FST 407- TECHNOLOGY OF CEREAL AND LEGUME

Cereal Grains
Cereals are members of grass family. It Produces dry one-seeded fruit called caryopsis. Caryopsis is also
called kernel or grain and consists of – Fruit coat or pericarp, germ or embryo and endosperm. All cereal
grains have these same parts in approx. same relationship to each other. Cereal grain crops are grown in
greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop [1] and are
therefore staple crops. The cereals most commonly cultivated are wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, corn
(maize), and sorghum.

Cereal grain structure

Grain structure is an expression of grain composition as it reflects properties from the standpoint of plant
physiology. The pl ant does not synthesize or incorporate components into structures unless they have a
specific function in preservation or propagation of the species.
The cereal grain is a one-seeded fruit called a caryopsis, in which the fruit coat is adherent to the seed. As
the fruit ripens, the pericarp (fruit wall) becomes firmly attached to the wall of the seed proper. The
pericarp, seed coats, nucellus, and al eurone cells form the bran. The embryo occupies only a small part of
the seed. The bulk of the seed is taken up by the endosperm, which constitutes a food reservoir.
The pericarp, or dry fruit coat, consists of four layers: the epidermis, hypodermis, cross cells, and tube
cells. The remaining tissues of the grain are the inner bran (seed coat and nucellar tissue), endosperm, and
embryo (germ). The aleurone layer consists of large rectangular, heavy-walled, cells. Botanically, the
aleurone is the outer layer of the endosperm, but as it tends to remain attached to the outer coats during
wheat milling, it is considered by millers as the innermost bran layer. The embryonic axis consists of the
plumule and radicle, which are connected by the mesocotyl. The scutellum serves as an organ for food
storage. The outer layer of the scutellum, the epithelium, may function either as a secretory or as an
absorption organ. In a well-filled wheat kernel, the germ comprises about 2-3% of the kernel, the bran 13-
17%, and the starchy endosperm the remainder. The inner bran layer (the aleurone) is high in protein, fat,
and minerals, whereas, the outer bran layers (pericarp, seed coats and nucellus) are high in cellulose,
hemicelluloses, and minerals. The germ is high in proteins, lipids, sugars (chiefly sucrose), and minerals;
the starchy endosperm consists largely of starch grains surrounded by protein. Grains of other cereals are
similar in structure to wheat. The corn grain is the largest of all cereals. The kernel is flattened,
wedgeshaped, and broader at the apex than at its attachment to the cob. The aleurone cells contain much
protein and oil and also contain the pigments that make certain varieties appear blue, black, or purple.
Two types of starchy endosperms-horny and floury-are found beneath the aleurone layer (r·1acMasters,
1962). The horny endosperm is harder and contains a higher level of protein. In dent corn varieties, the
horny endosperm is found on the sides and back of the kernel and bulges in toward the center at the sides.
The floury endosperm fills the crown (upper part) of the kernel, extends downward to surround the germ,
and shrinks as corn matures. In a typical dent corn, the pericarp comprises 6%, the germ 11 %, and the
endosperm 83% of the kernel.
Rice is a covered cereal; in the threshed grain (or rough rice), the kernel is enclosed in a tough siliceous
hull, which renders it unsuitable for human consumption. When this hull is removed during milling, the
kernel (or caryopsis), comprised of the pericarp (outer bran) and the seed proper (inner bran, endosperm,
and germ), is known as brown rice or sometimes as unpolished rice. Brown rice is in little demand as a
food. Unless stored under very favorable conditions, it tends to become rancid and is more subject to
insect infestation than the various forms of milled white rice. When brown rice is subjected to further
milling processes, the bran and germ are removed and the purified endosperms are marketed as white rice
or polished rice.

Hull and Bran Layers

The structure and adherence of the hull are important in protecting the germinating grain and in the
malting process. One reason that barley is uniquely suited for malting is that a cementing layer is present
between the hull and the caryopsis. The hull restricts excessive seedling growth without adversely
affecting the desirable enzymic degradation of insoluble high molecular weight materials. The adhering
hull also protects the seedling from mechanical damage during turning of the malt, and provides a
filtration bed during the extraction of soluble malt components in the mashing process. The hull, as such
or as a result of the high concentration of silica, can slow the attack of storage insects on rice and barley.
The palea and lemma in barley are held together by two hooklike structures (Fig. 2 a & b). In rice, the
ability of these structures to hold the palea and lemma together without gaps is probably variety
dependent. Varieties of rice that had many gaps and separations had greater insect infestations than did
varieties with tight husks. Apparently the bran (pericarp, seed coats, nucellus and aleurone) affords little
protection against insect infestations, because more insects consistently develop in brown rice than in
either rough rice or milled rice. Lack of resistance to infestation is probably due to the thinness of the
bran, which allows easy insect penetration, and to the large quantities of lipid and protein present in the
aleurone which provide nourishment to the insects. The outer pericarp layers of wheat (epidermis and
hypodermis) have no intercellular spaces and are composed of closely adhering, thickwalled cells. The
inner layers of the pericarp, on the other hand, consist of thinner-walled cells and often contain
intercellular spaces, through which water can move rapidly and in which molds are commonly found.
Similarly, molds can enter through the large intercellular spaces at the base of the kernel where the grain
was detached from the plant at harvest and where there is no protective epidermis. An intact grain stores
much better than a damaged or ground grain; deteriorative changes (i.e . , rancidity, off-flavors, etc.)
occur slowly in the whole grain but quite rapidly in ground grain. The hull, apparently, prevents rancidity
by protecting the bran layers from mechanical damage during harvesting and subsequent handling. Once
rough rice is dehulled, it rapidly becomes rancid, primarily because of the oxidation of free fatty acids
released by the action of lipase. The lipids and lipase are normally compartmentalized in the aleurone and
germ cells. Cell disruption may cause mixing of the cellular constituents. Possibly, the dehulling process
and subsequent handling of dehulled rice disrupt the aleurone cells and allow the rice to become rancid.
The hull, therefore, appears to be necessary to prevent cell disruption during harvesting, storage, and
handling.

