1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Cereal grains

Cereal, also called grain, any grass (family Poaceae) yielding starchy seeds suitable for food.
Most grains have similar dietary properties; they are rich in carbohydrates but comparatively low
in protein and naturally deficient in calcium and vitamin A. Breads, especially those made with
refined flours, are usually enriched in order to compensate for any nutritional deficiencies in the
cereal used. The cereals most commonly cultivated are wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, corn
(maize), and sorghum.

2. STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TYPES OF

CEREAL GRAINS

2.1 Structure and chemical composition of wheat

The botanical name for Wheat is Triticum aestivum from the family Poaceae. It is also
commonly known as bread wheat. Wheat is the most widely grown cereal grain, with the total
wheat output in 2016 at 724 million tones. Wheat is the staple food for 35 percent of the world's
population and provides more calories and protein in the diet than any other crop.
Structure of Wheat Flower and grain

The wheat flower does not have petals or sepals. Each female flower consists of an ovary from
which two styles emerge ending with two feathery stigmas each. The male flowers have three
stamens that are generally gold or green in color. Wheat generally self-pollinates. Each wheat
flower is covered by an outer glume called lemma and an inner glume called palea. Lemma is
larger than the palea. Three to five such flowers, attached alternately to opposite sides of a
central axis or rachilla and subtended by two empty scales, make up the spikelet. Each spikelet of
wheat is also known as ear. The entire inflorescence, usually consisting of 15-25 spikelets is
called a spike or a head of wheat.

A grain of wheat is on average between 5-9mm in length and 30-50mg in weight. The grain has a
single cotyledon and when dissected can be divided into three main parts.

1. Bran: The outer layer or the seed covering is called the wheat bran and protects the main part
of the kernel. The bran comprises about 15 percent of the seed weight. Bran can be further
divided into the pericarp which consists of epidermis, hypodermis, cross layer, tube cells, seed
coats, and hyaline layer. The bran is a source of protein, large quantities of the three major B-
vitamins, trace minerals, and dietary fiber.

2. Endosperm: Endosperm is the main part of the seed and it accounts for 80 percent of the seed
weight. It consists of starchy endosperm and endosperm cell. This layer contains the greatest
share of protein, carbohydrates, and iron, as well as the major B-vitamins, such as riboflavin,
niacin, and thiamine.

3. Germ (wheat germ) The germ lies at one end of the seed and is a tiny part of the kernel. The
germ is responsible for germination when planted in soil. It is a rich source of B-complex
vitamins, oil, vitamin E and natural plant fat.
Chemical Composition of wheat grain

Wheat provides nearly 55% of carbohydrate and 20% of the food calories. It contains
carbohydrate 78.10%, protein 14.70%, fat 2.10%, minerals 2.10% and considerable proportions
of vitamins (thiamine and vitamin-B) and minerals (zinc, iron). Wheat is also a good source of
traces minerals like selenium and magnesium, nutrients essential to good health. Wheat grain
precisely known as caryopsis consists of the pericarp or fruit and the true seed. In the endosperm
of the seed, about 72% of the protein is stored, which forms 8-15% of total protein per grain
weight. Wheat grains are also rich in pantothenic acid, riboflavin and some minerals, sugars etc.
The bran, which consists of pericarp testa and aleurone, is also a dietary source for fiber,
potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and niacin in small quantities. The kernel of wheat
is a storehouse of nutrients essential to the human diet. Endosperm is about 83% of the kernel
weight; it is the source of white flour. The endosperm contains the greatest share of the protein in
the whole kernel, carbohydrates, iron as well as many B-complex vitamins, such as riboflavin,
niacin, and thiamine. Bran is about 14.5% of the kernel weight. Bran is included in whole-wheat
flour and is available separately. Of the nutrients in whole wheat, the bran contains a small
amount of protein, larger quantities of the B-complex vitamins, trace minerals, and indigestible
cellulose material called dietary flour. Wheat germ is the embryo of the wheat kernel. The germ
or embryo of the wheat is relatively rich in protein, fat and several of the B-vitamins. The outer
layers of the endosperm and the aleurone contain a higher concentration of protein, vitamins and
phytic acid than the inner endosperm. The inner endosperm contains most of the starch and
protein in the grain. It is separated from wheat being milled for flour.
2.2 Structure and chemical composition of rice
Rice is one of the most important foods in the human diet and one of the most extended cereal
crops. Rice has probably fed more people in history than any other crop. Even today, rice grains
sustain two thirds of the world's population, approximately 2.5 billion people.

