Seed Structure and Production Guide

Date:
STUDY OF SEED STRUCTURE

Seed is a matured integument mega sporangium or a matured ovule consisting of
embryonic plant together with stored food material covered by a protective coat.
A fruit is defined as matured or ripened ovary which contains one or more

ovules that develop into seed. Seed may be true seed, tubers, suckers, bulbs,
cuttings and setts.
Study of typical seed parts and their functions:
(1) Seed Coat:-

Seed coat is the outer covering of a seed. In paddy, wheat and
maize, the seed coat and fruit coat are tightly joined together in a non
separable manner. Whereas in pea and gram seeds, the seed coat is thick
and is separated in to two separate parts. The thick outer is called testa
which is developed from the outer integument of the ovule. The thin
inner one is called tegman developing from the inner integument of the
ovule.
In some seeds (castor, paddy) a thin dry membrane is present between
seed coat and kernel called perisperm.
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(2) Kernel:-
The inner content of seed wrapped within the seed coat is called
the kernel may be composed entirely of embryo, e.g. Pea, gram or it may
contain both embryo and endosperm e. g Castor, jute, cotton, paddy,
wheat, maize, coconut.
Seeds without endosperm are called non-endospermic or ex-
albuminous seed and seeds with endosperm are called endospermic or
albuminous seeds. In non-endospermic seed, the seed food is present
within the cotyledons and as such the cotyledons are swollen. In
endospermic seed the seed food is present within outside the cotyledons
and within the endospermic tissue; therefore the seed leaves of
cotyledons are very thin here.In castor seed, the endosperm encloses the
two seed leaves or cotyledons. In wheat, maize and rice (paddy) the
endosperm is placed at one side of the kernel.
(3) Embryo:-
The embryo or seed plant proper consists of seed leaf or cotyledons or
cotyledon embryonal axis or tigellum and endosperm.
(a) Embryonal axis or tigellum:-

The minute stem like portionwithin the embryo is called the tigellum or
embryonal axis. In dicotyledonous seed, the tigellum is situated is
between the two cotyledons e.g. Gram, pea,castor. In monocotyledonous
seed, the tigellum is situated at one side of the cotyledon e.g. Paddy,
wheat, maize. The point of the tigellum to which the cotyledons are
attached is called as nodal zone. The portion of the embryonal axis
below the nodal zone is called the hypocotyls. The growing tip of the
hypocotyls is termed the radical. The portion of the embryonal axis
above the nodal zone is called the epicotly. The growing tip of the
epicotyls is termed the plumule. In monocotyledonous seed, the plumule
and radical are covered by protective sheath called coleoptile and
coleorhiza, respectively.
(b) Cotyledon:-
The seed leaves are called cotyledons. Seeds having a single seed leaf or
cotyledon within embryo are called are called monocotyledonous seeds,
e.g. paddy, wheat, maize. Seeds with two seed leaves are called
dicotyledonous seeds, e.g. Pea, gram. Seeds with more than two seed
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leaves are called poly-cotyledonous e.g. pinus. In monocot seed, the seed
leaf is thin, shield shaped and remain completely attached to the
endosperm forming a structure called scutellum. In dicot seed, the seed
leaves remain on the two sides of the embryonal axis. In polycot seed,
the seed leaves simply encircle the nodal zone.
(c) Endosperm:
Endosperm or seed food is the food reservoir of seed. In non-
endospermic seed, the food is kept reserved within the cotyledon cells
and as such the cotyledons become very thick and fleshy e.g. Pea, gram.
In endospermic seed, the food is stored within a special type of tissue
outside cotyledon forming the endosperm. The seeds having endosperm
the cotyledons become very thin.
1. Monocotyledonous seed
(a) Albuminous or endospermic seed- e.g. Jawar, maize, wheat, rice,
other cereals.
(b) Exalbuminous or non-endospermic seed: e.g. Pothos, Orchids.
2. Dicotyledonous seed
(a) Albuminous or endospermic seed- e.g.Castor, Custard apple,
Papaya.
(b) Exalbuminous or non endospermic seed: e.g. gram, Pea, bean,
sunflower, legumes, safflower, mango, cotton & gourds.
3. Polycotyledonous seeds: e.g. gymnosperms
Fig. 1.1. Seed Structure of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous seed

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Exercise-1
Date:
SEED PRODUCTION IN CEREALS
1. Wheat
1) Selection of land: The land to be used for seed production of wheat shall be free from
weeds and volunteer plants. The plot should be well drained and soil neither too acidic
nor too alkaline.
2) Preparation of land: Deep ploughing, followed by harrowing and leveling. Pre-sowing

irrigation must be given for uniform germination.
3) Isolation distance: Wheat is normally a self-pollinated crop, however, natural cross-

pollination to the extent of 1 to 4 percent occurs. So an isolation distance of 3 meter
should be kept in all the side of seed plot to avoid natural crossing. If a variety of the seed
plot is likely to get infected by loose smut then isolation distance of 180 meters between
seed field and other field of wheat is recommended.
4) Planting time: Long duration (late maturing) varieties may be sown during the first
fortnight of November. Short (early) and medium duration varieties may be sown during
second fortnight of November.
5) Spacing and seed rate: The seed crop should be sown in rows at spacing of 20 to 22.5
cm to a depth of 5 cm with the help of seed drill. The recommended seed rate for seed
crop is 85 to 100 kg /ha.
6) Fertilization: The recommended doses of fertilizer are 80 kg nitrogen, 60 kg