The Germ
The site of the germ in the kernel and the extent to which the germ is protected by adjacent layers
determine whether it will be retained intact during threshing and, thus, the usefulness of the grain for
seeding or malting. The ease with which the germ is removed from the caryopsis during milling depends
on several factors. The germ is a separate structure and generally can be easily separated from the rest of
the cereal grain. However, the scutellar epithelium (located next to the endosperm) has fingerlike cells,
which in wheat are attached to one another for about one-third of their length. The free ends protrude
toward the adjacent starchy endosperm cells. The protruding epithelial cells may secrete an amorphous
cementing material between germ and endosperm. If some of this material projects into the spaces
between the fingerlike cells of the scutellar epithelium and into the folds of the scutellar structure, it may
be difficult to separate the germ from the endosperm unless the cementing material is softened. The
softening may be accomplished by steeping, as in corn wet milling, or by conditioning, as in wheat
milling. In rice, a layer of crushed cells separating the scutellar epithelium from the starchy endosperm
provides a line of easy fracture; hence the germ can be removed intact with minimum effort. Germ
separation is also facilitated by the fact that the germ takes up water faster and swells more readily than
the endosperm. The strains resulting from differential swelling C01- tribute to easy separation in milling.

The Subaleurone Layer

The uniqueness of the subaleurone layer in wheat was studied intensively by Kent and coworkers. The
subaleurone endosperm in wheat con- sists of a region of distinctive starchy endosperm cells, one or more
layers deep, adjacent to the aleurone cells on the outside and to the inner endosperm on the inside. In hard
wheats, the subaleurone layer forms a fairly complete shell around the inner endosperm (except in the
regions of the scutellar epithelium and the base of the crease. In soft wheats, the shell is often
discontinuous and at the points of discontinuity endosperm cells with typical inner endosperm
characteristics extend out to the aleurone layer. The two types of endosperm (subaleurone and inner)
differ in cell size and shape, size and abundance of starch granules, and proportion of protein.
Subaleurone endosperm cells are generally small and cubical; those of the inner endosperm are larger and
either needleshaped (prismatic) of polyhedral (central endosperm). The ratio of gluten to water soluble
proteins is higher in the subaleurone than in the central endosperm layer. The distribution of starch
granules also shows marked differences in different areas of the endosperm. In the subaleurone cells, the
starch granules are intermediate in size with relatively few small or secondary granules. In contrast, the
midendosperm cells are packed with large primary and small secondary granules with the storage protein
forming a thin matrix between them. The differences in structure and composition of various starchy
endosperm layers have significant implications in milling. Stock from the first break rolls consists of a
coarse fraction, semolina, derived primarily from the center of the endosperm. On further grinding this
yields, especially from high protein wheats, a first reduction flour of high starch content. Subsequent
milling of the overtailings from the first break removes flour endosperm cells progressively closer to the
aleurone layer, and the final break rolls yield a product of high protein content. The reason is the high
protein content of the subaleurone layer. Subaleurone and inner endosperm in the coarse (over 35 m) air-
classified fractions of flour milled from hard red winter wheat had average protein contents of about 45
and 11%, respectively. Cells of subaleurone endosperm were reduced to particles below 35 m size less
readily than were cells of inner endosperm. Consequently, subaleurone endosperm cells concentrated in
the coarse air-classified fractions and raised the protein content of the latter

Composition of cereal
- Starch
Starch is primary source of stored energy in cereal grains. It consist of 60-75% weight of grain.
Starch is Found in form of granule in cereal grains. Granules are formed inside plastids. In wheat, rye,
barley, sorghum inside a plastid there is a single starch granule while In rice and oats there are several or
compounds starch granules. Starch granules grow in layers.
Chemically, Starch consists primarily of D-glucopyranose polymers linked together by alpha 1,4 and
alpha 1,6 glycosidic bonds. Polymer are of two kinds – Amylose, smaller linear polymer, alpha 1,4 bonds
– Amylopectin, larger branched polymer, branching at alpha 1,6 bonds. The molecular size of polymer
(degree of polymerization, DP) for – Amylose is 1,500-6,000 and Amylopectin is 300,000-3,000,000.
Dent corn typically has 23-25% Amylose and 75-77% Amylopectin. Waxy corn has less than 1%
Amylose and more than 99% Amylopectin. High-amylose corn has 55-70% Amylose and 30-45%
Amylopectin.
Crystallinity Properties of Starch– Packing of amylose and amylopectin within starch granule is not
random but is very organized – A, B and C X-ray patters. Most cereal starches give the A pattern.
Characteristics of Starch in Cereal Grain • The size, shape and structure of starch granules varies among
botanical sources and size of granules range from less 1 μm to 100 μm. Shapes can be spherical, ovoid or
angular.
- Protein
Proteins are built from a repertoire of 20 amino acids. A protein is a polypeptide with a specific sequence
of amino acids and tridimensional structure. The acid and amino group of each amino acid are involved in
the peptide bonds and form the backbone of protein
Three dimensional structure of protein determines its properties – e.g whether protein is soluble in water
or not, Heat or alteration of pH can denature proteins.
These proteins in cereal grains are mainly in aleurone layer, bran & germ fractions, Very low in
endosperm. Prolamins and Glutelins are the storage proteins. In cereal grains proteins are mainly founds
in endosperm and Low in nutritionally important amino acids – Lysine, Tryptophan and Methionine.
Protein content of cereal grains is estimated as the nitrogen content times 6.25 content. This factor is
used for all cereals except for rice and wheat. Corn Proteins is in Corn Endosperm containing 5%
Albumins and Globulins – 44% Zein – 28% Glutelin – 17%.
 - Fat
The Vegetable Oils in cereal grain is about 98-99% triacylglycerols, triglycerides, TAG. Saponifiables
is (>99%)(Acyl Lipids, TAG). Lipids. Five most abundant fatty acids found in TAGs of corn oil are
palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid. Corn oil has high linoleic acid, essential
polyunsaturated fatty • Corn oil is fairly stable to oxidation with low levels of saturated fatty acids,
palmitic and stearic. Contains high levels of antioxidants, tocols and other phenolic compounds
Phytosterols.
- Fiber
Cellulose is the Large polymer, partially crystalline, insoluble – makes it resistant to many organisms and
enzymes. Cellulose is usually found associated with lignin and other non-starchy polysaccharides.
Mainly found in hull of cereal grains (rice, barley and oats) – Pericarp is rich in cellulose – Very little
cellulose in endosperm
Hemicellulose and Pentosans Makes up cell walls and cementing material that holds cells together.
Chemically – Simple sugars (Beta-glucans) – Complex ploymers (pentoses, hexoses, proteins and
phenolics) Can or cannot be soluble in water. Water soluble pentosans form viscous solutions in water
(oxidative gelation).
Other Minor Constituents includes Sugars, Enzymes, vitamins and Minerals.

