Bakery and Confectionery Technology 1

Introduction Cereals are members of the grass family (Gramineae) which produce dry, one seeded
fruits. This type of fruit is a caryopsis but is commonly called a kernel or grain. The grain consists of
a fruit coat or pericarp, which surrounds the seed and adheres tightly to a seed coat. Fruit wall
(pericarp) and seed coat are united as a result the seed and fruit cannot be separated. This type of
fruit, which is characteristic for all grasses, including cereals, is known as caryopsis in botanical
term.
Wheat cultivation in India traditionally been dominated by the northern region of India. The northern
states of Punjab and Haryana Plains in India have been prolific wheat producers. While this cereal
grass has been studied carefully in the past, recent years of painstaking research by India's finest
scientific talent has paid off with the development of distinctly superior varieties of Durum Wheat.
Wheat is the main cereal crop in India. The total area under the crop is about 29.8 million hectares in
the country. The production of wheat in the country has increased significantly from 75.81 million
MT in 2006-07 to an all time record high of 99.78 million MT in 2017-18. The major increase in the
productivity of wheat has been observed in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Higher
area coverage is reported from MP in recent years.
Wheat belongs to the genus Triticum of the grass family Gramineae. It has more than 30.000 species
and varieties. It is one of the most important cereal crops in the world. It is cultivated from
prehistoric times (5000 BC). The longitudinal section of the caryopsis or grain of wheat is
diagrammatically shown in Fig. The wheat kernel average about 8 mm in length and weight about 35
mg. Wheat kernel has a somewhat vaulted or ovoid shape with the germ or embryo at one end, and a
bundle of hairs, which is referred to as the beard or brush at the other end. Along one side of the
grain, there is a furrow or crease which is due to infolding of the aluerone and all covering layers.
The crease not only makes it difficult for the miller to separate the bran from the endosperm but also
fall a hiding place for microorganism and dust. Wheat grains have either a dark, orange-brown
appearance or a light, yellowish colour. Colour of the grain is related to pigment in the seed coat.
The main varieties of wheat grown in India are: VL-832,VL-804, HS-365, HS-240 , HD2687,WH-147, WH-
542, PBW-343, WH-896(d), PDW-233(d), UP-2338, PBW-502, Shresth (HD 2687), Aditya (HD 2781), HW-
2044, HW-1085, NP-200(di), HW-741.
Unlike in other economically developed nations/countries bulk of the wheat produced in our country
is processed into whole wheat flour for using various traditional flours. About 15% of the total wheat
is processed into different products like Maida, Atta etc in Roller flours mills which forms the basic
raw materials for bakery and pasta industry. Inspite of small quantities of wheat processed in a roller
flour mills for use in bakery prodcuts milling and bakery industry still remains the largest organizing
food industry in the country.

Pericarp The pericarp surrounds the entire seed and is composed of several layers. The outer
pericarp consists of epidermis and hypodermis and the innermost portion of the outer pericarp
consists of remnants of thin wall cell and inner pericarp is composed of intermediate cell, cross cell
and tube cell. The total pericarp comprises about 5% of the kernel and consists of approximately
16% protein, 2% ash and 20% cellulose and 0.5% fat.

Seed Coat and nuclear epidermis The seed coat or testa consists of three layers, a thick outer cuticle,
a layer that contains pigment which gives the grain its characteristic colour and a thin inner cuticle.
The seed coat of white wheat has two compressed cell layers of cellulose containing little or no
pigment. Thickness of seed coat varies from 5-8μm. Next to testa in hyaline layer or nucellar
epidermis and it is about 7μm thick. It is closely attached to both the seed coat and the aleurone
layer. It is colourless and devoid of any obvious cellular structure.
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Endosperm The endosperm is where the starch is stored. It also houses the protein that transforms
into gluten during kneading. The wall tissue encapsulates the endosperm. The wall is made from
several layers. The starchy endosperm excluding the aluerone layer is composed of three type cell (i)
Peripheran (ii) Prismatic (iii) Central. The cell varies in size, shape and location with in the kernel.
The endosperm cell wall are composed of pentosans, other hemicellulose and β- glucans but not
cellulose. The nature of starch protein complex or bond in the endosperm is not well known.
However the fact that protein and starch can be easily separated from each other after treatment of
flour with water seems to indicate that bond is broken or weakened by water.

Aluerone layer: The aleurone layer (which is generally one cell thick) completely surrounds the
kernel covering both the starchy endosperm and germ and separates the endosperm from these
adjoining layers. The wall contains a significant amount of fibre. The aleurone layer is also rich in
proteins and vitamins. Wheat is ground to separate the endosperm from these wall layers and the
germ. During the grinding the endosperm is reduced to what we know as flour, after grinding the
wall layers and germ make up the bran portion. It is removed during milling along with the nuclear
epidermis, seed coat and pericarp and to form the bran. The aluerone cell are heavy wall, essentially
cube shape and free of starch. The average thickness of the cell is about 50 μm. the aluerone layer is
relatively high in ash, protein total phosphorus and fat.

Germ: The germ of wheat comprises 2.5 to 3.5% of kernel and two major parts (i) Embryonic layer
(ii) Scutellum. Scutellum functions as a storage organ. When the seed germinates, scutellum
mobilizes the stored food reserves in the endosperm to embryo. The The germ is rich in oil (16% of
the embryonic axis and 32% of the scutellum are oil) and it contains lots of vitamins and high in
proteins(25%), sugar mainly sucrose and raffinose (18%) and ash (5%). It does not contain starch
but contain many enzymes and rather high in B-vitamins. The germ is quite high in Vitamin E (upto
500 ppm).

Wheat Protein: The wheat grain consists of about 8 to 15% of protein. The proteins are found
enclosed between the starch grains. Wheat protein comes in a large variety of different molecules,
with markedly divergent properties. The most important can be distinguished by their specific
solvent:

a. Albumin (5-10% of total protein) : dissolves in water

b. Globulin (5-10% of total protein) : dissolves in salt solutions
c. Gliadin (40-50% of total protein) : dissolves in 70 % alcohol
d. Glutelin (40-50% of total protein) : dissolves in diluted acids or bases
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 3

The first two forms about 20% of the total amount of protein, while the glutenin and gliadin (also
called Prolamin) contribution is the remaining 80 %. The latter are responsible for the formation of
the gluten during kneading. The gliadin and glutenin form a network of molecules capable of
holding the carbon-dioxide gas that is a by-product of fermentation. It is this network of lace that
causes the bread to rise. The distribution of proteins in different parts of wheat kernel is as under:

1. pericarp – 8 percent
2. Endosperm – 82.5 percent
3. Embryo – 1.0 percent
4. Scutellum – 1.5 percent
Bran and germ proteins have a higher content of essential amino acids than the inner endosperm.
That is the reason why biological value of whole protein is higher than that of endosperm proteins.
In the wheat endosperm, a Prolamin (called Gliadin) and a glutenin are present in approximately the
same concentrations; in the bran a Prolamin is most abundant with fair amounts of an albumin and
globulin.
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Classification based on protein content: Hard and soft wheat based on protein

Hard - Protein > 10%

Soft - Protein - 8% or less.
The baking quality of flour depends upon its protein content as well as quality and quantity of
gluten. The quality of gluten is arrested in its elasticity, extensibility and gas retention power the
gluten is in endosperm and not in bran and germ. Hard wheat contains greater the 9% gluten which
is elastic and having good gas retention proportion to be suitable for bread manufacturing. Flours
with highly extensible gluten posses mellowing characteristics and suited for biscuits, cakes, pastry
etc. usually 80-82% is gluten in wheat. Wheat contains high level of proteins also contain high level
of gluten. The content of gluten is measured by washing the flour to take out gluten. The quality is
measured by physico- chemical as well as instrumental analysis.