phosphorous and 40 kg potash per hectare. Apply all the quantity of phosphorous and
potash fertilizers at the time of sowing while 50 % quantity of nitrogen at time of sowing
and remaining 50 % nitrogen at the crown root initiation stage i.e. 30 to 35 days after
sowing.
7) Irrigation: Depending upon the soil texture and structure about 4 to 6 irrigations are
sufficient. 1st irrigation at 30 to 35 days after sowing and other irrigations at late tillering,
panicle emergence, flowering, milk and dough stages should be given.
8) Inter-culturing and weeding: Periodically inter culturing and weeding should be carried
out to keep the crop free from weeds. Chemical weedicides like 2,4-D @ 0.5 kg a.i. per
hectare and pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare in 750 litres of water should also be
used for effective control of weeds.
9) Plant protection: As per recommendation
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10) Roguing: Two to three roguings are necessary.1st roguing may be done at the time of
heading to remove off types and plants infected with loose smut.2nd roguing should be
done just after flowering to remove off types plants with late flowering based upon ear
head (panicle) characters.3rd roguing should be done at the time of maturity based upon
variation in ear head color. Color of awns and ear head types as well as volunteer plants
and weed plants should be removed.
11) Harvesting and threshing: Harvesting may be done by sickle and threshing with
thresher. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical mixture.
12) Processing: Wheat seeds should have 9 to 10 percent moisture content for storing
purpose. To maintain good quality of seeds, it should be cleaned, treated with fungicide
and should be properly bagged. The seed should be stored in a dry, clean and rodent proof
warehouse.
13) Yield: The average seed yield should be between 30 to 40 qtls per hectare.
2. Rice (Paddy)
[A] Varieties:
1) Selection of land: The plot should be free from weeds and volunteer plants and should
have not been used for growing the same crop in previous year or season.
2) Preparation of land: Paddy can be cultivated as direct sown, puddle seeding or by
transplanting. For transplanting, prepare the land with repeated deep ploughing (2 to 3
times) followed by harrowing to obtain a fine tilth and a soft soil with fairly impervious
subsoil, so that the transplanted seedlings establish quickly. A plot should be kept flooded
for a week or ten days before transplanting.
3) Isolation distance: The extent of cross pollination in rice varies from 0 to 6.8 % hence it
is necessary to keep the plot isolated atleast by 3 meters from other rice plot for pure seed
production.
4) Raising nursery:
a) The appropriate time of sowing nursery for early duration varieties is from 10th to 25th
June and for late duration varieties, it is 25th May to 10th June.
b) Long and narrow nursery beds (10 m x 1 m) are more ideal.
c) Prepare raise bed to facilitate drainage of excess water and also to irrigate the nursery
uniformly.
d) About 50 to 60 beds of the size 10 m x 1 m are sufficient for raising seedlings to
transplant one hectare of land.
e) Seed rate : 25 -30 kg for fine grain , 30-35 kg for coarse grain varieties
f) Seedlings are ready for transplanting after 3 to 4 weeks of sowing.
g) Uproot the seedling gently, discard weak, diseased or off type.
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h) The land should be puddled either by tractor or by bullock pair and flood it with
appropriate water level to transplant the seedlings.
i) Fertilizer may be applied as per recommendation
j) Drain excess water when the crop does reach to physiological maturity.
k) Weed control: Keep the crop free from weeds by hand weeding or using chemical
herbicides. Butachlor or benthiocarb @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha 5 to 7 days after transplanting.
l) Plant protection : as per recommendation
5) Roguing:
a) Roguing of off types and volunteer plants should be done once before flowering and
then at flowering and maturity stage.
b) Roguing of wild rice or plants infested by pests and diseases may be done from time to
time as required.
6) Harvesting and threshing: It is important to harvest the crop when the seed is ripe.
a) Allow the crop to dry for two to three days till the moisture content reduce to 12 to 13
percent.
b) Clean the seeds to remove chalf, durt, empty husks and light seds by winnowing.
c) Store in a gunny bags in a cool and dry place on wooden racks.
d) The average paddy seed yield should be from 50 to 60 quintals per hectare depending
upon the varieties.
[B] Seed production of hybrid rice:
Prof. Yuan Long Ping is the father of hybrid rice in China. The successful
development and use of hybrid rice technology in china during 1970s led the way for
development and release of rice hybrid. In India some rice hybrids have been bred and
released for commercial cultivation by state agricultural universities and private seed
companies.
Hybrid rice can be produced by

a) Three line system (b) Two line approach and (c) Chemical emasculators.
(a) Three line system:
• In this method hybrid rice is produced by utilizing cytoplasmic genetic male sterile
system. The source of cytoplasm used is wild abortive. One of the drawbacks of wild
abortive cytoplasm is incomplete panicle exertion from the flag leaves.
• This method involves three different lines i.e. A-line (male sterile line), B-line
(maintainer line) and R-line(restorer line ).
(b)Two line approach:

This involves the use of photoperiod sensitive genetic male sterile (PGMS) system or
temperature sensitive genetic male sterile (TGMS) system and any normal line can
serve as a restorer (male parent).
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(c) By using chemical emasculators:
• The chemicals which kill or sterilize the male gamete with little or no effect on the
normal functioning of the female gamete can be used as male gametocytes to
emasculate female parental line in hybrid seed production.
• In China chemical emasculators are commonly used in hybrid seed of rice. In India
they are not used commercially for hybrid seed production, but they are used in
academic studies.
• The chemical which can be used as potent gametocides are etheral, maleic hydrazide,
etc.
Hybrid seed production (using three line systems)

Hybrid seed production involves two steps;
o Maintenance of parental lines (A-line, B-line and R-line)
o Commercial hybrid seed production (A x R).
Maintenance of parental lines is generally referred as foundation seed production and hybrid
seed production as certified seed production.
The A-line can be maintained by crossing with B-line in an isolated plot, while the B-line and
the R-line can be maintained just like normal varieties by following the required isolation and
field standards.
In hybrid seed production A-line is crosses with R-line (fertility restorer line): (A x R=F1)
Steps involved in hybrid seed production:

1) Selection of seed field: The field should be free of volunteer plant, well leveled, should
have fertile soil with good physical properties and well drainage facilities.
2) Isolation: The hybrid rice field should be isolated from other paddy fields by 200 meters
for foundation seed (A,B, & R line production) and 100 meters for hybrid (certified) seed
production (A x R Production).
3) Preparation of land: Preparation of land is same as described for open-pollinated

varieties.
4) Sowing time: The sowing should be adjusted that the crops comes to panicle stage soon
after the end of high temperature period
5) Planting ratio: The row ratio of female and male parental varies from region to region
depending on weather conditions and potentiality of parental lines. The commonly
adopted planting ratios of male and female are 2:8, 2:6 or 3: 8. Factors influencing the
row ratio are;
There can be more than 8 A lines in relation to 2 R -lines,
1. If R-lines are taller than seed parent
2. Have good growth and vigour
3. Have large panicles and
4. Shed a large amount of residual pollen.
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6) Synchronization of flowering: Synchronizing of flowering of both parents is the key
factor to increase the yield. Technical measure such as staggered planting of female and
male parents may be adjusted to ensure synchronizing the flowering time. In addition, one
or two extra planting of male parents may be done to extend the time of availability of
pollens. Flowering time can be manipulated by additional fertilizer application and
regulation of water in the field.
7) Transplanting & Spacing: Transplanting should be done when the seedlings are 25-28
days old. All the missing hills should be replaced within seven days. The spacing adopted
for A-line is 15x15 cm and for B or R-line is 20x15 or 30x15 cm. All the recommended
package of practices should be followed to raise a good crop.
8) Fertilization: The amount of nutritive element is determined after soil test. In absence of
such a test 150 kg nitrogen, 60 kg phosphorus and 50 kg potash must be applied.
9) Water Management: Light irrigation must be given next day of transplanting. At the
time of flowering, if temperature is very high, water should be applied during the day and
drained off at night. It helps in decreasing the temperature up to some extent.
Methods of improving seed setting:

Paddy is highly self -pollinated crop and the extent of natural cross—pollination is very
less. Hence to increase the out-crossing rate certain methods should be followed like-
a. Supplementary pollination: This can be done by pulling the nylon rope back and
forth on the restorer line and panicles of restorer lines are shaken which helps in
transfer of pollen grains.
b. Leaf clipping: Clipping of leaves prior 1-2 days of panicle emergence will increase
the probability of pollination and out crossing so blade of the flag leaf may be
clipped.
c. GA3 application: Spraying of 60 ppm (60 mg/l) solution of GA3 on the female
parent two to three times at the time of panicle emergence will increase quick
exertion of panicle and helps in seed setting.
10) Roguing: First before panicle initiation and then soon after emergence of panicles. Rogue
out the plants of maintainer lines or semi-sterile plants from the female parent plot as and
when required.
11) Harvesting and processing: Harvest male rows first to avoid chances of mechanical
mixture. Moisture % in the grain at the time of harvesting should be less than 18 %. Seed
must be sun dried to 12 percent for storing purpose. Cleaning of seeds should be done
taking enough care to avoid mixture. Store the seed in cool and dry place.
12) Seed yield: 5 to 15 Quintals/ha
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3. Sorghum (Jowar)
[A] Open-Pollinated Varieties:
1) Selection of land: The land should be free from volunteer plants and weed plants. There
should be no Johnson grass in the seed field or within the isolation distance. The field
should be well drained.
2) Isolation distance:
Foundation seed Certified seed
From field of other sorghum varieties 200 m 100 m
Johnson grass 400 m 400 m
Forage sorghum 400 m 400 m
3) Preparation of land: Prepare the land to a fine tilth by deep ploughing, three to four
harrowing followed by leveling.
4) Time of sowing:Kharif-4th week of June to 1st week of July. Rabi- Mid September (for
southern states)
5) Method of sowing: Seed should be sown in rows and 3 to 4 cm in depth.
6) Spacing: Row to row 45 cm and Plant to plant 15 cm
7) Seed rate:12 to 15 kg/ha
8) Fertilizers and manures:
Time of Application Fertilizers (kg/ha)
N P K
At Sowing 40 60 60
30 days after sowing 40 - -
Total 80 60 60
9) Roguing: Roguing should be done before flowering, at the time of flowering, after
flowering and at the time of maturity. Off types can be identified based on morphological
characters like plant height, leaf shape, leaf colour, stem pigmentation, days to flowering
etc. Rogue out other related plants like Johnson grass, Sudan grass, forage plants and
plants affected by kernel smut and head smut from time to time.
10) Plant protection: Major pests –shoot fly and stem borer, Major diseases- grain smut,
grain mould and downy mildew. If any other or disease is noticed, they should be timely
controlled by following recommended control measure.
11) Harvesting, threshing and drying: The seed crop must be harvested when it is fully
ripe. The harvested heads should be sorted out to remove the diseased or otherwise
undesirable. The heads should be dried on the threshing floor or tarpaulin for a couple of
days before threshing. Threshing can be done by threshers or manually. The seed should
be thoroughly cleaned and dried to 10 % moisture before storage.
12) Seed Yield: Depending up on the potentiality of the variety and the management
practices adopted, seed yield may be in the range of 35-40 q/ha.
[B] Hybrid seed production in sorghum:

The hybrid sorghum seed is produced by utilizing Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.
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The steps involved in hybrid seed production are as under.
I. Maintenance of parental lines i.e. line A carrying Cytoplasmic genetic male
sterility. Line B male fertile (maintainer lines of A) and R line i.e. restorer line
used as male parent for the purpose of producing hybrid seed male fertile, pollen
restoring line.
II. Production of hybrid seed: This involves crossing of male sterile line A with
restorer line (R line) to produce hybrid seeds.
The maintenance of parental lines is known as foundation seed production and the production
of hybrid seed is known as certified seed production.
Maintenance of male sterile lines (Line A):

The male sterile line (line A) carried male sterility due to cytoplasmic genetic factors.
It is maintained by crossing with male fertile non-pollen restoring line (non-restorer
line i.e. line B) in an isolated plot. The seed harvested from line A is male sterile and is
used for hybrid seed production as a female parent and for further maintenance of line
A. The seed harvested from line B is pollen fertile and may be used in further
maintenance of line A.
Seed Production of B-line and R-line:
The seed is produced in an isolated plot and it is similar to seed production of open
pollinated varieties. However the isolation distance required and the field standards are
similar to that of maintenance of A-line.
Seed production of commercial hybrid:

1) Selection of land: Selection of land is same as described for open-pollinated varieties.
varieties.
Contaminants Foundation seed Certified seed
Field of other varieties and hybrids and field 300 m 200m
of same varieties or hybrids not conforming
the varietal purity requirement
Field having common male parent and NA 5m
conforming the varietal purity requirement
Grassy sorghum and Johnson grass 400 m 400 m
Forage sorghum 400 m 200 m
4) Time of sowing: Time of sowing is same as described for open-pollinated varieties.

5) Method of sowing: Method of sowing is same as described for open-pollinated varieties.
6) Seed rate, spacing and planting ratio :
Seed rate: Maintenance of A line Commercial hybrid
(AxB) (AxR)
Female line (Line A) 8 kg/ha Female line (Line A) 8 kg/ha
Male line (Line B) 4 kg/ha Male line (Line R) 4 kg/ha
Spacing: 75 x 10 cm 75 to 90 x 10 cm
Planting ratio: 4:2 4:2
(Female: Male) (with two to four rows of (with two to four rows of
male parent all around the field) male parent all around the field)
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7) Synchronization of flowering (A x R): Perfect synchronization of flowering time
between male and female parent is most important. Differential flowering time may result
in non-synchronization of the parents which may result into poor seed set, hence
knowledge regarding flowering habit of the parent is very useful for planning of suitable
staggering to ensure nicking and there by maximum seed set.
8) Roguing: During vegetative growth stage, before flowering remove all off type plants
from the rows of both female and male parents. Start roguing before off type plants,
volunteer plants and pollen shedders in female rows start shedding pollens. At flowering
and during flowering period roguing should be done every day to remove pollen shedding
plants from the female rows. Pre-harvest roguing before harvesting and after maturity
roguing should be done thoroughly and ear heads infested with the disease should be
removed.
9) Harvesting and Threshing: Harvest male rows (B lines or R lines) first and keep their
ear heads separate. The female rows (A line) should be harvested after completion of
harvesting of B lines or R lines to avoid the mixture. The threshing machine may be
thoroughly cleaned before threshing the female ear heads to avoid mechanical mixture.
10) Seed Yield: The seed yield may be in the range of 4-6 q/ha depending on the parent line
and the cultural practices adopted.
Note: The method as well as various cultural practices including techniques of roguing,
harvesting and threshing for maintenance of parental lines (A,B & R lines) are same as
described for seed production of commercial hybrid except, synchronization of flowering and
isolation distance and spacing .
4. Pearl millet (Bajra)
[A] Composite and Synthetic varieties (Open pollinated Varieties):
1. Selection of land: Land should have well drainage capacity. It should be free from
volunteer plants and weeds
2. Preparation of land: One ploughing followed by two harrowing and leveling.
3. Time of sowing :
Kharif: 2nd fortnight of July
Rabi : Mid October to mid December
4. Isolation :Foundation seed – 400 m, Certified seed – 200 m
5. Source of seed: Obtain foundation seeds from the source approved by the certification
agency.
6. Seed rate, method of sowing and spacing :
a) Direct sowing: 3.5 kg to 5.0 kg, keeping 50 cm spacing between rows. Thinning
should be done at a distance of 10 to 15 cm. The seed should be covered with about
3 cm soil.
b) Transplanting : 1.5 kg/ha, Spacing : 45 cm between the rows
7. Fertilization : 50 kg NPK as basal, 25 kg N after 25-30 days of sowing and 25 kg N after
40-45 days of sowing.
8. Irrigation: Irrigate the crop as and when required. If rain is inadequate, 1-2 irrigation
may be given.
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9. Weed control: Pre-emergence application of Propazine or Atrazine @ 1 kg/ha and one
hand weeding would be effective to control weeds. One or two inter-culturing would be
sufficient to keep the crop weed-free.
10. Plant protection: Major pest-shoot fly and red hairy caterpillar; Major disease: grain
smut, grain mould, downy mold and ergot. If any other pests or diseases are noticed, they
should be timely controlled by following recommended plant protection measure.
11. Roguing: Remove off types and volunteer plants identified on the basis of plant
characteristics like stem color, hairiness, plant height, peduncle shape, colour etc.
12. Harvesting and threshing: Seed crop should be harvested when it is fully matured.
Remove diseased or damaged ear-head at the time of harvest. Threshing can be done by
thresher. Dry the seed to 10 % moisture before storage.
13. Seed Yield: Depending upon the variety and the management practices adopted the seed
yield may vary from 20 –25 Q/ha.
[B] Production of hybrid seed in Pearl millet:

The hybrid seed is produced by using CMS line and restorer (CGMS concept) as
similar to other cereals.
Important steps are:

a) Maintenance of parental lines, i.e. male sterile line (A line), Maintainer line (B line)
and restorer line (R line).
b) Production of hybrid seed i.e. (A x R)
The maintenance of parental lines is known as foundation seed production and the
production of hybrid seed is known as certified seed production.
Maintenance of male sterile lines (Line A)

The male sterile line (line A) carried male sterility due to cytoplasmic genetic factors.
It is maintained by crossing with male fertile non-pollen restoring line (non-restorer line i.e.
line B) in an isolated plot. The seed harvested from line A is male sterile and is used for
hybrid seed production as a female parent and for further maintenance of line A. The seed
harvested from line B is pollen fertile and may be used in further maintenance of line A.
Seed Production of B-line and R-line:
The seed is produced in an isolated plot and it is similar to seed production of open
pollinated varieties. However the isolation distance required and the field standards are similar
to that of maintenance of A-line.
[B] Seed production of commercial hybrid:

1) Selection of land: Selection of land is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic
and composite) varieties.
Contaminants Foundation seed Certified seed
Field of other varieties and hybrids and field of 1000m 200m
same varieties or hybrids not conforming the
varietal purity requirement
Field having common male parent and conforming NA 5m
the varietal purity requirement
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(synthetic and composite) varieties.
4) Time of sowing: Time of sowing is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and
composite) varieties.
5) Method of sowing and spacing :
a) Direct sowing: Seed should be sown about 2.5 cm in depth. Spacing: 75 x 20 to
22.5 cm row to row and plant to plant is recommended. Thinning should be
done accordingly.
b) Transplanting: Spacing: 50 to 75 x 20 to 22.5 cm row to row and plant to plant
is recommended.
6) Seed rate:
Female parent Male parent
Direct sowing 1.5 kg/ha 0.75 kg/ha
Transplanting 0.4 to 0.65 kg/ha 0.2 to 0.3 kg/ha
7) Planting ratio: Female: male, 4 : 2 rows. Eight border rows of parent should be provided
on all sides of the field or sufficient availability of pollen grains.
8) Fertilizer: Fertilization is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and
9) Irrigation: Irrigation is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and composite)
varieties.
10) Weed control: Weed control is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and
11) Plant protection: Plant protection is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and
12) Synchronization of flowering (A x R):
13) For continues pollen availability, staggered sowings are made for male parent.
14) Roguing :
a) Start roguing before flowering
b) All off type plants and volunteers must be cut from the ground level or pulled out to
prevent re-growth.
c) Remove off types both from the seed parent and pollinator parents.
d) Remove pollen shedding plants at the time of flowering from the rows of female (seed
parent).
e) Seed (female) parent should be rogued at least once a day.
f) Remove diseased plants at the time of harvest.
15) Harvesting and threshing: Harvest male rows first. Keep it separately. Female rows
should be harvested after completion of male rows. The seed should be dried, threshed
and cleaned before storage.
16) Seed yield: Depending on the potentiality of the inbred line and the management
practices adopted the seed yield may be 3-4 Q/ha.
Note: The method and various cultural practices including techniques of roguing, harvesting
and threshing for maintenance of parental lines (A,B& R lines) are same as described for seed
production of commercial hybrid except synchronization of flowering and isolation distance.
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5. Maize
[A]Composite and synthetic varieties (Open pollinated Varieties):

1) Selection of land: Selected field should be free of volunteer maize plants and well-
drained. The soil should be well-aerated and suitable for maize growing.
Foundation Certified
Field of other varieties of maize and field of the same
400 m 200 m
variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements
3) Preparation of land: Usually one ploughing, two to three harrowing followed by

levelling, is sufficient to prepare the field to the desired tilth.
4) Time of sowing: 2nd week of June to mid-July
5) Method of sowing: Maize is sown in rows with the help of a maize planter, or is dibbled
by hand in furrows. The depth of seeding should be from 5 to 6 cm.
6) Spacing: Row to row 60 to 75 cm, plant to plant 20 to 22.5 cm.
7) Seed rate: 16 to 18 kg/ha
8) Fertilization:
Time of Application Fertilizers (kg/ha)
N P K
At Sowing (basal dose) 40 to 50 50 to 60 40 to 50
30 days after sowing 40 to 50 - -
Just before flowering 40 to 50 - -
Total 120 to 150 50 to 60 40 to 50
9) Irrigation: Maize is sensitive to excess water and drought conditions. Schedule