Uses of cereal
1. Direct consumption
An example of a cereal that require little preparation before human consumption is rice. For example, to
make plain cooked rice, raw milled rice simply needs to be washed and submerged in simmering water
for 10–12 minutes.
2. Flour-based foods
Cereals can be ground to make flour. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient
of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important
in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a
constituent of bread in central and northern Europe, while rice flour is common in Asia.
Cereal flour consists either of the endosperm, germ, and bran together (whole-grain flour) or of the
endosperm alone (refined flour). Meal is either differentiable from flour as having slightly coarser particle
size (degree of comminution) or is synonymous with flour; the word is used both ways. For example, the
word cornmeal often connotes a grittier texture whereas corn flour connotes fine powder, although there
is no codified dividing line.
3. Alcohol
Because of cereals' high starch content, they are often used to make Industrial alcohol and alcoholic
drinks via fermentation. For instance, beer is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches,
mainly derived from cereal grains—most commonly from malted barley, though wheat, maize (corn),
rice, and oats are also used. During the brewing process, fermentation of the starch  sugars in
the wort produces ethanol and carbonation in the resulting beer.

Wheat
The botanical name for Wheat is Triticum aestivum from the family Poaceae. It is also commonly known
as bread wheat. Wheat is the most widely grown cereal grain, with the total wheat output in 2016 at 724
million tonnes. Wheat is the staple food for 35 percent of the world's population and provides more
calories and protein in the diet than any other crop
Structure of wheat
A grain of wheat is on average between 5-9mm in length and 30-50mg in weight. The grain has a single
cotyledon and when dissected can be divided into three main parts.

Bran
The outer layer or the seed covering is called the wheat bran and protects the main part of the kernel. The
bran comprises about 15 percent of the seed weight. Bran can be further divided into the pericarp which
consists of epidermis, hypodermis, cross layer, tube cells, seed coats, and hyaline layer. The bran is a
source of protein, large quantities of the three major B-vitamins, trace minerals, and dietary fiber.

Endosperm
Endosperm is the main part of the seed and it accounts for 80 percent of the seed weight. It consists of
starchy endosperm and endosperm cell. This layer contains the greatest share of protein, carbohydrates,
and iron, as well as the major B-vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine.

Germ (wheat germ)

The germ lies at one end of the seed and is a tiny part of the kernel. The germ is responsible for
germination when planted in soil. It is a rich source of B-complex vitamins, oil, vitamin E and natural
plant fat.
Uses of wheat
Wheat is used as food, feed, seed, and as a processed commodity for uses such as fuel. Wheat is milled to
produce flour which is used to make a variety of products around the world including bread across the
world
.
1. Wheat contains a protein called gluten which is necessary for the basic structure in forming the
dough system for bread, rolls and other baked goods. Many of the foods consumed on a daily
basis such as bread, cookies, cakes, pies, pastries, cereals, crackers, pasta, flour tortillas and
noodles are all made from wheat flour.
2. Wheat also forms the base for three extremely popular alcoholic drinks - whiskey, vodka, and
beer.
3. Young wheatgrass is becoming increasingly popular as a nutritional supplement offering vitamin
A, B-complex, C, E, l and K. It is also extremely rich in protein, and contains 17 amino acids,
which are the building blocks of protein.
4. Since 2010, wheat has been substituted for corn and used to produce bioethanol in the UK and
U.S.

Wheat Allergy
Even though wheat is a staple in most kitchens, a growing percentage of people are allergic to wheat or
the protein gluten. Gluten intolerance and celiac disease are now said to affect up to 1% of the world
population today.
Symptoms of wheat intolerance include itchy skin, troubled bowel, bloating, weight loss and vomiting.
Reasons for wheat intolerance are not entirely known however there are increasing theories that suggest
genetic modification of wheat strains have contributed to modern wheat becoming less nutritious and in
the case of celiac patients - harmful to health.

Preprocessing and storage

These grains either need to be consumed before their quality deteriorates or should be stored in a good
place for preservation. While the first choice is viable, it is more beneficial to store cereal grains for long-
term. This ensures that there is enough supply throughout the year even once the harvest season is over.
If a crop is harvested during humid weather, the grain may not dry adequately in the field to prevent
spoilage during its storage. In this case, the grain is sent to a dehydrating facility, where artificial heat
dries it.
In North America, farmers commonly deliver their newly harvested grain to a  grain elevator, a large
storage facility that consolidates the crops of many farmers. The farmer may sell the grain at the time of
delivery or maintain ownership of a share of grain in the pool for later sale. Storage facilities should be
protected from small grain pests, rodents and birds.
There are five main storage methods for the cereals, i.e., bulk storage, storage in underground pit, storage
in bags, storage in sheds and storage in silos. Each has many advantages and disadvantages. Grains are
usually preserved as bulk stack in horizontal stores. All cereals keep best in airtight containers that keep
out moisture, dust and insects. At home, a tightly sealed plastic bag is sufficient protection. Always look
for a “use-by” date on the package. The cupboard or pantry is the best place to store cereal. Keep it in a
cool, dark and dry place. Once opened, cereal should be stored in its original packaging, sealed with a bag
clip. You can also store cereal in an airtight container to keep it dry and fresh.
The Food Marketing Institute's "The Food Keeper" recommends storing ready-to-eat cereal at room
temperature for 6 to 12 months. Cook-before-eating cereals, such as oatmeal, can be stored for 12 months.