But the amount of protein present doesn’t reflect anything about its quality. The baker talks about
baking properties of the flour. For example, a flour containing 12% protein, ground from European
wheat will, in general, result in a flour with less baking quality, than a similar flour grind from
American wheat having the same protein content. This different behaviour is mainly caused by the
difference in wheat varieties grown in Europe and America.

In every day practice one always selects those varieties that are most suitable for a certain
application. Flours having a low protein content or a bad protein quality are rarely used in bread
preparation. These flours result in bread quality that falls below normal standards. They can be used
in applications where the gluten development doesn’t play such an important role. What comes to
mind are cookies or cakes? In those cases the baker often uses flour with a protein content of 10 %
and below. For the preparation of most kinds of bread a flour with a protein content between 11 and
13% is used. For special applications like biscuits one uses flours with a protein content in the 15-
16% range.

Lipids The lipid content of Indian wheat varies from about 0.97 to 2.28 percent. Wheat flour
contains about 1.88 % lipids. Different structural components of wheat kernel are as given under:

1. Endosperm – 1-2%
2. Bran - 5-6%
3. Germ - 8 -15%
The lipids of wheat are concentrated in the germ but this does not mean, that all the lipids are held in
the germ. The lipids present in wheat include neutral glycerides as well as phospholipids and sterols.
Wheat germ oil is a particularly rich source of vitamin E and essential fatty acids. Wheat germ oil is
produced commercially.

Carbohydrates The principal carbohydrate of wheat kernel is starch and practically all of the starch
is present in the endosperm. Germ contains almost all the soluble sugars. The water soluble
carbohydrates i.e. sucrose is more abundant in the germ then in the endosperm or bran. Bran mainly
contains complex carbohydrates i.e. cellulose and hemicellulose. Some cellulose is present in all
parts of the seeds since it is the chief component of cell walls. There are small amounts of lignins
and pentosans present in the bran. The distribution of carbohydrates in wheat fractions is presented
in table
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Table: Distribution of carbohydrates in wheat fractions (%)
Carbohydrate Fractions of wheat
Endosperm Germ Bran
Starch 95.8 31.5 14.1
Sugars 1.5 36.4 7.6
Cellulose 0.3 16.8 35.2
Hemicellulose 2.4 15.3 43.1

Vitamins Whole wheat is a good source of thiamine and niacin but is relatively poor in riboflavin.
Other B – vitamin are present in small amounts. In general, the bran layer is rich in the B – complex
vitamins. When wheat is milled, a large part of aluerone layer is lost as bran and the resulting flour is
devoid of a major part of the B – vitamins. Table depicts the distribution of B-vitamins in wheat
kernel. Wheat also contains carotenoids, principally xanthophylls which has no vitamin A activity in
man or other animals. Wheat germ is particularly rich in vitamin E. ascorbic acid is completely
lacking in seed or flour. Vitamins A and D are absent.

Table: Distribution of B-vitamin in the Wheat kernel

Structural Parts Vitamin (% of Total)
Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Pantothenic acid
Pericarp, testa and hyaline 1 5 4 8
Aleurone 31 37 84 39
Endosperm 3 32 11.5 41
Scutellum 62.5 14 1 4
Embryo 2 12 1 3.5

Minerals A significant amount of minerals including iron, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese,

copper and zinc are present in wheat

Table : Mineral Composition of Wheat (mg/100 g)

Minerals Whole wheat Wheat flour
Calcium 41 48
Phosphorus 306 355
Iron 5.3 4.9
Magnesium 138 132
Copper 0.68 0.51
Manganese 2.29 2.29
Zinc 2.70 2.2

These minerals are mainly present in the outer layers and embryo of the kernel and when wheat is
milled for the white flour, these minerals are passed on to the byproducts of milling.

Enzymes Wheat flour contains the following enzymes:

1. Amylases (Diastase)
2. Proteases
3. Lipases
4. Phenol and aromatic amine oxidase
5. Peroxidase
Amylase Flour contains two enzymes which are essential to bread production. These enzymes are:
1. Beat-amylase
2. Alpha-amylase
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These enzymes develop in the wheat during the initial stages of spouting. β-amylase converts
dextrins and a portions of soluble starch to maltose which is essential for an active yeast
fermentation. This enzyme is susceptible to heat. Its activity occurs during fermentation.

α-amylase converts soluble starch to dextrins. During fermentation it acts on soluble starch and
broken granules. It can survive at temperatures as high as 75-80°C and hence is more stable to heat
than β-amylase. A considerable degradation of starch by α-amylase hydrolysis occurs during the
initial phase of baking. Hydrolysis is a chemical process of decomposition involving addition of
water. Some baking technologists consider this stage of degradation to be the most important aspect
of the proper malting of flour. Malt flour is prepared from barley or wheat, which have been
sprouted under controlled conditions, dried and then ground into flour. Malt supplements are added
to flours and doughs in order to increase gas production by furnishing fermentable sugars for the
yeast.

Proteases These enzymes are present in the dormant stage in the wheat flour. High activity of this
enzyme has an adverse effect on the quality of dough by acting on gluten. Its activity can be
inhibited by potassium bromate.

Lipase This enzyme acts on lipid content of the dough and produces free fatty acids if the flour is
stored for a longer period.

Lipoxidase It is present in small amounts in flour. It acts on polyunsaturated fatty acids and
catalyses their peroxidation.

Phenol and aromatic amine oxidases Discolouration of the dough is caused by these enzymes.

Peroxidases These enzymes catalyse the oxidation caused by phenol and aromatic amine oxidases
resulting ultimately in discolouration of the dough.

In recent years, in India, bakery products have become popular among different cross sections of
population due to increased demand for convenience Foods. Among bakery products, bread is the
most popular processed ready-to-eat product in the country. However, the per capita consumption of
bread in India is only 1-2 kg as compared to 50-150 kg in developed countries. Hence, there is an
unlimited scope for expansion for bakery industry in the country. This would help in the effective
utilization of the surplus wheat produced in the country and make available highly nutritious ready-
to-eat convenient product at reasonable cost affordable by common man and also generate
employment by entrepreneurship.

The production of bakery products has increased by two fold in the last 5 years indicating thereby
increasing popularity of the products. The present production of bakery items in India is estimated
to be 31.5 lakhs tonnes, of these, the share of bread is 15 lakhs tonnes and of biscuits is 12 lakh
tonnes. The remaining 4.5 lakhs tonnes is contributed by other bakery products. It is of interest to
note that only about 24.0% of bread and 26.0% of biscuits are manufacture in large scale bakery
units while 76-78% of bakery products are produced in small scale and family scale units. As high
as 48.0% of the total bakery products produced in the country are consumed in rural areas.