Structure of rice

Bran: Bran is the outer layer of the kernel and constitutes 5 percent of the kernel. During milling
the bran is discarded. Bran is rich in fiber and minerals. It is also a good source of thiamine and
riboflavin.

Aleurone Layer: This is located just under the bran, which is rich in protein, phosphorus and
thiamin and contains moderate amounts of fat. The aleurone layer makes up about 8 percent of
the whole kernel. This layer is lost in the milling process along with bran.

Endosperm: This is the large central part of the kernel and constitutes 84 - 85 percent of the
kernel. The endosperm cell consists mainly of starch and protein and little mineral matter and
fiber and only half a trace of fat. The vitamin content of the endosperm is low.

Germ : This is a small structure at the lower end of the kernel and is separated from the
endosperm by the scutellum. It makes up 2 - 3 percent of the whole kernel. It is rich in protein,
fat, vitamins and minerals. The germ serves as a store of nutrients for the seed when it
germinates. During milling some of the germ is lost along with the bran and aleurone layer.
Chemical and Nutritional Composition

Rice has one of the lowest protein contents (7%) among the cereals. The bran layers and embryo
are richer in nonstarch constituents than the milled rice. The major nutritional advantage of
brown rice over milled rice is its higher content of B vitamins. Although higher in minerals, bran
phytic acid and probably dietary fiber in the aleurone form complexes with minerals and
proteins, reducing their bioavailability. The energy content of brown rice and bran is higher than
that in milled rice, owing to the higher fat content. Rice has no vitamin A, C, or D.

2.3 Structure and chemical composition of barley

Barley is recognized as one of the very first crops to be domesticated for human consumption. It
remains one of the major cereal crops grown in the world: barley is grown on every continent on
which crops are grown. It is well adapted to diverse environmental conditions and thus it is
produced across a broader geographic distribution than most other cereals. Relative to other
cereal crops, barley ranks fourth in total grain production.

Structure of barley

The barley kernel consists of many different tissues. Outer layers of the kernel and the area
between the embryo and the starchy endosperm. In botanical terms, the barley seed is that part of
the kernel enclosed by the testa. Hence, the testa is often referred to as the seed coat.
Surrounding the testa and fused tightly to it is the pericarp, the outer tissue of the grain or
caryopsis. Since a caryopsis is a fruit, barley is a fruit containing a seed. The hull or husk
completely surrounds the grain and adheres tightly to the pericarp in most barley cultivars. In
some cultivars, however, the so-called naked or hull-less types, the hull is loosely attached to the
grain and is removed during threshing.
Chemical composition of barley

Whole barley grain consists of about 65-68% starch, 10-17% protein, 2-3% free lipids, 4-9% β-
glucans and 1.5-2.5% minerals. Total dietary fiber ranges from 11-34% containing soluble
dietary fiber within 3-20%. The non-starch polysachharides in barley are β-glucans,
arabinoxylans, and cellulose, the major one being β-glucans; these modify the energy value of
barley. Hulless or de-hulled barley grain contains 11–20% total dietary fiber comprising 11–14%
insoluble dietary fiber and 3–10% soluble dietary fiber. Amino acid composition of barley
protein is similar to other cereal grains.. High glutamine and proline and considerable cysteine
content are its characteristics. Lipid levels in barley are considerably low. The major fatty acids
in barley triacylglycerol are palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid. Fatty acids
in barley are similar to those in wheat except that barley tends to have more linolenic acid.
Barley is rich in fat-soluble vitamin E and contains varying amounts of vitamin B complex
except vitamin B12. The major elements in barley grain are phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulphur, selenium, and sodium.

2.4 Structure and chemical composition of corn/maize

Structure of maize

The kernel of maize consists of a pericarp (fruit wall) fused to the seed coat. This type of fruit is
typical of the grasses and is called a caryopsis. Maize kernels are frequently and incorrectly
referred to as seeds. The kernels are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows round a
white, pithy substance, which forms the ear.