Malting chemistry
Malting is the process in which raw barley or another grain is made ready to become the main ingredient
in the brewing process. The grain is steeped in water (develop the enzyme capable of hydrolyzing starch
in the grain to give glucose and maltose), then rested under precise conditions to encourage germination,
and finally dried in a kiln and/or a roaster.
Malt contributes the sugars necessary for fermentation. While you can also get sugars from some adjuncts
such as rice or corn, most of the sugars are from the malt. A residual sweetness from malt also adds to the
mouthfeel of beer.
Malting is the limited controlled germination of grains in moist air, which results in the mobilization of
amylases, proteases, and other enzymes which hydrolyze and modify the grain components and its
structure.
The process of malting involves three main steps. The first is soaking the barley - also known as steeping
- to awaken the dormant grain. Next, the grain is allowed to germinate and sprout. Finally, heating or
kilning the barley produces its final color and flavor. Generally, pretreatment of starch with 1 molar
aqueous solutions of KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, or BaCl2 increases the activity of the enzyme, whereas treatment
with solutions of NaBr, NaI, NaCl, or Na2SO4 decreased it.

Gibberellins are used to speed up the malting process in brewing industry. They increase the yield of malt
from barley grains.
The first step in the production of beer is malting. Firstly the fresh barley gets soaked in water and put in
the so-called germinating boxes to germinate. In this phase the enzymes (amylase) are formed which are
needed for the starch separation. Malt, grain product that is used in beverages and foods as a basis for
fermentation and to add flavour and nutrients. Malt is prepared from cereal grain by allowing partial
germination to modify the grain's natural food substances.
GWM Malt, grain spends 34-46 hours in steep tanks where we aim for a target moisture of 42-44%. The
grain is transferred to germination which lasts for around 4 days in Wanderhaufen style streets. This is a
semi continuous moving batch germination process.
As a result of the germination process, barley contains, for instance, high levels of activity of the main
starch degrading enzymes, beta- and alfa amylases. These enzymes enable the natural ethanol
fermentation process when used in a brewery or distillery
Malt is germinated cereal grain that has been dried in a process known as “malting”. Malted barley, or
'Malt' as it is most commonly known, is a wonderful package of starch, enzymes, protein, vitamins, and
minerals plus many other minor constituents that provide the brewer and distiller with their main raw
material.

Deficiency conditions of cereal

Manganese, copper and zinc are the three most common micronutrient deficiencies in cereals, and often
by the time visible signs of deficiency show up, the damage is already done.
Milling of grains results in major losses (in descending order) of thiamine, biotin, vitamin B6, folic acid,
riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid; there are also substantial losses of calcium, iron, and magnesium.
What vitamins are lacking in cereals?
Whole grain cereals are rich in vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, E, and K, although they are not good
sources of vitamins B12, C, and D. Cereals are processed in several ways to produce a variety of foods,
and the method of processing can significantly impact vitamin content.
The processing and cooking of cereals significantly affect vitamin content. Depending on grain structure,
milling can substantially reduce vitamin content, while cooking methods can significantly impact vitamin
retention and bioaccessibility.
The first limiting essential amino acid in cereals is generally lysine. However, there are variations
between cereals. In oats, rice, and finger millet the deficiency in lysine may only be marginal, whereas in
sorghum, maize, and other millets it is more pronounced.
Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency worldwide and is one of the leading factors
contributing to the global burden of disease. Iron deficiency can also lead to anemia, a blood condition
that results in fatigue, weakness, dizziness, and low immune support.
Refined grains have been milled, a process that removes the bran and germ. This is done to give grains a
finer texture and improve their shelf life. But it also removes dietary fiber, iron, and many B vitamins.
Some examples of refined grain products are white flour, corn grits, white bread, and white rice.

Various methods of improving nutritive value of cereals

Three methods for improving cereal protein quality are discussed. Two older methods
are supplementation with limiting essential amino acids and with protein concentrates high in those amino
acids. The most recent method is the replacement of the normal cereal grain with its high lysine mutant
counterpart.
Food enrichment is the practice of adding micronutrients back to a food product that were lost during
processing, while fortification adds additional micronutrients not present (or present in small amounts)
prior to processing.
Steaming is one of the best cooking methods for preserving nutrients, including water-soluble vitamins,
which are sensitive to heat and water. Researchers have found that steaming broccoli, spinach, and lettuce
reduces their vitamin C content by only 9–15%.

Microbiology of cereal products

The microflora of cereals and cereal products is varied and includes molds, yeasts, bacteria
(psychrotrophic, mesophilic, and thermophilic/thermoduric), lactic acid bacteria, rope-forming bacteria
(Bacillus spp.), bacterial pathogens, coliforms, and Enterococci. Bacterial pathogens that contaminate
cereal grains and cereal products and cause problems include Bacillus cereus, Clostridium
 botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus aureus. Coliforms
and enterococci also occur as indicators of unsanitary handling and processing conditions and possible
fecal contamination.
Contamination source of cereal products includes: Air and dust, Soil, Water, Insects, Rodents, Birds,
Animals, Humans, environmental conditions (such as drought, rainfall, temperature, and sunlight),
harvesting and processing equipment, Contaminated equipment and unsanitary handling, Storage
condition and storage temperature, Shipping containers.
Spoilage of cereal
 Cereals usually contain 70–75% carbohydrates, 8–15% protein, fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals with
near-neutral pH and hence are susceptible to microbial growth leading to spoilage.
 Microbial growth is normally prevented due to sufficiently low water activity (i.e. below 0.70).
 Mold is considered the primary organism for causing spoilage in cereal.
 Bacteria can also cause spoilage of cereals, but yeasts cause few spoilage problems.
 The most commonly associated bacterial families with cereals are Bacillaceae, Micrococcaceae,
Lactobacillaceae, and Pseudomonadaceae.
 Yeast that is found in cereal includes Candida, Cryptococcus, Pichia, Sporobolomyces, Rhodotorula,
Trichosporon
 Mold spores in cereals and flour are chiefly Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Mucor,
Cladosporium, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Cladosporium, and Rhizopus.
 Mycotoxins are the toxic secondary metabolites produced by mold that is found in cereal crops under
favorable growth conditions. The genera of molds producing mycotoxins are Aspergillus,
Penicillium, and Fusarium.
 A high incidence of mycotoxin infections in cereals has been observed worldwide.