irrigations properly to provide adequate moisture in the soil.
10) Weed control: Pre-emergence soil application of tafazine (simazine 50 per cent) or
atrataf (atrazine 50 per cent) at 1.5 kg per hectare in 1000 litres of water is recommended.
Intercultivation should not be more than 3 to 5 cm deep so that roots are not damage.
11) Plant Protection: Major pest- Stem borer, pink borer, shootfly, hairy caterpillars, army
worms, hoppers and maize beetles. Major disease- seed-ling blight, leaf blight, downy
mildew, brown stripe, bacterial stalk rot, Head smut and various ear rot. If any other pests
or diseases are noticed, they should be timely controlled by following recommended plant
protection measure.
12) Roguing: Not much roguing is required in open pollinated varieties has they have broad
genetic base and are phenotypically uniform for most of the characters. However roguing
for off types such as very tall or dwarf should be completed before pollen shedding.
Remove malformed and diseased plants affected by stalk rot from time to time. At harvest
sorting should be done remove off-colored and off–textured ears.
13) Harvesting of maize ears: Maize ears can be harvested at high moisture content (30- 35
%) when artificial heated air drying facilities are available, otherwise harvest the crop
when the seed moisture content is 15-16 %. After harvest sort out all off-type maize ears,
14
particularly those showing different colour and texture and the diseased ears before
placing them in bins for drying.
14) Shelling: After drying, the ears are once again examined and any offtypes or diseased
ears are removed before shelling. The certification standards require bin inspection of
maize ears before shelling. Therefore shelling should be undertaken after taking the
approval from seed certification agency.
15) Seed Yield: Depending upon the management practices adopted and the potentiality of
the variety the yield may be in the range of 25-30 qtl/ha.
[B] Hybrid seed production of Maize:

Production of hybrid maize seed involves three steps
I. Maintenance of parental lines (Inbreds)
II. Production of single cross
III. Production of commercial hybrids
i. Production of three way cross : (A X B) X C
ii. Production of double cross : (A X B) X (C X D)
Maintenance of parental lines and production of single cross are called as foundation seed
production while production of three way cross or double cross is known as certified seed.
[I] Maintenance of parental (inbred) lines:

2) Preparation of land:
3) Preparation of land is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and composite)
varieties.
Contaminant Foundation seed
From any maize field with same kernel colour or texture 400 m
Maize field with different kernel colour or texture 600 m
5) Other cultural practices are same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and
6) Seed rate: 15 kg/ha
7) Roguing: Start roguing the distantly tall and vigorous plant when the crop is at knee light
stage. At pre-flowering stage, rogue off plants which are easily identified on the basis of
plant characteristics such as leaf shape, size, plant height etc. Continue roguing during
flowering stage to remove plants differing in tassel or silk character. Every effort must be
made to rogue such plants before pollen shedding. Final roguing should be done to
remove stalk-rot affected plants.
8) Harvesting, threshing and cleaning:

9) These practices are similar to those of open-pollinated (synthetic and composite)
varieties.
10) Seed Yield: Depending upon the yield potentiality and the management practices adopted
the yield may be around 5-6 Q/ha.
15
[II] Production of Single Cross:

3) Preparation of land is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic and composite)
varieties.
Contaminant Foundation seed
From any maize field with same kernel colour or texture 400 m
Maize field with different kernel colour or texture 600 m
Field of same varieties or not conforming the varietal purity 400 m
requirement
5) Cultural practices: Cultural practices described earlier are similar, except for sowing
and seed rate which are described below:
6) Seed rate: Female parent: 10 kg/ha, male parent: 5 kg/ha
7) Planting Ratio: Female line to male line ratio is 4 : 2 (with 3 to 4 border rows from all
side)
8) Roguing: Rogue the field in a manner similar to that of inbred lines.
9) De-tasselling: When CMS line is not used the seed parent has to be de-tasselled so that it
will be fertilized by the pollen from the male parent. Removal of the tassel from the
female parent before shedding pollen is called as de-tasselling. For de-tasselling hold the
stalk by left hand and take a firm grip of the entire tassel in the right hand and pull it
gently to de-tassel.
Precautions to taken while de-tasselling

