: The bulk of roasted beans is ground to powder and sold as ground
coffee. Roasted beans are ground to three sizes, namely, fine, medium and
coarse. Coarse ground powder retains aroma and flavour better and longer
than fine ground powder.
  Blending: Blending of Arabica and robusta in the ratio of 2:1 and addition of
roasted chicory root powder at 10 % level to the blend gives a strong
decoction with good aroma.
Strength, flavour, aroma and acidity are the chief criteria in judging the quality of
coffee and judicious blending of different grades brings out these qualities to the
best advantage.

 Packaging: For larger packs of roasted and ground coffee, gas packing under
carbon dioxide or vacuum is effective. For unit packs, various flexible films
like polyethylene, cellulose films, high density polyethylene and for short
duration storage, the high density polyethylene is effective.

Instant coffee: Instant coffee is made by dehydrating coffee brew. The steps
involved in the manufacture are:

 Extraction of coffee powder

 Dehydration of extract
 Recovery of volatile flavouring compounds and their addition to instant
coffee.

Chicory: Chicory root is chopped, roasted and ground and is used as a substitute
for coffee often blended at 50 percent level. It gives bitterness and body to the
beverage which some people find refreshing. It is not harmful to the body. It
produces a dark infusion with laxative properties and does not have caffeine.
Coffee beverage: Coffee is used mainly as a beverage in the form of aqueous
extract prepared from roasted and powdered beans. Coffee has no food value. The
constituents that are of chief significance in the making of the beverage are
caffeine, flavour substances and bitter substances.

Caffeine : It is an alkaloid substance producing the stimulating property. Caffeine

stimulates the central nervous system. It is also a cardiac stimulant. It is a diuretic.
It increases gastric and pepsin secretion. Excessive intake can cause insomnia.

Flavour substances: It is the sulphur compounds that are the main contributors to
the flavour. Too long heating and too high a temperature may destroy all
characteristic flavour and aroma.

Bitter substances: Polyphenol substances or tannins are hot water soluble. Hence
longer the coffee is brewed, the greater will be the tannin content and the bitterness
becomes pronounced.

Tea

Tea (Camellia Sinensis) is an evergreen shrub or tree, which grows wild from India
to China. There are about 45 species of Camellia of which sinensis considered
native to India and is the important one from which tea of commerce is made. Tea
is a beverage prepared by pouring boiling water over dry processed leaves. It is the
most popular refreshing drink in many countries.
Fresh tea leaves contain carotenes, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and ascorbic
acid. But during manufacture of black tea they are lost. No change takes place in
green tea as its manufacturing does not involve fermentation.

Tea as a beverage is consumed for its stimulating effect. The important

constituents of tea contributing to the flavour are caffeine, polyphenols and
essential oils.

Antioxidant activity

Polyphenols present in tea have antioxidant activity. Antioxidant activity of tea is

much higher than spinach and other vegetables. A cup of tea supplies around
200mg of flavonoids. The antioxidant potency in a tea is 400 per cent greater than
a cup of orange juice.

Types of tea

There are three types of tea depending on the processing of tea leaves. They are

 Black produced by a fermentation process

 Green or unfermented tea
 Oolong or semi-fermented teas.
Black tea is the most popular among the three.

Black tea
Various processing steps involved in the manufacture of black tea are withering,
rolling, fermentation, drying, grading and packing.

 Withering
It is carried out by spreading tea leaves thinly on racks or shelves. Air is blown to
make them soft and flexible. They are dried till the moisture content is lowered to
40 %.

 Rolling
The withered leaves are then rolled to break open the cells and release the juices
and the enzymes. The flavour characteristic inherent in various teas partially
depends on the technique used.

 Fermentation
After rolling the leaves are spread out thinly on suitable platforms and allowed to
ferment for 2-6 hours at temperature between 21 and 27˚ C. Two of the important
polyphenols that undergo oxidative changes are catechin and gallocatechin. The
colour of the leaves changes to black. When the fermentation has proceeded to the
desired degree further change is arrested by drying and firing.

 Drying or firing
The fermented leaf is passed through the drier. The leaf is dried at 87.7-93.3˚ C for
30-40 min.