Endosperm: About 82 percent of the corn kernel’s dry weight consists of endosperm. Starch is
the primary source and it most widely used part of the kernel. It is known as the key component
in fuel, sweeteners, bioplastics and other products.

Germ: The germ is the only living part of the corn kernel, also called its embryo. It consists of
the important genetic information, vitamins, enzymes and minerals for the plant to grow. The
germ accounts for 25 percent of the corn oils and it is a valuable part of the kernel.
Pericarp: The pericarp is the outer covering that protects the kernel and helps to maintain the
kernel's nutrient value and moisture content. It is about 91% fiber. If the kernels are wet-milled,
most of the pericarp will end up in the corn gluten feed.

Tip cap: The tip cap is the attachment point of the kernel to the corn cob, where the nutrient and
water flow, and this is the only part that not covered by the pericarp. It contains fiber.

Chemical composition:

Starch: The major chemical component of the maize kernel is starch, which provides up to 72 to
73 percent of the kernel weight. Other carbohydrates are simple sugars present as glucose,
sucrose and fructose in amounts that vary from 1 to 3 percent of the kernel. The starch in maize
is made up of two glucose polymers: amylose, an essentially linear molecule, and amylopectin, a
branched form.

Protein: After starch, the next largest chemical component of the kernel is protein. Protein
content varies in common varieties from about 8 to 11 percent of the kernel weight. Most of it is
found in the endosperm.

Oil and fatty acids: The oil content of the maize kernel comes mainly from the germ. Oil
content is genetically controlled, with values ranging from 3 to 18 percent. Maize oil has a low
level of saturated fatty acids. On the other hand, it contains relatively high levels of
polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic acid with an average value of about 24 percent
Other carbohydrates: When mature, the maize kernel contains carbohydrates other than starch
in small amounts. Total sugars in the kernel range between I and 3 percent, with sucrose, the
major component, found mostly in the germ. Higher levels of monosaccharides, disaccharides
and trisaccharides are present in maturing kernels.

Minerals: The concentration of ash in the maize kernel is about 1.3 percent, only slightly lower
than the crude fiber content.

Fat-soluble vitamins: The maize kernel contains two fat-soluble vitamins: provitamin A, or
Carotenoids, and vitamin E. Carotenoids are found mainly in yellow maize, in amounts that may
be genetically controlled, while white maize has little or no carotenoid content. Most of the
Carotenoids are found in the hard endosperm of the kernel and only small amounts in the germ

Dietary fiber: After carbohydrates, proteins and fats, dietary fiber is the chemical component
found in the greatest amounts. The complex carbohydrate content of the maize kernel comes
from the pericarp and the tip cap, although it is also provided by the endosperm cell walls and to
a smaller extent the germ cell walls.

2.5 Structure and chemical composition of sorghum

The sorghum kernel is considered a naked caryopsis. The kernel weight varies from 3 to 80 mg.
Examination of a microscopic view of a section through a mature so enables one to differentiate
between the outer seed cover or pericarp, the embryo or germ, and the endosperm. The pericarp
consists of several tissue layers The epicarp portion may be pigmented and its outer surface
covered with a waxy cuticle. A central layer of large thin-walled cells containing starch
constitutes the mesocarp. At the inner region of the pericarp are crosscells and tube cells. The
hilar layer and stylar areas represent regions of attachment of the grain to the plant and the
entrance of the pollen tube, respectively. They too are usually highly pigmented. The embryo,
near the base of the seed, consists of a large scutellum, a terminal plumule, a short central axis,

and a primary root. Since the embryo is more deeply embedded in the sorghum kernel, it is more
difficult to remove during dry-milling than from com. The endosperm consists of an outer single
aleurone tissue, a region of horny endosperm, and an inner floury endosperm. Aleurone cells are
rich in oil and protein. Cells of the horny and floury endosperm are filled with starch granules.
Chemical composition

Carbohydrates: The majority of the carbohydrate in sorghum and millets are starch, while
soluble sugar, pentosans, cellulose, and hemicellulose are low. Regular endosperm sorghum
types contain 23 to 30% amylose, but waxy varieties contain less than 5% amylose.