a. Remove all tassels from seed parent before they shed pollen.
b. De-tasselling should be done when the tassel is completely out of the flag leaf but
before anthers shed pollen.
c. Remove the entire tassel.
d. Avoid immature de-tasselling as they cause injury to the top leaves.
e. Once de-tasselling starts in the field it must be repeated daily in all weather conditions
at a fixed time. De-tasselling should be done from the same side every day in case of
large fields.
f. Precaution may be taken not to de-tassel in male rows.
g. Lodged plants in female rows must be de-tasselled as they are likely to pass unnoticed
during de-tasselling.
h. After de-tasselling drop the tassel immediately on the ground and they should not be
carried till the end of the row as they contaminate receptive silks.
10) Harvesting and shelling: Harvest the male rows first and remove them from the field to
avoid mechanical mixtures. Then harvest the female rows. After harvesting sorting should
be done to remove off-colored, off textured and diseased ear heads. Before shelling
approval should be taken from the seed certification agency.
11) Seed Yield: average seed yield of a single cross varies from 4-6 Q/ha.
16
[III] Seed production of commercial hybrids:
1) Selection of land: Selection of land is same as described earlier for open-pollinated
(synthetic and composite) varieties.
3) Prepare of land is same as described earlier for open-pollinated (synthetic and composite)
varieties.
Contaminant Foundation
From any maize field with same kernel colour or texture as that 200 m
of seed parent
Maize field with different kernel colour or texture as that of seed 300 m
parent
Field of same varieties or not conforming the varietal purity 200 m
requirement
Field of other hybrids having common male parent and 5m
conforming the varietal purity requirement
5) Cultural practices: Cultural practices described earlier are similar, except for and
planting ratio and seed rate which are described below:
6) Seed rate: Female parent: 12 to 14 kg/ha, Male parent: 4 to 5 kg/ha
7) Planting Ratio: Female line to male line ratio is 6 : 2 (with 3 to 4 border rows from all
side)
8) Roguing: Remove all off-types easily distinguishable on the basis of plant characteristics
prior to pollen shedding.
9) De-tasselling and harvesting: De-tasselling and harvesting is done in a manner similar
to that described for single cross.
10) Seed Yield: Average seed yield varies from 10 to 25 qtl per hectare depending upon the
area of production.
Exercise:
1. Write roguing stages of following crops.
1. Wheat, 2. Rice, 3. Sorghum, 4. Maize
2. How much isolation distance should be keep in foundation and certified seed
production of Maize, Bajara, Wheat and Sorghum and for hybrid also.
3. Give seed yield of Wheat, Rice, Jowar, Pearlmillet and Maize.
4. Write short note on seed production of commercial hybrid :
1. Sorghum, 2. Maize
5. Enlist the steps involved in hybrid seed production in rice.
6. Explain in brief, precaution to be taken while de-tasseling in maize.
7. Describe methods improving seed setting in Rice.
17
Exercise-2
Date:
SEED PRODUCTION IN PULSES
1. Pigeon pea (Red gram)
1) Selection of land: Land to be used for seed production of pigeon pea shall be free of
volunteer plants. In addition the soil should be light, well drained and with a neutral pH.
2) Preparation of land: Medium tillage followed by two harrowing is recommended.
3) Isolation distance: Red gram is a partially self and cross-pollinated. Although anthers
burst before flowers open, there is considerable cross-fertilization by bees and other
insects. Natural crossing to the extent of sixty five percent has also been recorded.
Therefore, for maintaining varietal purity an isolation of 200 meters for foundation seed
class and 100 meters for certified seed class is necessary from fields of other varieties and
of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements of certification.
4) Time of sowing: Sowing of seed crop in first week of June is recommended for obtaining
higher seed yields.
5) Method of sowing: Sowing is done either with seed drill or by plough in furrows. The
depth of seeding is 5 cm.
6) Spacing: Row to row: 60 to 75 cm and Plant to plant: 25 to 30 cm.
7) Seed rate: 12-15 kg per hectare.
8) Fertilization: For good yields application of ten cart loads of farm yard manure followed
by 25 kg of nitrogen and 50 kg of phosphorus is recommended. The fertilizer should be
drilled at the time of sowing so that it will be placed at 10 to 15 cm deep in the soil and
also to the side of seeds.
9) Irrigation: One to two light irrigation prior to the onset of monsoon may be necessary. If
rain distribution is irregular and weather remains dry for prolonged periods, one irrigation
at flowering time and subsequent irrigations after flowering are necessary.
10) Interculture: Keep the seed field clean of weeds. One to two hand weeding or hoeing
when the crop is thirty days and sixty days old should be done, if necessary. Pre
emergence application of lasso (4 liters) or pendamethaline has also been found effective.
11) Plant protection: Major disease: Pod bug, plume moth, gram caterpillar, cow bug
tussock caterpillar and leaf roller. For effective control follow the recommended plant
protection measures.
12) Rouging: Rouge the off-type plants and diseased plants affected by wilt, leaf spot and
stem canker, yellow mosaic virus and sterility virus from seed field from time to time, as
required.
13) Harvesting and Threshing: The crop is harvested soon after the seed is mature.
Harvesting is normally done with sickle and the crop is left in the field to dry for about
one week. Threshing is done by beating the plants with sticks. After threshing and
cleaning the seed should be dried to eight to ten per cent moisture before storage.
18
Necessary precaution should be taken to avoid mechanical admixtures during these
operations.
14) Seed yield: The average seed yield varies from 20 to 25 qtl per hectare.
2. Gram (Chickpea)
1) Selection of land: Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants.
In addition the soil should be light, well drained.
2) Preparation of land: Generally, the land should not plough to fine tilth. The soil should
opened and be allowed some time for aeration.
3) Isolation distance: Gram flowers are normally self-pollinated before they open. An
isolation distance of 10 meters for foundation seed and 5 meters for certified seed class
from fields of other varieties and of same variety not conforming to varietal purity
requirements of certification is sufficient.
4) Time of sowing: The best time for sowing is the third and fourth week of October.
Delayed sowings should be avoided for seed crops.
5) Method of sowing: The seed crop should be sown in rows by drilling. The depth of
seeding should be 7 to 10 cm.
6) Spacing: Row to row: 60 to 75 cm and Plant to plant: 25 to 30 cm
7) Seed rate: 55 to 100 kg per hectare is required depending upon the seed size.
8) Fertilization: Application of about ten cart loads of farm yard manure is the best
practice. Further, treating the seed with rhizobium culture is recommended. General
recommendation is to apply 15-20 kg of nitrogen and 50 kg of phosphorus per hectare as
basal dressing. Foliar application of 0.2 to 0.3 percent diammoniumphosphate once after
thirty days of sowing, and again at the flowering stage, has been found very useful.
9) Irrigation: One presowing irrigation (if moisture is not enough in soil) and subsequent
one to two light irrigation at 45 to 75 days of crop growth should be given.
10) Interculture: One to two weeding in early stages of crop are necessary to keep seed field
clean of weed.
11) Plant protection: Major pest: Cut worms, semi looper and pod borer. For effective
control follow the recommended plant protection measures.
12) Rouging:The off-type plants and diseased plants affected by blight and wilt should be
removed from the seed field from time to time, as required.
13) Harvesting and Threshing: The harvesting of seed crop should be done when the seeds
are fully mature. At this stage, the leaves are reddish brown. The plants pulled by hand or
cut with sickles. And stacked in small heaps in the field to dry for one to two weeks.
Later these were transported to threshing floors where threshing is done by flailing sticks.
The seed is winnowed and cleaned after threshing and dried to eight to ten per cent
moisture content. Every effort should be made to avoid mechanical admixtures during
these operations.
14) Seed yield: The average yield of gram (Chickpea) varies from 15 to 20 qtl per hectare,
depending upon variety, soil and crop management.
19
3. Green gram and Black gram
2) Preparation of land: The land should be prepared well by one to two harrowing,
followed by leveling. If the crop is being taken after wheat or paddy (in the south), no
preparation is necessary and seeding can be done after giving one pre sowing irrigation.
3) Isolation distance: Since the pollen shedding takes place long before the petals open,
self-pollination is the rule. Therefore, an isolation of 10 meters for foundation seed, and 5
meters for certified seed class from fields of other varieties and same variety not
conforming to varietal purity requirements of certification is necessary.
4) Time of sowing: The crop comes up well in the kharif season. However, it can be sown
either in the second week of February, soon after the wheat harvest in April or in the