Preservation of cereal
Pesticides
 The chemicals used to prevent and control the occurrence of pests causing harm to crops that includes
including fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides.
 The pesticides provide crop protection from the damaging influences of pests, higher yields, and better
quality of cereals.
Drying
 Grains are dried to a low moisture content until the moisture content level guaranteeing safe storage
conditions( i.e. equivalent to <0.70 aw)
 Drying helps to create unfavorable conditions for mold growth and the proliferation of insects.
Debranning
 Debranning is a process during which the bran layers are removed.
 This technique is found to improve the yield and degree of refinement of flour, as well as allowing the
production of good quality grains.
 After debranning, grains are found to be microbiologically purer as the total microbial contamination
was reduced up to 87%.
Chlorine and hypochlorite
 The chlorine-based methods are widely used in cereal for microbial control.
 Sodium hypochlorite has also been used frequently.
Irradiation
 It is a process that involves exposing cereal food to a certain amount of ionizing radiation.
 Irradiation has been successfully used for the control of microorganisms on cereals and flours.
Ozone
 Ozone (O3) is the triatomic oxygen formed by the addition of a free radical of oxygen to molecular
oxygen.
 The use of ozone as a fungicide for decontamination of cereal grains has been investigated in several
studies.
 Microwave (MW) treatment
 Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies within 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
 It is widely used for the inactivation of microorganisms associated with cereal grains.
 Microwave energy can also be used for the control of stored grain insects.
Pulsed ultraviolet (UV) light treatment
 Pulsed UV light treatment is a non-thermal technology that can be used both for decontamination of
foods and food contact surfaces.
 Pulsed UV light is considered to be more efficient in microbial inactivation than UV light, offering
safer and faster decontamination.
 The antimicrobial efficacy of this technology against microorganisms occurring on stored cereal grains
has been studied.
Non-thermal (cold) plasma
 Cold plasma can be generated at atmospheric as well as low pressure and consists of UV photons,
neutral or excited atoms and molecules, negative and positive ions, free radicals, and free electrons.
 As a non-thermal process, cold plasma does not cause damage to the food product after treatment.
 This process has shown the inactivation of two pathogenic fungi, Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp.
in cereals.
 This process has also shown the inactivation of Geobacillus stearothermophilus and Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens.
Organic acid
 Organic acids are used as food additives and preservatives and can also be used for grain preservation.
 Adding organic acids (acetic, citric, lactic, or propionic) or a combination of organic acids and NaCl
added to tempering water is found to reduce microbial contamination in cereal.
 It was reported that the combination of lactic acid (5.0%) and NaCl (52%) was the most effective
against aerobic plate count and Enterobacteriaceae.

Spoilage of cereal products

Flour spoilage
 The moisture content of the flour is less than 13% that prevents the growth of microorganisms.
 However, the addition of water to flour tends to make it susceptible to microbial growth in flour.
 The molds found in flours are mostly Eurotium species and Aspergillus candidus. The molds produce
typical mycelium in flour.
 The spoilage flour contains many psychrotrophs, flat sour bacteria, and thermophilic spore-forming
bacteria such as Acetobacter spp, Bacillus spp, Lactic acid bacteria.
 If acid-forming bacteria are present in flour, acid fermentation occurs followed by alcoholic
fermentation by yeasts and then acetic acid by Acetobacter spp.
 Bacillus spp is known for producing lactic acid, gas, and acetoin in flour.
Preservation of flour 
 Flour can be preserved in an air-tight container for 6-10 months and a vacuum-packed container for 1-2
years.
 It can also be preserved in the freezer.
 It can also be preserved by filling it in oxygen absorbers containers for a long shelf-life of flour.

Bakery product
There are a wide variety of bakery products including leavened and unleavened bread, rolls, buns,
croissants, muffins, cakes, doughnuts, pastries, pancakes, waffles, biscuits, cupcakes, and sweet rolls. The
nutrient content of bakery products includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals.
Therefore, bakery products are susceptible to microbial growth due to their high nutrient content and also
because the most common factor of these products is water. The most famous bakery product that is
consumed worldwide for a very long period is bread. The ambient temperatures, product pH levels
between 5.4 and 7.5, and water activity in the range of 0.75–0.98 promote spoilage of baked cereal foods
 with mold, yeast, and rope bacteria. The most common source of microbial spoilage of bread is mold
growth. The bacterial spoilage condition is known as ‘rope’ caused by the growth of the  Bacillus species.
The least common of all types of microbial spoilage in bread is that caused by certain types of yeast.
Typical genera of mold involved in spoilage are Penicillium (Green color), Aspergillus (greenish or
purple brown color), Cladosporium, Fusarium, Monilia, Endomyces, Rhizopus (white cottony
mycelium), and Mucor (gray color). Yeasts that can cause surface spoilage of bakery products
include Saccharomyces, Debaryomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, Candida, and Zygosaccharomyces.
Pastry spoilage is similar to bread, but the pastry filling or topping is more susceptible to microbial
growth. Pastries include cakes and baked shells filled with cream, or sauces that contain egg or milk
products that support the growth of spoilage-causing bacteria. However, due to high sugar concentration,
pastries are rarely spoiled by bacteria. The most common spoilage is caused by mold. They cause sugar
fermentation and make them sour in taste with an alcoholic odor.

Preservation of bakery products

 Several methods have been used to control mold growth on bakery products that include reformulation,
freezing, and the use of preservatives. Reformulation involves a reduction of available water in bakery
products. Reduction in product aw can be achieved by dehydration, either through evaporation or
freeze-drying or by high osmotically active additives e.g., sugars and salts, incorporated directly into
the food.
 Freezing has been used for the long-term preservation of bakery products particularly, cream-filled
products. Cakes, cookies, shortcakes, and pancakes are commonly frozen and marketed in frozen form.
 Preservatives are most commonly used to control mold growth in baked goods. Chemical and natural
permitted chemical preservatives which act as mold inhibitors in bread include acetic, sorbic, propionic
acids and their salts. Natural food preservatives, such as cultured products, raisins, vinegar, are used in
bakery products.
 Pasta and noodle spoilage
 Both pasta and noodle manufacture includes no cooking step, microbial contamination may occur
during the mixing and drying process. They are stored and distributed in dry form so spoilage is rare.
During the manufacturing process, it may spoil from bacterial or fungal growth. For
example, Enterobacter (Aerobacter) cloacae have been found in pasta and noodle that causes gas
production.