It is estimated that there are over 1.5 lakhs bakery units in the country, out of that 64 are large scale
units registered under DGTD, 41 units producing biscuits and 23 bread. There are over 5260 other
factory units belonging to both medium and small scale sectors. Majority of bakery units number
1.25 lakh units are house-hold units.
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Future Prospects: The demand for bakery products is bound to increase further in the country due
to increasing demand for convenience products, shift in eating habits, better transportation and
distribution methods. The rate of growth for different bakery products during 1979-85 ranged from
10.2 to 11.1%. The growth rate for 1985 to 1990 is estimated to be 9.8%. It is estimated that the
production of bakery products in 1990 will be around 31 lakh tonnes. This increased requirement has
to be met by small-scale industries. Hence, there is a good scope for starting new small-scale bakery
units.
Bakery products can become one of the ready solutions to utilize the surplus wheat produced in the
country. This calls for popularization of bakery products among different cross sections of
population. This would necessitate (a) solving some of the major problems faced by the baking
industry, in respect of quality of raw materials (b) improvement of end products through quality
control of raw materials and finished products (c) adoption of appropriate processing technologies
(d) Introduction of newer bakery items to suit different life styles and (e) reduction of the cost of
bakery products for ready consumption by all sections of population.

Quality of Raw Materials

Baking is a millennia old process, and bakery products range in complexity from the simple
ingredients of a plain pastry to the numerous components of a cake. The term baking applies not
only to the production of bread, but to all food products in which flour is the basic material and to
which heat is applied directly by radiation from the walls and/or top and bottom of an oven or
heating appliance. More particularly, baking includes the production of such items as bread, cake,
pastry, biscuits, crackers, cookies, and pies where flour is the essential and principal ingredient for
the base product; baking also includes the toppings, frostings, fillings, and so on that finish the baked
product. Although many differences exist between bakery products, they share two important issues
of baking technology, baking material/ingredients and baking techniques.
Refined wheat flour or maida is the main raw material for the preparation of bakery products. The
quality of maida used greatly influences the quality of the final product. Flour used in bread should
have high protein content (11-12.0%), low ash (0.5%), high sedimentation value (30 to 40 ml) and
high water absorption (60- 65%). It is well known that most of the wheats grown in the country
belong to medium strong type. Thus, the flour milled from it has naturally lower protein content,
making it less suitable for bread making. The protein content in commercial flour is reported to
range from 7-11.0%. Also the flours have low alpha amylase activity and sedimentation value and
damaged starch content. Thus, Indian wheats are found to be more suitable for the preparation of
Chapatti and fermented dough biscuits where medium strong flours are desired.

Milling product Definition

Bleached flour Flour is chemically treated to improve baking quality and color
Composite A flour made by blending varying amounts of non-wheat flour with wheat
flour flour and used for the production of baked goods that are traditionally made
from wheat flour
Dusting flour Flour used on the bench and on machinery to prevent dough from sticking to
equipment.
Farina A very pure wheat endosperm
Straight flour Is considered a good flour to use for bread making. The extraction rate is the
amount of flour obtained from wheat after milling, when the bran and germ
are removed, leaving the endosperm, which contains most of the protein and
carbohydrates. For example, based on 100 kg of wheat, approximately 72 kg
of flour remains after extraction; the other 28 kg is used for feed. The entire
72 kg or 100 percent, of the remaining flour is straight flour. Straight flour is
used to make patent, clear, and low-grade flours.
Patent flour Is the purest and highest-quality commercial wheat flour available. Patent
flour is made from the center portion of the endosperm. Patent flour is
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 8
classified inWheatKernal.jpg (12482 bytes) five categories, depending on the
amount of straight flour it obtains. Extra short or fancy and first patent
flours are made from soft wheat and are used for cake flours. Extra short or
fancy patent contains 40 to 60 percent straight flour. First patent flour
contains 60 to 70 percent straight flour. Short patent flour made from hard
wheat is the most highly recommended commercially milled flour for bread
baking, it contains 70 to 80 percent straight flour. Medium patent flour
contains 80 to 90 percent straight flour and is also excellent for bread baking,
as is long patent flour, which is made with 90 to 95 percent straight flour. It
is up to the baker to determine which of these flours best serves his or her
purposes.
Graham Flour Is coarsely ground whole wheat flour, used to make graham crackers.
All-purpose Is a mixture of high gluten hard wheat flour and low gluten soft wheat flour.
Because it is a mixture of the two, it can be used to make a variety of foods,
including breads, cookies, cakes, and pastries. It's also used to thicken sauces
and gravies and as a coating or breading for fried foods.
Self-raising Is white flour that contains chemical leavening agents. Contains about 3%
flour baking powder and 1% salt.

Quality control plays a pivotal role in achieving a product of superior and uniform quality. In India,
except for the few large scale units, none of the units have facilities for the quality control of raw
materials. Quality control is all the more important as the variations in the quality of raw materials
is quite considerable in the country. Since wheat flour is the major raw material which influences
the quality of bakery products, the quality control of wheat flour is of paramount importance.
Methods normally used for evaluating the quality of flour are chemical tests like gluten, ash,
sedimentation test, pelshenke value, falling number, maltose value and rheological characteristics
using farinograph, alvwograph, RVA and extensograph.

Starch It exists in granular form and the shape of the starch depends on the source and geographical
area, like the starch granule shape can be spherical, hexagonal, elliptical, and irregular.
Starch is responsible for water and oil absorption capacities. It also plays a vital role in viscosity
profile of the products. Starch also responsible for fermentation by yeasts.
Starch is the main constituent of wheat flour and represents about 65-75% of flour. The starch
granules provide energy to the seed during germination. The starch granule size ranges from 1-
13micro meter. Depending upon the x-ray diffraction produced the starch may be either A type
(bigger size 14mm; 75%) or B type (smaller size; 4mm; 25%). The proportion and size of the
granules are related to baking potential of flour. It has been reported that large starch granules
produce significantly higher loaf value of bread than small granules.
Functions: it provides the fermentable sugars through the action of amylases; it helps in setting the
final texture of baked products; dilutes gluten to desirable consistency; furnishes surface suitable for
antisticky proteins (friabilins) that affects hardness of grains; furnishes surface suitable for starch-
protein interaction that contributes to stability of gas cells in bread making.
The pasting or gelatinization of starch is considered important in bakery products. Gelatinization of
starch appears to a term that describes several changes in starch at different temperatures
encountered in baking operations. The gelatinization process can be summarized as:
1. Change of shape and size of granules
2. Leaching of amylose from granules
3. Rupture of granule and
4. Formation of gel due to increased viscosity of the matrix.
5. Setting of texture of the bakery products during baking.
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Starch has been also shown to affect the cookie and biscuit formation. Gelatinization of the starch
during baking plays an important role in developing internal texture of cookies. It also contributes
the crust color formation in biscuits and cookies at temperature above 160 ºC. The starch begins to
get converted in dextrins that undergo caramilization and thus contributes to the crust color
formation to bakery products. Increasing the starch content in the wheat flour increases the spread
factor in cookies.

Damaged Starch: The extent of starch damage occurring during milling plays an important role in
the suitability of the flour for bakery products. The starch damage depends on the roller clearance,
the type of wheat (hard/soft), moisture level used for conditioning, the roller surface (flutes/inch) etc.
the optimum range for bread flours is 7-9%. The starch damage affects the water absorption of the
flour. Excessive starch damage results in sticky dough. Optimum damaged starch content facilitates
adequate sugar production during fermentation and helps in getting bread with a good loaf volume.