Lipids: Crude fat content of sorghum averages about 3%, which is higher than that of wheat and
rice. Fatty acid composition is similar to that of corn oil, with high concentrations of linoleic
(49%), oleic (31%) and palmitic acids (14%). Like maize, the energy content of sorghum is high.
Sorghum grain contains about 1.5 ppm of total Carotenoids.

Proteins: Prolamins (kafirins) constitute the major protein fractions in sorghum, followed by
glutelins. Lack of gluten is characteristic of protein composition, and traditionally, the bread
which cannot be baked from sorghum and millet is only cake bread.

2.6 Structure and chemical composition of oats

Structural composition

Cereal grains are distinguished from other grasses by having simple,dry and indehiscent fruits.
The pericarp , or fruit coat , is attached to the remainder of the fruit around the entire periphery.

The gross physical structure of the oat groat is similar to that of the kernels of wheat and barley.
It is however , covered with numerous trichomes or hair like protuberance.The three major
divisions in to which the groats can be divided are the bran , endosperm and germ. Starting from
the outside of the groat , the bran layer consist of the epidermis , seed coat , hyaline layer , and
aleuron cells , in that order. The germ is made up of embryonic cells and cell wall tissues , while
the endosperm is composed mainly of starch cells The oats germ , when viewed in a longitudinal
section of the kernel, extends roughly one-third of the way up the ventral side of the groat. It is
larger and narrower than the germ of wheat . Bounding the germ is a layer of columnar cells
which are strongly colored by protein strains.

Chemical composition

Oats, after corn (maize), have the highest lipid content of any cereal, i.e. greater than 10% for
oats and as high as 17% for some maize cultivars compared to about 2–3% for wheat and most
other cereals. is greater than that of other cereals, since much of the lipid fraction is contained
within the endosperm. Oats are the only cereal containing a globulin or legume-like protein,
avenalin, as the major (80%) storage protein.] Globulins are characterized by solubility in dilute
saline as opposed to the more typical cereal proteins, such as gluten and zein, the prolamines.
The minor protein of oat is a prolamine, avenin. Oat bran is the outer casing of the oat. Its daily
consumption over weeks lowers LDL and total cholesterol, possibly reducing the risk of heart
disease. One type of soluble fiber, beta-glucans, has been proven to lower cholesterol.

2.7 Structure and composition of rye

Structure of rye

Before rye grains can be used in food production, the outer part of the grain, the hull, must be
removed. After hulling, which generally occurs during threshing, the grains are used as whole,
cracked or flaked, or they are ground to make flakes or flour. The starchy endosperm constitutes
about 80-85% of the weight of the whole kernel, the germ 2-3% and the outer layers about 10-
15%. The main components of cereal grains are the hull, pericarp, testa, aleuron, endosperm and
the germ. Rye is, in contrast to wheat, a special grain because it is mostly consumed as whole
grain flour in breads and other cereal products. The grains may also be fractionated into different
types of flour during the milling process.

Chemical composition: Whole grain rye flour contains, as a percentage of dry matter, 56–70%
starch, 8–13% proteins, 2–3% lipids, 2% ash and 15–21% total dietary fiber. In addition, the
outer layer of the endosperm, the aleurone layer, is rich in minerals, vitamins, especially B-
vitamins, and phytochemicals.

2.8 Structure and chemical composition of millet

Millets provide protein, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fiber and polyphenols. Typical
millet protein contains high quantity of essential amino acids especially the sulphur containing
amino acids (methionine and cysteine). Processing millet by milling removes the bran and germ
layers that are rich in fiber and phytochemicals, causing significant loss. The millets are source
of antioxidants, such as phenolic acids and glycated flavonoids. Millet foods are characterized to
be potential prebiotic and can enhance the viability or functionality of probiotics with significant
health benefits. The nutritional significance of millets demands for an examination of the
nutritional characteristics and functional properties of different millet cultivars as well as
developing value added products from millets. The structure of millet is same as that of sorghum.
2.9 Structure and chemical composition of triticale
Triticale grains are yellowish brown in color. Their external morphology is similar to wheat and
rye. Its chemical composition is as follows

 Similar to wheat, with 13% protein, but lower in lysine and niacin.
 Lower in protein complex which forms gluten.
 A good source of phosphorus and magnesium and a very good source of manganese.
 Contains B-group vitamins, most notably thiamin and folate.

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