Breakfast cereals: classification and technologies

In this century, cereal grains have found a significant use as breakfast foods. Breakfast cereal technology
has evolved from the simple procedure of milling grains for cereal products that require cooking to the
manufacturing of highly sophisticated ready-to-eat products that are convenient and quickly prepared.
Breakfast cereals are generally eaten cold and mixed with milk as opposed to hot cereals like oatmeal,
grits, etc.
Breakfast cereals have been defined as a processed grains for human consumption. One or more of the
cereal grains or milled fractions therefore are indeed major constituents of all breakfast cereals,
approaching 100% in the case of cereals for cooking. The proportion drops well below this in many
ready-to-eat cereals, and to less than 50% in pre-sweetened products. They are made primarily from corn,
wheat, oats, or rice and usually with added flavour and fortifying ingredients.
Classification
Breakfast cereals are classified into two major categories: hot cereals and RTE cereals
- Ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals are made primarily from corn, wheat, oats or rice usually with added
flavour and fortifying ingredients.
 - Hot cereals are made primarily from oats or wheat nevertheless; hot cereals from corn or rice are
produced in relatively small quantities. Hot cereals require cooking at home before they are ready
for consumption with the addition of either hot water or milk.
The processing of RTE cereals involves first cooking the grains with flavouring material and sweeteners.
Sometimes more heat stable nutritional fortifying agents are added before cooking. Most RTE cereals are
grouped into eight general categories:
1. Flaked cereals
2. Gun-puffed cereals
3. Extruded gun puffed cereals
4. Shredded whole grains
5. Extruded and other shredded cereals
6. Oven puffed cereals
7. Granola cereals
8. Extruded expanded cereals
Manufacturing Processes for Breakfast Cereals
The proprietary nature of the breakfast cereal industry limits the information base to patent records and
publications by individuals not directly associated with industry. In broad terms, breakfast cereal
ingredients may be classified as grains or grain products, sweeteners, flavouring, texturizing ingredients,
and micro-ingredients for nutritional fortification and preservation. The processing of ready-to-eat cereals
typically involves first cooking the grains with flavouring material and sweeteners, followed by forming
operation.  Sometimes the heat stable nutritional fortifying agents are added before cooking. Two cooking
methods are employed in the industry -direct steam injection into the grain mass and continuous extrusion
cooking.
Various unit operations are involved in the manufacturing of the breakfast cereals such as tempering,
cooking, puffing, flaking, shredding, baking and drying, etc. These unit operations yield breakfast cereals
with certain forms such as puffed, cracked, flaked, cakes, pellets or definite shapes such as circular,
cylindrical, rectangular, nuggets, oval, triangle; and irregular shapes such as chunks.
Processing Steps
Cooking
Flaked breakfast cereals can be made by cooking whole kernel cereals or legumes by pressure cooking
followed by pressing through rollers. Alternatively it can be made by extrusion cooking of flour. Cooking
helps in development of desirable flavour and nutritional benefits. It also assists in creation of desirable
physical properties necessary for the development of desire texture, primarily by starch gelatinization.
Batch cooking
Corn flakes, wheat or bran flakes and shredded wheat are processed in batch pressure cook processes,
where steam is injected into the pressure cooker. However, atmospheric cooking with steam injection
especially in case of shredded wheat in steam jacketed mixing vessel is also used. Product from the batch
pressure cooker forms lumps or individual grits, which are subsequently delumped before the next
processing step, which is drying.
Extrusion cooking
The starting material for extrusion cooking is dough from which intermediates or half products are
anticipated prior to puffing or flaking. Different types of extruders are employed in manufacture of
breakfast cereals such as single screw, twin screw or kneading or forming type extruder.
Tempering
Tempering is a physico-chemical effect that influences the quality of finished product. Tempering follows
a drying or cooling step and is the period during which the cooked grain mass or cereal pellets are held to
allow the equilibration of moisture within and among the particles. It assist in the development of
desired flakability or shredability.   During tempering the retrogradation of starch (firmness of grain due
to starch crystallization) allows moisture equilibration.
Puffing
Puffing is a thermal process in which rapid heat transfer takes place in order to phase shift the water to a
vapor. Two things are important for grain to puff, the grain must be steeped or cooked, and a large,
sudden pressure drop must occur in atmosphere surrounding the grain. Rice and wheat are most widely
used cereals for puffing. They are puffed as whole kernel grains.
In gun puffing, high temperatures are attained (600-800 0F) followed by a pressure drop of 100-200 psi. A
rotating gun is heated by means of gas burners with very hot flames; the moisture in the grain is converted
into steam. When the lid is opened to fire the gun, the internal pressure is released, and the puffed grain is
caught in a continuously vented bin.
Flaking
Flaked products are produced by passing tempered grits or pellets through two large counterrotating metal
rolls, one of which is adjustable so that the distance between them or roll gap can be set to produce a flake
of the desired thickness. These rolls are hollow and are internally cooled by passing water through the
interior of the roll. A scraper knife on each roll removes the flakes, which are then conveyed to toasting
oven. For example A typical formula for corn flakes is as follows: corn grits, 100 lb (45 kg); granulated
sugar, 6lb (3.7 kg); malt syrup, 2lb (1 kg); salt, 2lb (1 kg); and water sufficient to yield cooked grits with
a moisture content of not more than 32% after allowing for steam condensate. Liquid sucrose at 67°Brix
can be substituted for the sugar, with a decrease in the amount of water. Likewise, 26% saturated brine
can be used rather than dry salt; however, this solution is very corrosive on pumps and meters. Malt syrup
is a very viscous material, and some manufacturers prefer malt flour. The traditional malt syrup is one
that does not have any diastatic enzyme activity. Both diastatic and nondiastatic malt flours have also
been used. Mixing The first step in converting raw corn grits into corn flakes is to mix them with a flavor
solution. Master batches of the flavor materials (sugar, malt, salt, and water) may be made up for multiple
cooking batches. When this is done, it has been found better to weigh out the correct proportion of flavor
syrup to be added to each cooker batch rather than draw it off volumetrically. Temperature and viscosity
variations in master batches can result in inconsistent addition of the flavor solution. Every effort should
be made to weigh each and every ingredient accurately. Inaccurate and haphazard proportioning of
ingredients results in differences in the handling and the quality of grits in subsequent processing steps
and ultimately in the quality of the finished product. Cooking The weighed amounts of raw corn grits and
flavor syrup are charged into batch cookers, which are usually vessels about 4 ft in diameter and 8 ft long
(about 1.2 x 2.4 m), They are capable of being rotated and are built to withstand direct steam injection
under pressure. One brand that has been popular is the Johnson cooker, formerly manufactured by the
Adolph Johnson Co., of Battle Creek, Michigan. In the United Kingdom, similar pieces of equipment are
called Dalton cookers. The Lauhoff Corporation produces a redesigned 20 / CHAPTER TWO version of
the Johnson cooker, as do APV Baker, Inc., in the United States and United Kingdom and Buhler, Inc., in