Lipids Lipids are classified as polar and non-polar. Polar lipids interact with water and form aqueous
phase, whereas non-polar lipids do not interact with water and do not form aqueous phase. Polar
lipids in wheat originate from cell membranes and are dominated by phospholipids and glycol or
galactolipids. Non-polar-lipids are represented by triglycerides, and they are liquid at room
temperature. Non-polar lipids can be extracted from wheat flour using chloroform. Polar solvents
·such as methanol extract the polar lipids. Wheat flour-lipids constitute about 2% by weight of flour
but make important contribution to dough properties, baking behavior and bread staling. Some lipids
in wheat remain bound to starch component and thus such lipids are as starch lipids, which comprise
roughly one-fourth of the total lipid of a flour. They do not play any role in bakery products,
although they may be important in staling of bread during storage.
The lipids tend to decrease the extensibility of the dough, the polar lipids (glycolipids) increase the
mixing time. Defatted flours have good flowability, whiteness, dough strength and foaming power
and stability. Polar lipids improve the baking quality, loaf volume and texture while non-polar
decrease the loaf volume with compact structure. Polar lipids help in stabilizing the gas cells during
fermentation. Lipids also reduce the staling tendency if the bakery products.
Any edible fat used in the bakery is called as Shortening. Shortening influences both the working
process and quality of end product. The saturated fatty acids are more important than unsaturated
fatty acids because saturated fatty acids as shortenings are chemically more stable.
Shortening should have a plastic nature over a wide range of temperature. Temperature plays an
important role in the distribution of fat. If the temperature rise is higher than the maximum of the
shortenings plastic range, then liquid oil will result, causing oily dough while low temperature tend
to cause hardening of the shortening, causing uneven distribution in dough. The plasticity of
shortening while mixing dough encourages the entrapment and retention of considerable quantities
of air and thus contribute to the texture of the baked products. Shortening, super cooled, having large
crystal structure gives dough with poor moulding potential and variable product weights and
dimensions.
Hydrogenated oils with their mono-diglyceride fractions encourage not only emulsification but also
the homogeneous distribution or the fat solubles and emulsified ingredients throughout the .dough
and hence contribute to tenderness in product. The "off flavour" developed in bakery products
during-an extended shelf life is due to rancidity developed in the shortenings, these are mainly due
to: (a) Breakdown of fatty acid chains by oxidation (b) Spoilage by micro-organisms, . (c) Fat
splitting by enzymes, particularly lipase, and (d) Absorption or foreign odours.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 10
Functions of Shortenings (a) it reduces the toughness of dough: As gluten does not develop until
the flour is in contact with water and mixing action, the inclusion of fat tends to insulate the gluten
forming proteins from the water and consequently, a less tough dough results, which is rather more
extensible and ideally suited for cookie making. The greater the amount of fat, the greater will be the
insulating effect. Excessive mixing will breakdown the insulation and a tough dough will result
again.
(b) It improves dough for machining and sheeting by lubricating the gluten. (c) Controls the flow of
dough. · (d) Gives shorter bite to the goods. (e) Enhances the product flavour and taste.

Types: Butter: It has a specific flavour, which makes a significant contribution to the acceptability.
It has certain organoleptic attractions for the consumer. Ripened butter of extremely high flavour is
widely used. However, the relative low-melting point of butter fat leads to occurrence of greasiness
in the products. This greasiness causes annoyance during handling and tends to smear packing
material. The butter also causes early development of rancidity and it is expensive as well.

Vanaspati Is universally used because these are economical as compared· to animal fats. Butter,
coconut oil, and palm kernel oil, all of which contain a high proportion 0f short-chain fatty acids (for
example, lauric acid in coconut oil), have much lower shortening value, than domestic vegetable
shortening such as hydrogenated soybean or cottonseed oils, Therefore, hydrogenated soybean or
cottonseed shortenings are widely used. Coconut-oil is used in bakery industry as a spray fat, fillings
and coatings, Crude vegetable oils are not used directly in the bakery products because of the
presence of impurities.

Margarine: Margarine has taken place of butter in most bakeries today cause of its wide range of
properties. The consistency of the fat portion can be adjusted to minimize the greasiness normally
found in baked goods containing butter, it can also be blended with softer fats. The margarine may
or may not be coloured and can be flavoured to varying intensities. Lecithin and monoglycerides can
also be included in it.

Lard: Its use is limited mainly to Western countries due to religious factors. Refined lard with
added antioxidants is generally used

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) The quality of yeast also influence the quality of bakery products.
In India, two types of yeast - compressed and dry are available. Both the yeasts have advantages as
well as disadvantages. New type of yeast known as instant yeast has been developed in USA and
now over 60% of baking industries are using this yeast. It has several advantages over existing
compressed or dry yeast, such as (a) activity equal to compressed yeast, (b) no refrigeration required
during storage, (c) instant reactivation in a dough. In the manufacture of instant yeast, instead of
drum drier normally used for dry yeast, fluidized bed drier at an air temperature of 320oF is used.
The drying process is reduced to less than 20 minutes compared to older technology which requires
4 to 12 hours. The gas production values of different types of yeast indicated that gas production
with instant yeast is nearly 87% of the compressed yeast and is 185% of the active dry yeast. The
thiol content in the dough containing instant yeast is far less than that produced by dry yeast or
compressed yeast. Sugar tolerant yeast is also available in India, which is found very useful for
production of sweet bread. The primary function of the yeast is to leaven the dough. The gas
production is influenced by temperature, pH, alcohol conc, nature of the carbs, osmotic pressure and
yeast concentration. The optimum pH is 5.6. The fermentation is also responsible for the flavour
development.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 11
Ammonium salts (Ammonium sulfate, Amm. Phosphate, Amm, chloride) are used as yeast nutrients.
Besides these vitamins and minerals are important for yeast growth.

Salt it is an essential ingredient in bakery and its functions cannot be duplicated by other ingredients.
The impurities in granulated salt commonly copper and iron result in hard gluten network and
increase the mixing time. Salt imparts the flavour, structure, checks the yeast growth as well.

Sugars: One of the important bakery ingredients. The primary function is to impart sweet taste, aid
in fermentation, texture development and flavour development.

Sucrose: helps in colour development, texturizer, it also restricts the gluten formation by
competing with water, it also increases the spreading capacity of the bakery products, it also
increases the gelatinization temperature of the starch thereby increasing the spreadability.
Corn starch: Economical, Imparts browning, helps in fermentation, increases water absorption
capacity.
Other Sweeteners: Honey, saccharin.

Dough Improvers The quality of flour for use in bread making can also be improved by using
bleaching and maturing agents. Though in other countries flours are normally treated with improvers
depending on the end use; it is not being done in India. There are several improvers like potassium
bromate, benzoyl peroxide, ascorbic acid, chlorine, chlorine dioxide, azodicarbonamide etc.
However, in India, millers are permitted to use benzoyl peroxide (max 40 ppm) as a bleaching agent
and ascorbic acid (max 200 ppm) and potasium bromate (max 20 ppm—Now banned) as maturing
agents.

Oxidising Agents In the past and especially in the USA potassium bromate (KBrO3) was used as
oxidizer. It is the most effective substances of all the dough conditioners known. It gives the dough
good working up properties and the bread a fine, soft and regular crumb. And it has a slow reaction.
After kneading and even after the final prove a portion of the KBrO3 still not has reacted. Only
during the baking is the bromate converted to bromide (KBr). This means that the potassium
bromate is doing a part of its job during the ovenspring. During the 1980s bromate and many of its
compounds became suspected as health threatening and prohibition of the use of potassium-bromate
followed. The most commonly used oxidizing agents include: Azodicarbonamide (fast acting),
potassium iodate (fast acting), Ascorbic acid (medium acting) and Potassium bromate (slow acting).