 Sorting and grading

Grading of tea is done according to its size.
  Blending
Different teas are blended to produce a product with uniform character. Blending is
an art and demands skill and experience.

 Packing
In India, the blended tea is packed in plywood boxes lined with aluminium foil and
parchment paper.

Green tea

Green tea is produced in Japan. Here withering and fermentation are completely
omitted. It is made by first steaming the leaves to prevent the leaves from
changing colour and to inactivate the enzymes. Steaming is then followed by
rolling and drying. The leaves retain much of its original green colour especially
the finer leaves. The older leaves often have a blackish gray colour. The beverage
made from green tea has a greenish yellow colour and is distinctly bitter and
astringent.

Oolong tea

This has special market in America and almost exclusively produced in Borneo.
Oolong tea is partially fermented. The fermentation period is too short to change
the colour of the leaf completely.

Colour of tea
The bright orange colour in black tea beverage is due to theoflavin. The high
phenolic content gives a tea with a high colour.

Instant tea

The process consists of the following steps.

 Extraction and concentration of the extract

 Recovery of the volatile flavour components
 Drying of the extract
 Addition of flavour concentrates to the final product.

Cocoa and Chocolate

Cocoa and chocolate are made by grinding the seeds of the pods of the cacao tree
(theobroma cacao).

Processing

Different steps are involved in the processing of cocoa beans:

 Composition of cocoa and chocolate

 Cocoa is used as a beverage. Chocolate is used mainly as confectionery and
small extent as beverage.
 Chocolate contains not less than 50 % and not more than 58 % weight of
cocoa fat. Cocoa may vary in fat content from 10-22 % . The fat of chocolate
contributes to its eating quality because it has a sharp melting point that is
close to the body temperature. This results in rapid melting of chocolate in
mouth and release of flavour substance
Composition

Protein – 11.5 %

Cocoa butter – 54 %

Starch – 9.0 %

Water – 5.0 %

Fruit Beverages

Fruit juice: This is a natural juice pressed out of a fresh fruit. This is unaltered in
its composition during preparation and preservation. Ex. fresh juice and canned
natural fruit juice.

Fruit drink: This is made by liquefying the whole fruit. At least 10 % of the volume
of undiluted drink must be whole fruit. Ex. grape juice, apple juice and mango
juice.

Fruit squash: This is made from strained fruit juice, sugar and preservative. This
contains 25 % fruit juice and 45 % sugar. Ex. mango squash.

Fruit cordial: This is a fruit squash from which all suspended matter is completely
eliminated by filtration or clarification. Clarification is done by the use of pectic
enzymes or finning agents. The finning agents produce a flocculent which
gradually settles carrying down with it colloidal suspension. Clarified juice can be
preserved by using freezing technique, pasteurization or the addition of chemical
preservatives such as sodium benzoate or potassium meta bisulphite. Ex. lime
cordial. Clear juices can be prepared from banana and apple also.

Fruit punch: Fruit punches are made by mixing the desired fruit juices. This
contains 25 % of total fruit juice and 65 % of sugar.

Fruit syrups: In fruit syrup only one type of fruit is used. These are concentrates of
fruit juices preserved with sugar. The fruit is crushed to a coarse puree and left
overnight for fermentation. This concentrates the flavour and causes the juice to
separate from the solids. It is filtered. When this juice is heated with sugar it
transforms into syrup. Proportions of 500 g sugar to ½ pint of juice will make the
syrup of medium strength. It is thinned with water or soda water and served with
ice. Fruit syrups can also be served with milk. To prevent the milk from curdling
milk is poured into the syrup very gradually and the mixture is stirred briskly.

Fruit juice concentrates: This is the fruit juice which has been concentrated by the
removal of water either by heat or freezing or by reverse osmosis.

Carbonated Non- Alcoholic Beverages

These beverages are generally sweetened, flavoured, acidified, coloured,
carbonated and sometimes chemically preserved.

Ingredients

Sugar: This is mostly sucrose, which is made into syrup. The finished beverage
will contain about 8 to 14 % sugar. The sugar gives sweetness and calories and
body to the drink.