the United States and Switzerland. Batch cookers are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. The grits and
flavor syrup may be loaded simultaneously, or the grits may be added first, the cooker lid closed (or
capped) as it's called), the rotation started, and then the flavor syrup added. No hard-and-fast rules exist,
except that the end result must be a uniform dispersion of flavor throughout the grain mass. Normally the
raw ingredients when fully loaded into the cooker occupy not more than one-half to two-thirds of its
volume, to leave room for expansion during cooking. In cooking corn for corn flakes, it has been found
best to increase the batch size so that at the end of the cooking time the cooker is filled to capacity. This
batch size, which is slightly larger than that normally used for wheat or rice, produces cooks that are less
sticky and easier to process further. With the grits and flavor in the cooker and the cooker tightly capped,
the steam is turned on. The steam quality should be that permitted for food contact. The mass of grits and
flavor is normally cooked at 15-18 psi (1.0-1.25 bar) for 2 hr. Some batches take more time than others,
as a result of variations in the cooking behavior of the corn grits. The rotation speed of these batch
cookers is usually 1-4 rpm, with the higher rate used for initial mixing only. Too high a speed can lead to
attrition of the particles, resulting in slime or mushiness in the cooked product. On the other hand, too
Iowa speed can lead to uneven cooking within a batch. The moisture content of the cooked mass at the
end of the cooking cycle should be not more than 32%. Some batches can be considered well cooked and
in good processing condition with a moisture content as low as 28%. The cooking is complete when each
kernel or kernel part has been changed from a hard, chalky white to a light, golden brown and is soft and
translucent. A batch is undercooked if large numbers of grain particles have chalky white centers, and it is
overcooked if the particles are excessively soft, mushy, and sticky. Properly cooked particles are rubbery
but firm and resilient under finger pressure, and they contain no raw starch. Raw starch present after
cooking remains through further processing and shows up as white spots in the finished flakes. When the
cooking time cycle is completed, the steam is turned off, and the vent opened to help reduce the pressure
inside the cooker back to the ambient pressure and cool its contents. The exhaust may READY-TO-EAT
CEREALS / 21 be connected to a vacuum system for more rapid cooling. The cooker is carefully
uncapped and the rotation restarted. Dumping The cooked food is dumped onto a moving conveyor belt
under the cooker discharge. Dumping creates an interesting processing problem-that of placing a properly
cooked batch of grain, which is optimum at time zero, into the slower continuous flow in the next steps of
the process. A batch of cooked corn grits can be dumped from a cooker in about 7 min, but no dryers in
the industry can dry them to flakable moisture in 7 min. Almost all processors therefore face the problem
of how to get the cooker empty, cool the cooked material to stop the cooking action, and space that
material out in a uniform flow to feed a dryer and cooler of reasonable size. While this is being done, the
cooker may be needed for the next batch, with its own loading time, steam come-up time, 2-hr cooking
time, steam exhaust time, and dump time. The most common method of solving the dumping problem is
to spread the cooked food out over a large area. Some spread it on wide, slow-speed conveyors under the
cookers. Others spread it over large areas of perforated plates, with air blowing up through the
perforations; these can be stacked to save space and are sometimes agitated. Delumping Once on a
moving belt, before they are conveyed to a dryer, the cooked grits pass through delumping equipment to
break the loosely held-together grits into mostly single grit particles. Delumping is essential to obtain
particles or agglomerates of grits small enough for good circulation of heated air around each particle for
uniform drying. It may be necessary to accomplish delumping and cooling in steps to get good separation
of the grits so that they are the optimum size for drying. In most cases cooling takes place first, to stop the
cooking action and remove stickiness from the grit surface. Cooling is kept to a minimum, because in
subsequent drying the product is reheated to remove moisture. Most cooling-delumping systems include
screening devices. The most common are flatbed gyrating sifters or rotating-wire or perforated-drum
screeners. Drying From the cooling-sizing operation, the grits are metered in a uniform flow to the dryer.
For properly toasted corn flakes, oven temperatures in the range of 525-625°F (275-330°C) are usually
employed, and the residence time is about 90 sec.
Shredding
The grain used in whole kernel form for shredding is primarily wheat. Shredded wheat is made by
cooking soft white wheat in an excess of water at atmospheric pressure. The drained wheat is cooled to
ambient temperature and contains approximately 50% moisture. The next step is tempering for 24 hours
to allow for moisture equilibration and firming of the kernel. Next, the wheat is squeezed between
 two counterrotating metal shredding rolls, one with a smooth surface, the other grooved. Shredding rolls
are water cooled to control the roll surface temperature. The shreds are laid down on a conveyor under the
rolls running parallel to the shredding grooves and subsequently conveyed to dryer for drying to a final
moisture content of around 3 -4%.
Baking
Cereal granules or granola cereals are usually produced using a modified bread baking process.  A
stiff dough is prepared from wheat flour, malted barley flour/rolled oats, salt, yeast and water. Other raw
materials such as nut pieces, coconut, honey, malt extract, dried milk, dried fruits, vegetable
oil, spices can also be added. The dough is mixed and allowed to ferment for 4 -5 hours at 80 0F and 80%
relative humidity (RH). After fermentation the dough is baked at 300 – 425 0F until the material is
uniformly toasted to a light brown and moisture reduced to about 3%. The dried pieces are ground into
small pieces and screened to obtain desired particle size. The final product has a notable crunchy texture.
Drying
Most ready-to-eat breakfast cereals require drying as an intermediate processing step. This drying is the
controlled removal of water from the cooked grain and other ingredients to obtain appropriate physical
properties for further processing such as flaking, puffing, forming, toasting or packaging. Cereals are
dried at various stages of processing. Pellets for flake products have a moisture content of 30-33% prior
to the drying and are dried down to 16-22% moisture. Pellets for gun puffing are dried from 30- 32% to
10 -12% moisture. This pre-drying prevents agglomeration of cooked cereals. Multipass dryer design for
better control over residence time and humidity are widely used for drying of cereals.
Additives in Breakfast Cereals
Most breakfast cereal products contain large amounts of cereal grains and have small quantities of
additives. Breakfast cereals available in market are manufactured from variety of cereals such as corn,
wheat, oats, barley, rice, rye singly or in combination. Although breakfast cereals are
usually eaten/mixed with milk, certain breakfast cereals contain milk solids as one of the ingredients. In
broad terms, breakfast cereal ingredients may be classified as (1) grain or grain products, (2) sweeteners,
(3) other flavouring or texturizing ingredients, (4) minor ingredients for flavour and colour and (5) minor
ingredients for nutritional fortification and self-life preservation.
Additives in Breakfast Cereals
Ingredients found in breakfast cereals (Listed by function, some ingredients serve more than one function,
as indicated by parenthetical notes)
Ingredient Examples
Cereals Wheat: Defatted wheat germ, Wheat bran, Wheat germ, Wheat gluten (protein source), Whole rolled
wheat, Whole wheat, Whole wheat flour
 