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) as dough conditioner. It is totally harmless. Heat decomposes the ascorbic
acid completely. During the baking of the bread all vitamin C is lost. The function of ascorbic acid is
the same as any other, oxidizing the dough. Ascorbic acid differs in one aspect from other dough
conditioners. In itself is it not an oxidizer but a reducer. Its activity stems from a preceding reaction
during kneading with oxygen in the air. It is then converted to dehydro-ascorbic acid and that is an
oxidizer. When this substance oxidises the proteins it is reduced back to ascorbic acid. The
formation of dehydro-ascorbic acid is only possible during the kneading. This is the only moment
that oxygen from the air can be beaten into the dough. After the kneading the yeast consumes all the
remaining oxygen, leaving none in the dough during the rise.

Reducing agents: L-cysteine hydrochloride it helps in breaking the disulphide linkages which are
vigourously formed by the addition of oxidizing agents or over kneading,

Emulsifiers/surfactants Surfactants have been found to improve the quality of bakery products and
are commonly used in many of the bakery industries elsewhere. Use of surfactants, glyceryl mono-
streate started around 1930 primarily for improving the dispersibility of fat and rendering perceptibly
softer crumb. Since then many other surfactants have been developed. Surfactants in dough do not
function, as oil-water emulsifiers but they are reported to complex with the protein and carbohydrate
fractions of flour to strengthen the extensible gluten-starch film and delay the setting of the dough.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 12
The addition of surfactants at the appropriate levels have been reported to increase the volume,
shorter proof time, increase oven spring, improve bread texture and grain, increase water absorption
and shelf life and reduce the shortening requirement. The commonly used emulsifiers are mono and
diglycerides, distilled monoglyceride, polyglycerol esters, diacetyl tartaric acid esters (DATEM)
sodium or calcium stearoyl lactylates. Many of these emulsifiers are permitted by Food and Drug
Act of USA. However, only a few are permitted in India such as glyceryl mono-stearate, sodium or
calcium stearoyl lactylate by Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA).
The quality of bread made using different dough conditioners indicated that incorporation of
DATEM produced highest bread volume followed by sodium lactylate (SSL) and Ethoxylated
mono- glyceride. The dough handling characteristics, crumb texture and grain were found to be best
in bread containing DATEM. The texture of stored bread as indicated by the compressibility, was
softer with additives than control bread. Similar observations of improved quality as well as shelf
life of bread containing different emulsifiers such as calcium or sodium stearoyl lactylate,
ethoxylated mono glyceride, polysorbate-60, succinylated mono glycerides, DATEM were observed
by other workers.
Emulsifiers are also used in cookies and crackers as they have been found to change the degree of
spread of cookies during baking. The action may result from the interaction of the emulsifiers with
the starch to delay hydration of the starch granules and subsequent gelatinisation. Use of emulsifiers
was also found to produce finer and more uniform pattern of surface cracks and more crispiness in
biscuits. Among the different dough conditioners, DATEM and lactylates were found to be quite
promising and are being used by various baking industries in Europe as they are found to be more
effective for soft wheat flours. Some of these additives are also reported to have fat sparing action in
bread, biscuits and cookies

Preservatives Acetic acid, Sodium acetate, benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, propionic acid, calcium
and sodium propionate, potassium sorbate.

Milk products They enhance the water holding capacity, buffering capacity of the dough; enhance
the flavour development; strength crumb structure; enhance the nutritional value.

GELATINIZATION:
Gelatinization is the disruption of molecular order within the starch granule. It (1) depends on
temperature and moisture content; (2) is irreversible; (3) initially increases the size of granules (i.e.,
causes granular swelling); (4) results in increased solution or suspension viscosity; (5) varies with
cooking conditions (e.g., pH and solids); and (6 ) varies with starch granule type (botanical source).
The temperature at which starch begins to undergo irreversible changes is called the “initial
gelatinization temperature” or onset of gelatinization. The gelatinization temperature range is narrow
and varies with the source of the starch. Granular starch is essentially insoluble in cold water, and
even when added to water at room temperature, little happens until heat is applied. The combination
of heat and water causes un-cooked granules to undergo dramatic and irreversible changes, the most
dramatic of which are (1) disruption of the semi-crystalline structure, as evidenced by a loss of
birefringence; and (2) increase in granule size. As these changes occur, viscosity in the starch water
system increases. When a majority of the granules have gelatinized, the starch is considered to be
pasted or cooked out. Functionality of starches as a food ingredient often results from its pasting
(i.e., viscosity-forming) ability. Heating of starch in water causes disruption of the hydrogen (H)
bonds between polymer chains, thereby weakening the granule. The initial swelling probably takes
place in the amorphous regions of the granule where hydrogen bonds are less numerous and the
polymers are more susceptible to dissolution. As the structure begins to weaken, the granule imbibes
water and swells. Because not all the granules gelatinize simultaneously, different degrees of
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 13
structural disruption and swelling exist. As heating continues and more and more granules become
swollen, the viscosity of the medium increases. The paste viscosity reaches a maximum when the
largest percentage of swollen, intact granules is present; this is referred to as the “peak viscosity”.
Continued heating of native starches eventually results in decreased viscosity as granules dissolve
and polymers are solubilized.

Final viscosity (cold paste viscosity) represents the viscosity obtained at the end of cooling phase
and it gives the capacity of starch to form a viscous paste or gel after cooking and cooling.
Breakdown viscosity is obtained by subtracting the values of peak viscosity and trough viscosity
while as setback viscosity represents the final viscosity minus trough viscosity. The values of the
setback viscosity act as indicator for the retrogradation/syneresis during storage/thawing. Amylose is
the main compound responsible for the higher values of final viscosity and retrogradation. In
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 14
general, there is a negative relationship between the amylose content and peak viscosity and
gelatinization temperature. The other compounds that have an impact on the gel texture include the
disulphide linkages of the proteins and proteins itself. Pasting parameters can be easily correlated
with the texture profile and quality of the product like peak viscosity is the symbolic for water
binding capacity of starch, higher breakdown value is an indicator of higher palatability of the final
product. Peak viscosity is influenced by the amylose-lipid (lysophospholipids, monoacylglycerides)
complex formation and amylose leaching tendency from starch. Breakdown value measures the
degree of the disintegration of swollen granules and is calculated from the difference of peak
viscosity and minimum viscosity. The decrease in the breakdown values indicate that the irradiated
samples are more resistant to shear thinning during cooking. Setback value measures the gelling
capacity or retrogradation ability of the paste. Decreased pasting temperature indicates increased
ability towards swelling i.e. resistance towards the swelling is decreased. Higher pasting temperature
indicates that the starch has a higher resistance to swelling and rupture, which actually is as a result
of higher degree of crystallinity.

The purpose of gelatinization in starchy foods and cereals is primarily to improve their digestibility,
as gelatinized starch is more easily hydrolyzed by amylolytic enzymes. Another objective of starch
gelatinization in extrusion cooking is to create the thermoplastic mass that can assume a stable
porous structure upon puffing. The effect of extrusion cooking on starch does not stop at
gelatinization, but can cause partial de-polymerizing (dextrinization) of the starch molecule.