Flavourings: These come in the forms of synthetic flavour compounds, natural

flavour extracts and fruit juice concentrates. The flavours must be stable under the
acid

ic conditions of the beverage and on exposure to light for a year or more.

Colours: Natural fruit extracts, synthetic colours, particularly the certified coal tar
colours are used. Caramel from burned sugar, a non-synthetic colour is also
commonly used.

Acid: Carbon dioxide in solution contributes to acidity but this is supplemented

with additional acid in most carbonated drinks. The main reason for acidification is
to enhance the beverage flavours. The principal acids used are phosphoric, citric,
fumaric, tartaric and malic acids.
Water: This may be present to the extent of 92%.

Carbon dioxide: The carbon dioxide enhances flavour, contributes acidic

preservative action, produces the tingling effect on the tongue and gives the
sparkling effervescent appearance to the beverage

Spices

The food is to be seasoned by the addition of flavouring agents which include

spices and condiments. Spices are usually dried roots, barks or seeds used whole,
crushed or powdered. Herbs are usually the fresh leaves, stems or flowers of
herbaceous plants. Spices are shorter than herbs.

Functions of spices

 Spices add flavor and colour to food and make the food palatable and hence
add variety in the diet. Cereals, pulses, vegetables or meat can be cooked in
variety of forms due to addition of different kinds of spices.
 Spices in general stimulate salivation, acid secretion, and digestive enzymes.
Spices increase the secretion of saliva containing more of ptyalin so that
foods rich in carbohydrates are easily digested. Spices are used for digestion
and to reduce flatulence.
 Some spices have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant
properties.
  Some spices help in improving the impaired blood glucose levels in the body
and help diabetics.
 Some spices reduce cholesterol levels and may be useful in preventing heart
diseases.
 Some spices are considered antimutagenous or anticarcinogenous.
 Flavour moiety is well protected in whole spices by the cells from
evaporation and oxidation. Whole spices release flavor slowly. Grinding
spices release the flavor. Finer the powder, more readily available is the
flavor.

Flavoring extracts

 Volatile oils are obtained from water or stream distillation. Essential oil
gives only the odour of the spice.
 Oleoresin is a concentrated, viscous, resinous extract obtained by solvent
(alcohol) extraction of the plant material. Oleoresin represents the true flavor
complex of a spice.
 The processed products of spices are convenient to use free from
contamination, have better storage life and are easy to transport.
Ajwain (omum)

It is a household remedy for indigestion. Ajwain is much valued for its

antispasmodic, stimulant and carminative effects.

Aniseed (somfu)

The flavouring principle of it is a volatile oil. The chief compound of which is

anethole. It is chewed after meals and used as mouth freshener. It is used in cakes,
breads, cookies and candies, vada curry, kurma,non-vegetarian dishes, biryani,
kachori and in pickles.

An infusion of fennel is used to counteract flatulence. It is mildly carminative and

used in treating colic pain.

Asafetida

It is an oleo gum resin exuded from the rhizome or root of ferula asafoetida.The
odour components consists of a ferulic ester and sulphur containing volatile oil.
Asafoetida is available in the market mixed with starch to dilute the strong flavor.
It is used in seasonings of rasam, sambar and lemon rice.

Medicinal value: Asafoetida is used as an antimicrobial agent. It is also used in

treating chronic bronchitis and whooping cough.It is used in counter acting
intestinal flatulence.It increases the levels of detoxification enzymes in the body.

Bay leaves (birinj leaves)

They are the dried aromatic leaves of laurel tree. They contain 1-3 percent of
highly aromatic volatile oil. Oil of bay leaves is used in the preparation of pickling
spice and in the flavouring of vinegar. The leaves are used for flavouring meat
preparations, pulav, soups, kadi, chowders, stews, fish, tomato pickle and birinj
sweet.

Cardamom

The fruit contains brownish black seeds which have about 2-10% volatile oil with
the characteristic pleasant odour. The active principles present in the oil cineole,
terpinyl acetate, pinene, sabinene and porneol. It is mainly used for flavouring
sweet preparations, cookies, breads, cakes and preserves.