  Corn: Corn flour, Degermed yellow corn meal, Milled yellow corn

  Oats: Oat bran, Oat flour, Rolled oats, Whole rolled oats, Whole oats, Whole oat flour

  Rice: Milled rice, Rice flour

Barley: Malted barley (sugar source), Whole barley
Sweetening Brown sugar, Brown sugar syrup, Cereal malt syrup, Dextrose, Fructose, High fructose corn syrup,
agents Honey, Invert sugar, Malted barley (cereal), Malt extract, Molasses
Fruits Strawberries, Apple juice, Dates, Dried apples, Strawberry juice concentrate, Apple juice
(sugar concentrate, Grape juice concentrate, Raisins
source)
Flavours Malt flavouring, Salt, Cinnamon, Cinnamon extractives, Cocoa, Artificial flavours, Malic acid,
Sodium citrate, Citric acid (stabilizer), Yeast (structural), Sodium bicarbonate (structural), Natural
flavours
Structural Gelatin (protein), Corn starch, Modified food starch, Wheat starch, Maltodextrin, Pectin, Sodium
additives alginate, Sodium phosphate (dough conditioner and mineral), Glycerine, Trisodium phosphate,
Calcium carbonate (mineral), Baking powder, Tricalcium and dicalcium phospahate, Wheat gluten,
Cellulose gels and gums
Fats Coconut, Cottonseed, Soybean, Palm, Palm kernel, Groundnut
(Partially
hydrogenat
ed oils)
Dairy Dried whey, Calcium caseinate, Non fat dry milk, Whey protein concentrate
products
Protein Nuts and legumes (flavour, fat), Peanut butter, Soy flour, Almond pieces, Coconut, Hazelnut, Pecan
sources pieces, Walnut pieces
Vitamins Vitamin A palmitate, Vitamin C, Sodium ascorbate, Ascorbic acid, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, DL �
alpha tocopherol acetate, B vitamins, Niacin, Niacinamide, Folic acid, Thiamine mononitrate,
Thiamine hydrochloride(B 1), Pyridoxine hydrochloride (B 6), Vitamin B 12
Minerals Reduced iron, Tricalcium and dicalcium phospahate, Calcium pantothenate, Calcium carbonate
(structural), Sodium phosphate (structural), Zinc oxide
Preservativ Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in packaging (antioxidant), Sulfur dioxide (in fruit), Citric acid
es and (flavour), Mono- and di- glycerides, Soy lecithin
stabilizers
Colours Artificial colour: Red 40, Yellow 5, Yellow 6, Blue 1
Natural colour: Caramel colour, Beet powder, Annatto extract

Functions of Additives
E.g. sugar includes sucrose, honey, glucose, invert sugar, corn syrup solids, etc. Sugar imparts sweetness
to the product and it is sometimes used as coating material.
�         Buffering salts such as mono-, di- or trisodium phosphates are added to adjust the pH of the
cooked dough for browning and gelatinization.
�         Salt is commonly added either to base mix or added to the surface in snacks for flavouring
purpose.
�         Emulsifiers like distilled mono- glycerides and distilled di-glycerides are added to reduce the
stickiness of the product.
�         Components like minerals and vitamins are also incorporated into the cereals as per
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for a nutritional claim to be made.
�         Fruits, dried fruits, milk products are also added to further improve the nutritional value as
well as sensory characteristics of the breakfast cereals.
�         Modified starches, specialty flours and stabilizers are added primarily as texturizing agent.
�         Addition of oil, leavening agents and/or emulsifiers affects and contributes to shape, texture
and eating quality of ready-to-eat cereals.
�         Antioxidants either natural or synthetic are incorporated into the cereals to improve the
shelf-life of the ready-to-eat cereals.
�         Various flavourings (natural, nature-identical, synthetic) and colouring (natural, synthetic)
are extensively used to improve the sensory and aesthetic quality of the ready-to-eat cereals.