1. Pasting temperature—the initiation of paste formation, which varies with starch type,
modification and additives present in the slurry.
2. Peak viscosity—the maximum viscosity obtained during cooking; gives an indication of the
viscosity that can be expected for a given starch.
3. Viscosity at 950C—indication of the ease of cooking the specific starch.
4. Viscosity after stirring 1 hr at 95◦C—indication of paste stability when the starch is held at
950C under relatively low shear.
5. Viscosity at 500C—indication of the extent of retrogradation that occurs in the cooled paste.
6. Viscosity after 1 hr at 500C—indication of the stability of the cooled, cooked paste under low
shear.

Viscosity curves are used as fingerprints of the hydration and cooking characteristics of starchy
materials. Changes in viscosity profiles often explain how new processes affect the starch properties.
They are extremely useful in measuring variation among starch-based ingredients. and can be used
to indicate changes in retrogradation during drying, frying and other unit operations. Staling of
products is related to amylopectin retrogradation and can be followed by viscosity changes.

Viscosity measurements can also be used to determine the effects of other ingredients in the formula
on cooking and hydration properties. Sometimes, pasting is defined as the state following
gelatinization of starch. It involves granular swelling, exudation of molecular components from the
granule, and, eventually, total disruption of the granules. For all practical purposes, gelatinization
and pasting are considered together, and it is impossible to separate one from the other. Sometimes
pasting refers to high levels of starch in the cooking system. For most starches, the texture and
viscosity of the paste change during cooling. Either a viscoelastic paste or a gel usually is formed,
depending on the amylose content and concentration of solids. In general, the higher the amylose
content, the more likely a firm paste or gel.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 15

RETROGRADATION
In a sense, retrogradation is the opposite of gelatinization. Solubilized starch polymers and the
remaining insoluble granular fragments re-associate after heating. The starch granule is considered
to be a glassy polymer by modern starch chemists and technologists. Starch is believed to exist in the
glassy state until it reaches the glass transition temperature (Tg) where the molecules lose
organization and the polymer becomes rubbery. Eventually it reaches the temperature (Tm) at which
the starch granules melt and lose their organization completely. Water is a plasticizer that
significantly affects the Tg and Tm temperatures of the starch granules. As swelling and melting
occur, the granules are said to undergo gelatinization, pasting, dispersion, and finally retrogradation,
when the material is allowed to cool. Retrogradation results in formation of crystalline aggregates,
which affect texture. Linear amylose molecules have a greater tendency to reassociate and form
hydrogen bonds than the larger, highly branched amylopectin molecules. As retrogradation occurs,
the starch paste becomes increasingly opaque and forms a gel. With time, this gel becomes rubbery
and has a tendency to release water. These changes occur extensively during and after extrusion,
baking, frying and other processes. They significantly affect the texture and other properties of
snacks. Dehydration removes water, increasing the extent of retrogradation. Thus, the films that are
formed depend on the relative amounts of water, the type of starches and their interaction with other
ingredients in the system. Retrogradation is involved in drying, frying, baking, extrusion and other
processes involved in snack production. Extensive retrogradation of amylose produces strong
retrogrades that are resistant to enzymes. Retrogradation of amylopectin in baked products is related
to staling. In snacks, it produces a light, crisp texture.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 16

Dough Development

Wheat contains a complex mixture of proteins that have the unique property of being able to form a
viscoelastic dough when flour is mixed with water. The dough formed is composed of a network of
very large protein molecules that surround the starch granules and other flour components. When the
starch and the water-soluble proteins (albumins and globulins) are washed out of a dough, the water
insoluble protein fractions (the gliadin and glutenin proteins) remain in the viscoelastic mass called
gluten.
Dough refers to a wet mass developed after mixing of wheat flour, water and other ingredients due to
changes in the chemical structure. These changes are associated with the formation of gluten, which
requires both the hydration of the proteins in the flour and the application of energy through the
process of kneading.
The process of wetting the proteins is called hydration. As water and flour are mixed the hydrated
proteins are brought together and begin to interact. They literally begin to stick to each other through
the formation of chemical bonds. These new chemical bonds are called cross-links. When dough is
mixed or kneaded the hydrated flexible proteins are stretched and aligned in the direction of
kneading providing more opportunities to form cross-links between the proteins. Kneading also
incorporates air, which helps to form strong disulphide bonds. As kneading continues the protein
networks combine to form sheets of proteins. The chemical cross-linking of glutenin and gliadin
forms gluten, a very elastic substance. Neither protein alone is as elastic and stretchable as gluten.
But when chemically linked together the new protein becomes elastic and stretchable like a rubber
balloon. The gluten becomes stronger and stronger as more bonds form between the proteins Like a
balloon, gluten can be inflated with gas and steam as dough rises and bread is baked in the oven.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 17
The ionic interaction that develop between the two proteins fractions are because of Di-sulphide
linkages (by amino acid cysteine).
While gluten is important in creating an extensible framework, soluble proteins in the dough liquor
may also contribute to gas retention by forming an impervious lining layer within cells, effectively
blocking pin-holes in cell walls.

SEM of flour, after addition of water but without kneading

Gluten network after kneading

Gluten network sheets with starch granules

Physico-chemical properties of dough play important role in the bakery, pasta and ready-to-eat
cereals processing industry. Dough is developed due to complex interactions among wheat
constituents during mixing operation. The process of dough development begins with addition of
water and commencement of mixing operation. Initially all ingredients are hydrated and appear like
a sticky paste. On further mixing, the viscosity increases, sticky characteristics of dough disappear
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 18
and a non-sticky mass is developed at peak consistency of dough. At this stage the dough behaves
like a viscoelastic mass with both elastic and extensible characteristics. The role of energy during
mixing is crucial in the development of dough. In the process of developing dough particularly bread
dough the aim is to bring about changes in the physical properties of the dough to improve its ability
to retain the carbon dioxide gas produced during yeast fermentation. This improvement in gas
retention ability is particularly important when the dough pieces reach the baking oven. In the early
stages of baking the yeast activity is at its greatest and large volume of carbon dioxide gas is
generated and released from solution in the aqueous phase of the dough. The dough pieces expand
enormously at this time and well-developed dough or gluten structure is essential to withstand the
internal pressure of the expanding dough.
The physical properties of dough of great concern in bread making process include resistance to
deformation, extensibility, elasticity and stickiness. An example of a rubber band may be used to
understand the first three of these properties. When the rubber band is stretched between our fingers
a degree of force is required to change its shape as it resists deformation. If a modest force is applied
and one end of the band is released, then it returns to its original position. This reflects the elastic
properties. If the rubber band is stretched beyond a limit it will eventually reach a point of extension
and ultimately breaks, which is taken as a measure of its extensibility. The fourth physical property,
stickiness, is self-explanatory i.e. anything that stick to a surface has stickiness. Therefore, dough
development is viewed as the modification of some very important physical properties of bread
dough, which make major contributions to the character of the final product. This modification of
gluten structure can be achieved by a number of different physical and chemical processes, and
various combinations of these form the basis of the different groups of bread-making processes that
are in common use.
Most of the desirable changes resulting from 'optimum' dough development are related to the ability
of the dough to retain gas bubbles (air) and permit the uniform expansion of the dough piece under
the influence of carbon dioxide gas from yeast fermentation during proof and baking. The dough
with a more extensible character is especially important for improved gas retention, while reductions
in dough resistance and elasticity play a major role in the modification of bubble structures during
processing. It is important to distinguish between gas production and gas retention in fermented
dough. Gas production refers to the generation of carbon dioxide gas as a result of yeast
fermentation. If the yeast cells in the dough remain viable (alive) and sufficient food for the yeast is
available, then gas production will continue, but expansion of the dough can only occur if that
carbon dioxide gas is retained in the dough. Not all of the gas generated during the processing, proof
and baking will be retained within the dough before it finally sets in the oven. The proportion that
will be retained depends on the development of a suitable gluten matrix within which the expanding
gas can be held. Gas retention in dough is therefore closely linked with the degree of dough
development that occurs, and as such will be affected by a large, number of ingredients and
processing parameters.
The gliadin proteins of gluten are a group of monomeric proteins that consist of single-chain
polypeptides that contain intrapolypeptide disulfide bonds. Gliadins behaves mainly as viscous
liquid when hydrated and imparts extensibility allowing the dough to rise during fermentation
whereas glutenin provides elasticity and strength.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 19
Factors affecting gluten network:
1. Variety of wheat: Soft wheat contains less protein (6-8%), less glutenin, smaller proteins,
forms weaker gluten. Hard wheat contains more protein (10-14%), more glutenin, larger
proteins, forms stronger, more cohesive, elastic gluten.
2. Amount of water: Hydration is essential for gluten development. Glutenin and gliadin
absorb about twice their weight in water (hydration). Less water results in less gluten
development (reduces protein mobility), but too much water also reduces gluten development
by diluting the proteins so much that their interaction is restricted.
3. Water hardness: Calcium and magnesium in hard water strengthen gluten.