Chilies

They occur in different sizes, shapes and colour shades.The red colouring matter of
chillies is due to a carotenoid pigment, capsanthin. The pungency of chilli extracts
are expressed in terms of “Scoville value”.

Chillies contain a substance called capsaicin which increases the gastric secretion
and it causes the destruction of the mucosal cells. Capsaicin present in chillies
stimulates digestive system.

Cinnamon

It is thin inner bark of the cinnamon tree. The bark contains about 1% essential oil.
The active principles are eugenol, cineole and cinnamaldehyde. It is used in stick
form in fruit preserves. Methyl hydroxyl chalcone polymer present in cinnamon is
a flavonoid which acts as antioxidant.

Clove

It is the dried flower bud of the clove tree. It contains about 15% essential oil.
Eugenol, the major component of clove oil is a phenolic compound, a naturally
occurring antioxidant which prevents foods from turning rancid. Eugenol esters are
used as flavouring agent.
Coriander seed

Seeds contain 0.5-1% essential oil which has an active principle coriander an
isomer of geraniol.

Medicinal value: Dhania seeds are chewed to correct foul breath. An infusion of
coriander seeds is used in flatulence, vomiting and intestinal disorders. Coriander
seeds contain thalides which increase the levels of anticancer protective enzymes.

Cumin seeds

It is pungent sharp and astringent. It contains 2-4% essential oil. The active
principle is an aldehyde cumino.

It is used as stimulant and carminative agent. Cumin seeds contain bio-active

substances called pthalides which increase the levels of anticancer protective
enzymes in the body.

Fenugreek seeds

It is hard lentil seed. Its colour is dark fawn and has astringent aroma.

Medicinal value: Fenugreek seeds aid in maintaining the blood glucose levels in
non-insulin dependent diabetics. The fibre present in the seed may be responsible
for this. It is also used with butter milk in the treatment of dysentery.

Garlic

Garlic contains an antibiotic principle “allin” (inactive form) which is converted to

allicin (active form) by the enzyme allinase. Allicin further breaks down to allyl
disulphide, which is responsible for characteristic flavour.

Ginger
It is the root of the plant Zingiber officinale Roscoe. The volatile oil present is
„gingerol‟.It is mainly pungent with lemony or camphory note.

Medicinal Value: Ginger is known to have antioxidant properties. Ginger is

reported to reduce inflammation and pain in joints. The gingerol in ginger act as
natural cough suppressant.It also as potential prophylactic use in treating migraine
headaches.It may also be effective in alleviating nausea.

Mustard

These are the small reddish black seeds of annual herbs. The leaves of this plant
are consumed as vegetables. Mustard seeds have a pungent flavor. The
characteristic flavour of mustard seed is due to an allyl iso thiocyanate.

Mustard seeds are rich in sulphur containing compounds namely the dithiol thiones
which protect against the toxic effects of aflatoxin. The dithiothione is also used as
antischistosomal drug.

Nutmeg and mace

This essential oil contains highly toxic compound known as myristicin.

Myristicin present in nutmeg seeds could lead to delirium and deep stupor. Smaller
amounts of nutmeg may cause vomiting and colic.

Onion

It is used as a flavouring agent in food preparations. It contains an essential oil the

active principle of which is responsible for the characteristic cooked flavour is allyl
propyl disulphide.It is used in cookery to improve the flavour or to mask
undesirable flavours and to increase the thickness of the gravies.

Pepper

They are the dried small round berry of a tropical vine with small white flowers.
Pepper owes its characteristics pungency and aroma its oleoresin. The alkaloid
peperine is considered to be the major constituent responsible for the biting taste of
black pepper. The characteristic aromatic odour of pepper is due to the presence of
volatile oil in the cells of pericarp.

It is used along with hot milk for throat infections. The active principle piperine
increased the bioavailability of other medicines by increasing their absorption and
delaying their metabolism.

Saffron

This is the name given to the fragrant stigmata found in the crocus flower. Saffron
has a pleasant aroma and an essential oil crocin and the colouring principle
crocerin.

Turmeric

It is the ground dried aromatic root. It contains 5% essential oil. The colouring
substance present is known as curcumin.