4. Water pH: The ideal pH for gluten development is 5-6. Above and below pH 5-6 reduces
gluten strength producing more extensible (easier to stretch) dough. Adding baking soda
raises pH producing more cookie spread, and more porous, tender crumb.

5. Leavening: Expanding air bubbles strengthen gluten, increasing cohesiveness, and elasticity,
producing higher volume and finer crumb.

6. Enzymes: Enzymes that break down proteins are naturally present in flour, but inactive when
dry. Enzymes break down gluten into smaller pieces so dough becomes softer and more
extensible. The process known as autolyse (resting dough for 15-30 minutes), allows time for
enzymes to break down gluten to produce more extensible dough, providing more volume
and open crumb.

7. Salt: Bread dough contains 1.5-2.0% salt by weight of flour. Salt slows enzyme activity and
rate of fermentation. Salt strengthens gluten, producing bread with higher volume and finer
crumb.

8. Fat, oil, emulsifiers, and sugars tenderize dough. Fat and emulsifiers coat proteins reducing
hydration and gluten development (like oil coating spaghetti). Shortening shortens gluten
strands producing more tender baked goods. Sugar competes for water reducing protein
hydration and gluten development.

MIXERS
Mixers used to develop dough vary widely in size and intensity of mixing action. Many mixing
machines are available that work similar to hand mixing. A series of other mixers have also been
developed, in which a very high speed mixing is practised and dough is mechanically developed
within a few minutes. The mixers commonly used for mixing of wheat dough are classified as under.

Low speed mixer: This type of mixer takes longer time to develop the dough for bread making.
Example of this type is the twin arm mixer. Gentle mixing is achieved with low rate of work input.
These mixers mimic hand mixing. The arm of mixer lift, stretch and fold the dough during kneading.
Typical mixing times taken by these mixers are between 15 and 25 minutes and mixing depends on
the machine capacity and types of ingredients. Capacity of these mixers may range from 50 to 300
kg. They are generally employed for weaker dough.

Spiral mixers: It is commonly used mixer in the industry. The machine is fitted with a spiral-shaped
mixing hook that rotates on a vertical axis. This mixer can operate on slow and fast speed. The slow
speed mode is used for weaker dough and high speed mode is used for mixing of strong flour.
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 20
High speed and twin-spiral mixers: This category of mixer imparts high level of mechanical
energy to the dough in a short period of time. It can mix a dough within 5 minutes. High-speed
mixers are available in multiple design. The bowl of these mixers remains static during mixing. The
capacity may vary from 50 to 300 kg dough. The cooling arrangements are required in these mixers
as energy imparted to the dough during mixing is enormous and hence dough temperature become
very high on completion of mixing.

Chorleywood bread process mixers: This category of mixer must be compatible with CBP in
delivering a fixed amount of energy in a short period of time usually 11 Wh/kg (39.6 kJ/kg) of
dough in 2-5 minutes. The mixing bowl is mounted on horizontal axis and it can be tilted to dispense
dough after mixing is accomplished. Important features of such mixers are:
a. automatic control of mixing cycle
b. automatic ingredient feed systems
c. an integrated washing and cleaning systems

Rheological characteristics:

The viscoelastic properties of the dough are important from the view point of their suitability for
bakery products. These properties predict gas retention capacity of the dough, so important to obtain
a bread of desired volume. For evaluation, the following instruments are generally used:

Farinograph:
A Farinograph is a recording dough mixer. It measures and records the resistance offered by dough
against mixing blades operating at a constant speed and temperature. Parameters obtained from the
resulting curve (i.e. resistance in Brabender units [BU] versus time in minutes) relate to the amount
of water required to reach a desired peak consistency. The weighed quantity (2 g to 300 g) of flour
(14% moisture basis) is placed in the Farinograph bowl. The instrument is turned on, and water is
added from a burette. As the flour hydrates and the dough develops, the resistance to the mixing
blades increases, and the pen on the chart recorder or the curve on the computer screen rises. The
mixing curve obtained generally rises to a maximum and then slowly falls from that peak
consistency point.
It records continuously the consistency of the dough during mixing and measures (a) water
absorption capacity: 65% or more for strong flours and less than 60% for weak flours, (b) the time
required to develop the dough to the desired consistency of 500 BU: 5 min or more for strong flours
and 2-4 min for weak flours, (c) stability indicating changes in the consistency of the dough during
mixing. Good bread flour is stable for long time i.e 5 min. or more. A farinograph consists of a
temperature-controlled measuring kneader, a rotating Sigma kneading blade subjects the sample to
defined mechanical stress. The kneading resistance having an effect on the blades, which depends on
the sample’s viscosity, is measured as a torque value by the highly precise measurement electronics.

 In Farinograph testing a flour sample of 2 or 300 grams on a 14% moisture basis is weighed
and placed in a farinograph mixing bowl.
 Water is added to the flour from a burette and mixed to form a dough
 As the dough is mixed, the farinograph records a curve
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 21

a. Mixing Tolerance Index (MTI) - MTI is found by taking the difference in BU between the
peak time point (on the graph above 3 minutes, 30 seconds) and 5 minutes after peak time is
reached. This is used by bakers to determine the amount that a dough will soften over a
period of mixing.
b. Dough development time or mixing time or Peak time: This is the time between the origin
of the curve and its maximum. The maximum of the Farinograph curve, or any mixing curve,
is commonly considered the point at which the dough is optimally developed and best able to
retain gas. Peak time is reached at the highest point on the curve, and indicates when the
dough has reached is maximum viscosity before gluten strands begin to break down.
c. Departure Time - Departure time is defined as the point at which the top of the curve goes
below the 500 BU line. This point is generally considered the point at which gluten is
breaking down and dough has become over mixed.
d. Stability - Stability is the point between arrival time and departure time and generally
indicates the strength of a flour (how much gluten a flour has and how strong it is).
Generally, flour with good bread making characteristics has higher absorption, takes longer
to mix and is more tolerant to over mixing than biscuit quality flour.
e. Arrival Time (Absorption) - The amount of water added to balance the curve on the 500-
BU line, expressed as a percentage of the flour (14% mb), is known as Farinograph
absorption. Water absorption value varies from about 50% for biscuit flour and around 60%
for bread flour.

Extensograph: A known weight of cylindrical piece of dough is stretched under constant force. The
extensibility (E) of the dough and the resistance to extension (R) is measured. In case of bread flour,
both E and R values should be high while in case of biscuit flour E should be high and R low.
The extensograph measures the extensibility and resistance to extension of fully mixed, relaxed
flour-water dough. It measures the resistance to stretching offered by a moulded piece of dough. The
force required to stretch the dough is automatically plotted against the distance it stretches to give
extensograph curve. Dough is stretched under constant load and there is constant speed of moving
hook which stretches the dough.
Procedure
1. Prepare dough in farinograph using 150 g or 300 g flour on 14% moisture basis, water and 6g
salt dissolved in a part of water at 30°C. Amount of water taken is equal to farinograph water
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 22
absorption less 2% to compensate for the effect of salt. Mix for 1 min then allow the dough
to rest for 5 min in the covered mixing bowl. Again mix for 2 more minutes.
2. Weigh 150 g dough and give it 20 revolutions in extensograph rounder. Roll it into a
cylindrical piece in a shaping unit.
3. Each dough cylinder is clamped in a cradle and allowed to rest for 45 min in a compartment
-maintained at 30°C. Then, it is loaded on to extensograph and stretched.
4. After the test, the same dough is reshaped as before allowed resting for 45 min and -stretched
again. Generally three stretching curves are obtained by repeating the same procedure.

Extensograph gives following information:

 Extensibility (E): Length of the curve in millimeters.
 Resistance to extension: Height of extensogram in B.U. measured 5 cm after the curve has
started.
 Ratio figure: Ratio between resistance and extensibility i.e. R/E.
 Strength value: Area or curve is measured. More the area, strong is the dough. Relationship
of area under the extensograph curve with dough strength is indicted below:
Area under the curve (cm2) Dough
strength
80 Weak
80-120 Medium strong
120-200 Strong
>200 Very Strong
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 23
Rapid Visco Analyser: This instrument determines the hot paste viscosity of the flour-water
suspension. The peak viscosity of the amylogram indicates alpha amylase activity of the flour; low
peak viscosity indicates high amylase activity desirable for bread making. The high peak viscosity
values are considered beneficial in soup making.

FOR MORE DETAILS GO THROUGH THE GELATINIZATION SECTION AND REVIEW PAPER

Falling number: The Falling Number (FN), also referred to as the Hagberg Number, is the
internationally accepted and most popular method for determining sprout damage/ alpha amylase
activity. The procedure relies on the reduction in viscosity of starch paste caused by the activity of
alpha amylase. A plunger is allowed to fall through a flour-water suspension being heated. The rate
of fall determines the viscosity of suspension which is influenced by alpha amylase activity. Desired
range for bread making is 300-450, while in case of rain affected wheat values lee than 200 are
commonly observed.

Method

 The distilled water in bath is brought to boil.

 Weigh 3-7 g of flour/starch, transfer it to viscometric tube, and add 25 ml of distilled boiled
water and shake vigorously for obtaining a uniform suspension.
 Remove stopper and push down flour adhering to sides with the viscometer stirrer.
 Place the tube with stirrer in the boiling water bath and Start the timer.
 After 5 seconds, automatic stirring starts at the rate of 2 stirs/seconds for 60 seconds. After a
total of 60 seconds stirring automatically stops, releasing the stirrer at its upper most position
and allows falling by its weight at a fixed distance and time is recorded in seconds.
 The starch gelatinizes, and the a-amylase liquefies the resultant paste. The time it takes (in
seconds) for the viscometer stirring rod to fall through the starch paste is the Falling Number.
Flour made from sprout-damaged wheat can have a Falling Number of 100 sec or less. Bread
wheat with average alpha-amylase activity has a falling Number of approximately 250 sec.
The upper limit for the Falling Number test is approximately 400 sec, which occurs for flour
devoid of a-amylase.
FN < 150 indicates sprouted wheat, high amylase activity
FN 200-250 Normal activity
>300 Low activity

Texture Profile Analysis (TPA):

 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 24
Texture Profile Analysis is a popular double compression test for determining the textural properties
of foods. It is occasionally used in other industries, such as pharmaceuticals, gels, and personal care.
During a TPA test samples are compressed twice using a texture analyzer to provide insight into how
samples behave when chewed. The TPA test was often called the "two bite test" because the texture
analyzer mimics the mouth's biting action.
In order to properly calculate many TPA parameters the tests must be conducted with the same speed
for both the compression and the withdrawal phases (same Test and Post-Test Speeds).

The various parameters that are studied by TPA include:

1. Hardness: The maximum force of the 1st compression.

The Hardness value is the peak force that occurs during the first compression.
2. Fracturability: The force at the first peak. Commonly as brittle, crunchy.
3. Cohesiveness: The area of work during the second compression divided by the area of work
during the first compression. (A2/A1).
Cohesiveness is how well the product withstands a second deformation relative to its
resistance under the first deformation.
A product is cohesive when it adheres to itself under some compressive or tensile stress. A
piece of meat, for example, is highly cohesive when it takes a great many chews to break
down. An extruded snack is cohesive when it can take a compressive deformation and its
internal cell structure is not so damaged that it cannot substantially resist a subsequent
deformation (think another chew). A wheat bread is cohesive when it can withstand tearing
when a cold tab of butter is being spread on it. A pizza slice is cohesive when it withstands a
tug of war between your hands and your jaw. These are all different ways of experiencing the
same phenomenon - a product whose structural integrity withstands compressive or tensile
stress. In foods, the obvious way to experience cohesion is the energy or the number of times
it takes to break down the product until it is palatable to be swallowed. Mechanically, many
food products will experience a great deal of various stresses even before they are consumed.
A product with strong cohesion will be more tolerant of manufacturing, packaging and
delivery stresses and thus will be presented to the consumers in its expected state. A product
with poor cohesion will not. Think of a loaf of bread that cannot tolerate the stress of being
placed in shopping bags and transported home. Or a dry chocolate chip cookie that shatters
into a thousand pieces under a first bite. Or a birthday cake that falls apart when icing is
applied.
4. Springiness: It is the distance of the detected height during the second compression divided
by the original compression distance. (D2/D1).
 Bakery and Confectionery Technology 25
Springiness is how well a product physically springs back after it has been deformed during
the first compression and has been allowed to wait for the target wait time between strokes.
The springback is measured at the down-stroke of the second compression.
5. Gumminess (for semi-solids): Gumminess applies only to semi-solid products and is
Hardness x Cohesiveness or Hardness x (A2/A1).
6. Chewiness: Gumminess x (D2/D1) or Hardness x Cohesiveness x Springiness.
7. Resilience: It is calculated by dividing the upstroke energy of the first compression by the
down stroke energy of the first compression i.e. A4/A3.
Resilience is how well a product "fights to regain its original height". Resilience is measured
on the withdrawal of the first penetration, before the waiting period is started. Resilience can
be measured with a single compression; however, the withdrawal speed must be the same as
the compression speed.
Bakery and Confectionery Technology 26

Highly Elastic Material, Because

Hardness is almost the same for the
both cases