kharif season. In the south it also comes up well in the Rabi season in light soils with
moisture retentive capacity. It can also be grown in rice fallow after paddy.
5) Method of sowing: The seed crop should be planted in rows.
6) Spacing:
a) Kharif and rabi crop-Row to row: 30 to 45 cmPlant to plant: 7 to 10 cm.
b) Spring and Summer crop- Row to row: 20 to 25 cmPlant to plant: 7 to 10 cm
7) Seed rate:
a)Kharif and rabi season crop – 10 to 20 kg per ha.
b) Spring and summer season crop – 25 to 30 kg per ha.
8) Fertilization: A basal application of twenty-five carts of farm yard manure in addition to
20 kg nitrogen and 35 to 40 kg of phosphorus per hectare is recommended for kharif
season crop.
9) Irrigation: Frequent irrigation for the spring and summer season crop is especially
necessary. The kharif crop normally does not require any irrigation. One to two irrigation
may be required if there is prolonged dry period.
10) Interculture: It is essential to keep the weeds under suppression. Hence, one or two
weeding and hoeing may be done. Spraying of one kilogram treflan(active compound) in
1000 liters of water per hectare on the soil, at the time of the final preparation, has also
been found quite effective for controlling weeds.
11) Plant protection: Major pest: Aphids, white fly, caterpillars and pod borers.Major
disease: Anthracnose, cercospora, dry root rot, powdery mildew and rust. For effective
12) Rouging: The off-type plants and severely diseased plants rouged from the seed field
from time to time, as required.
13) Harvesting and threshing: For summer and spring crop, start picking when pods turn
black. In kharif crop start harvesting when most of the pods have turned black. The
threshing can be done by hand to avoid injury to seeds. After threshing and cleaning, the
seeds should be dried to nine percent moisture before storage.
14) Seed yield:
8 to 10 qtl/ hectare (Green gram)
10 to 15 qtl.per hectare (Black gram)
20
Exercise:
1. Write seed rate of following crops.
1. Pigeon pea 2. Green gram, 3. Black gram 4. Chick pea
2. How much isolation distance should be keep in Pigeon pea, Gram and green
gram?
3. Give seed yield of Pigeon pea, Gram and green gram.
4. Write short note on harvesting and threshing steps of seed production of
Pigeon pea, gram, green gram.
5. Discuss the steps involved in pigeon pea seed production.
21
Exercise-3
Date:
SEED PRODUCTION IN OIL SEEDS
1. Groundnut
1) Selection of land: Select fields on which groundnut was not raised in the previous two
seasons. The fields should be well drained and the soil preferably sandy loam, rich in
humus content.
2) Land preparation: Ploughing and 3-4 harrowing, followed by leveling, brings the field
to desired tilth for planting.
3) Isolation distance: Groundnut is completely self-pollinated. Hence, an isolation distance
of 3 m from fields of groundnut is considered sufficient for pure seed production.
4) Time of sowing: Mid-June to first week of July.
5) Method of sowing: The sowing should be done in lines either behind the plough in 5-8
cm deep furrows, or by seed planter. Depth of seeding varies from 5-8 cm, depending
upon soil type and moisture conditions.
6) Spacing: Row to row-spreading varieties 45-60 cm & bunchy varieties 30 cm and plant
to plant 10-15 cm for both the types.
7) Seed rate: Bunch types 80-100 kg/ha, spreading types 60-80 kg/ha depending upon the
seed size.
8) Fertilization: The usual requirement for a good crop is 20 kg nitrogen and 50-80 kg
phosphorus and 30-40 kg potash/ha. Fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate potassium
chloride and single super phosphate should be chosen to meet fertilizer requirements .In
soils which are not rich in organic matter a part of the fertilizer requirements should be
met by applying FYM or compost.
9) Irrigation: Being a kharif crop, groundnut usually does not require irrigation may be
necessary. Adequate moisture supply at flowering seed development and maturation is
necessary to obtain higher seed yields.
10) Intercultural: Weeding when crop is two to three weeks old, at flowering stage and at
the time when pegs begin to enter into the soil is necessary. The use of herbicides such as
alachlor (1-2 kg a.i./ha) immediately after sowing has been found useful. Inter-culture is
necessary to keep in a friable condition. Earthing-up may also be done to facilitate
penetration of pegs into the soil for bunch and semi-spreading types.
11) Plant protection: Major pests-hairy caterpillar and grubs. Major diseases- tikka disease.
For effective control follow the recommended plant protection measures.
12) Roguing: The off-type plants, easily distinguishable on the basis of plant size, colour of
leaflets, flower colour, etc. and diseased plants affected by rosette, mosaic and root rot,
etc. should be removed from time to time.
13) Harvesting and threshing: When leaves start yellowing and fall down, the crop is ready
for harvest. At this stage the pods become reticulated and within it the seed is separated
from the shell of the pod. The plants could be either pulled or drag out and left in the field
for 2-3 days for sun drying. Long sun drying should be avoided as it is detrimental and
22
may result in split seed cotyledons. Threshing is done either by hand picking or with the
help of suitable machines. Picking should be done when pods readily separate from
stalks, and the seed rattles in the pods. After threshing, the pods should be further sun
dried for 3-4 days to reduce the seed moisture content to 8-9 %. The shelling of pods
should be done with sufficient care so as to prevent chipping and nicking. After shelling
and cleaning, the seeds should be stored in a cool dry place.
14) Seed yield: The average yield varieties from 15 to 20 qtl/ha.
2. Castor
[A] Open-pollinated varieties:
1) Selection of land: Castor seed production can be successfully taken up on any type of
soil, provided, they are fairly deep, fertile and well drained. Medium to deep sandy loam
and heavy loam soils are ideally suited for seed production.
2) Preparation of land: Castor is a deep rooted crop; therefore, deep ploughing has been
very useful. One deep ploughing followed by two to three harrowing is sufficient to bring
the field to the desired tilth.
3) Isolation distance: Castor is monocieous and highly cross pollinated crop. The cross
pollination by wind varies from 5 to 40 % depending upon the climatic condition. The
seed field must be isolated from other variety field at least 600 meters from foundation
seed class and 300 meters for certified seed class.
4) Time of sowing: For kharif season first fortnight of July, for rabi, mid of September to
mid of October.
5) Method of sowing: The crop is planted in rows either by drill or in furrows opened by
plough or by transplanting the seedlings
6) Spacing: 120 to 90 x 90 to 45 cm
7) Seed rate: 15 to 20 kg/ha. Seed rate varies according to seed size spacing and method of
sowing.
8) Fertilizer: 80 : 40 : 00, NPK kg/ha. Of these, 50 % nitrogen plus all the amount of
phosphorus and potash is given as basal dose at the time sowing. Remaining 50 %
nitrogen is given in two equal split, first at 40 to 60 days after sowing and second after
first picking.
9) Irrigation: The number of irrigations required varies with the rainfall received. However,
usually 2 to 3 irrigations during the entire crop season may be sufficient to avoid moisture
stress. Adequate moisture in soil at time of flowering is necessary otherwise moisture
stress at this stage may lead to high proportion of male flowers in monocieous varieties.
10) Weed control: The castor field must be kept weed free up to 60 days after planting. 2 to
3 hand weeding / hoeing are sufficient to keep the field clean.
11) Nipping: Nipping of auxillary buds of all the branches gives increased seed yields,
besides reduction in maturity period and uniform maturity.
12) Plant protection:
a. Phytophthora blight and Cercospora leaf spot are the major disesase. Spraying of
Bordeaux mixture at 15 days interval may be effective.
b. Semilooper and Pod borer are the major insect pests. For effective control follow
the recommended plant protection measures.
23
13) Roguing: Remove all off type plants before flowering. Rogue out diseased plants as soon
as they are noticed in the field and take plant protection measures to check the spread of
disease. For male parent two rounds of roguing are required, first about 10 days prior to
flowering and the second at flowering. As soon as flower initiation is noticed in primary
raceme, reduce the population to 50 % of initial plant stand by roguing of variants in
respect to number and the spread of male flowers beyond lower two whorls. After second
round of roguing maintain the node number up to primary raceme.
14) Harvesting and threshing: Start harvesting when all the capsules in primary spikes and
1 to 2 secondary spikes start turning light yellow. The picking continues till 2 to 3
months, because the capsules mature unevenly due to sequential development of racemes.
Keep picking-wise seed lot separately, sun dry them, thresh them separately for drawing
representative seed samples. Before storage, the seed must be dried to 8 % moisture
content.
15) Seed yield: 8-10 qtl/ha under rainfed condition and 15-20 qtl/ha under irrigated
condition.
[B] Hybrid Seed Production in castor:
Hybrid seed production in castor can be discussed under two steps:

I. Maintenance of parental lines (Female and male parental line)
II. Hybrid seed production (Crossing of female and male parent)
I. Maintenance of parental lines:

a) Maintenance of female parental line:
The female parent should be grown in Kharif or Summer season when the daily mean
temperatures are above 32oC to promote more number of male flowers. Under this male
promoting environment, selection should be made for pistillate lines and interspersed
staminate flowered plants. There are two methods for maintenance of female parental line
conventional method and modified method.
i. Conventional method: In conventional method, there is maintenance of 75% of

pistillatelines (ff) and 25% of monoecious lines (Ff). During flowering period, observe
the plants regularly and remove all the plants (FF) with more than three whorls of male
flowers in primary raceme and retain only 25% monoecious plants with male flowers in
2-3 whorls. At flower initiation in primary raceme, identify the female plants with
pistillate inflorescence with well-defined characters and tag them with red tape. Examine
all the monoecious plants and remove those with male flowers beyond three whorls from
the base. Count the number of female and monoecious plants in each row and remove the
monoecious plants over and above 25%. Examine the tagged plants regularly for
reversion to monocieous condition in 2nd, 3rd and 4th order racemes. Remove the tag as
and when a female plant reverts to monoecious condition upto 4th sequential order
branches. On maturity, harvest the female plants bearing the tape and keep the picking
wise seed in separate lots after proper drying, packing and labelling. To avoid any
possibility of mixing, delay the harvest of monoecious plants and early reverts by 3-4
days.
ii. Modified method: In modified method, 100 % plants should be pistillate plants.
Whenever a plants turn to monoecious condition in 2nd , 3rd or 4th order racemes, it should
be removed. As all the plants are pistillate the first flush of female flowers do not get the
24
pollen and they drop off and 50 - 55% of the plants will produce interspersed staminate
flowers, these interspersed staminate flowers supply the pollen required for self
pollination and help in fertilization. Here in modified all the plants are 100 % pistillate
upto 4th order raceme. Remove all the plants, which are monoecious, and plants deviating
from female parental line.
b) Maintenance of Male parent: It is similar to that of maintenance of varieties but the

isolation and field standards are to be maintained as that of foundation seed class.
Isolation distance: 600 meters for foundation class (maintenance of parental lines)
II. Commercial hybrid seed production:
The planting ratio adopted is 3 lines of female parent and 1 line of male parent.
Commercial hybrid seed production should be taken up during rabi season when the daily
mean temperatures are less than 32oC. Adjust the sowing dates of male and female parent for
proper synchronization of flowering.
1) Selection of land: Selection of land is same as described earlier for open-pollinated

varieties.
2) Preparation of land: Preparation of land same as described earlier for open-pollinated
varieties.
3) Isolation distance: 150 meters.
4) Time of sowing: Rabi season, September to mid of October (when the daily mean
temperatures are less than 32oC).
5) Planting ratio: Female rows to Male rows ratio is 4:2 (3 to 4 male lines as border lines
from all sides.
6) Roguing: Remove all off types from male and female parents. Rogue out male parent for
variants depending on node number upto primary raceme. For female parent, there will be
four field inspections viz., before flower initiation (35-45 DAS), full flowering in primary
raceme (60-65 DAS). Besides the routine two rounds of roguing for removal of off-types
based on stem colour, internodes type, leaf shape, nodes up to primary raceme, sex
expression, branching etc. inspect every female plant regularly for any possible reversion
to monoecism at secondary, tertiary and quarternary orders. These plants should be
removed and destroyed.
7) Bloom: Presence of white waxy coating which protects from chilling and jassid attack.
Types of Bloom:
i. No bloom – bloom absent on all the above ground plant parts
ii. Single bloom – bloom only on the stem
iii. Double bloom – bloom on stem, fruits, petioles and on lower side of leaves
iv. Triple bloom – Bloom on stem, fruits, petioles and both sides of leaves
8) Other cultural practices: Other cultural practices are same as described earlier for open-
pollinated varieties.
9) Harvesting: Harvest the male rows first and remove them from the field. Then harvest
the female rows picking wise. Keep picking-wise seed lot separately, sun dry them, thresh
them separately. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical mixtures during harvesting,
threshing and drying.
25
3. Mustard
The mustard species cultivated in India are Rai (Brassica juncea), Banarasirai
(Brassica nigra) and Pahadirai (Brassica junceavarrigosa).
1) Selection of land: The selected field should be well-levelled and free from volunteer
plants.
2) Preparation of land: Usually one ploughing three to four harrowing, followed by
leveling, are sufficient to prepare land to desired tilth.
Contaminant Compatibility Foundation Certified
Field of other varieties of same species Self
100 m 50 m
and field of the same variety not incompatible
conforming to varietal purity
requirements; Erucasativa (taramira)
Self compatible 50 m 25 m
and any species of genus Brassica
(given in table below)
Brassica species from which seed fields should be isolated

Botanical Name Common name
Brassica juncea Indian mustard, Rai, Bangla sarson
Brassica junceacuneifolia Vegetable mustard, Rai
Brassica junceavarrigosa Pahadirai
Brassica campestrisvardichotoma Brown sarson, Kali sarson
Brassica campestrisvarsarson Yellow sarso, Pilisarson
Brassica campestrisvartoria Toria, Rai, Lahia, Maghi, achararai
Brassicatournefortii Punjabi rai, Janglirai
Brassicanigra True mustard, black mustard, Banarasirai,
Brassica alba White mustard
Brassicapekinesis Chinese cabbage-heading
Brassica chinensis Chinese cabbage-non-heading
Brassica rapa Turnip
4) Time of sowing: Last week of Sepember or 1stweek of October.

5) Method of sowing: Seed crop should be sown in rows. The depth of seeding should be
more than 3 cm
6) Spacing: Row to Row 30 cm and plant to plant 7.5-10 cm.
7) Seed rate: 5 to 8 kg per hectare.
8) Fertilization: 80 kg nitrogen, 40 kg phosphorus and 40 kg potash/ha. This crop also give
excellent response to organic fertilizers, therefore, nutrient requirements may be partially
or wholly met with organic manures.
9) Irrigation: One pre-sowing irrigation and one at flowering and pod formation is
recommended.
10) Interculture: One hand weeding when the plants are 15 to 20 cm high is required.
11) Plant protection: Major pests- Mustard sawfly and aphids. Major diseases-Alternaria
blight. For effective control follow the recommended plant protection measures.
12) Supplementary pollination: Placing the bee-hives during the flowering season boost the
seed yield of cross-pollinated spp.
26
13) Roguing: All the off-type plants, easily distinguishable on the basis of plant
characteristics, and other species plants must be removed before flowering to ensure pure
seed production. Remaining off-types, if any, distinguishable on the basis of siliqua
characteristics should be removed before maturity. Satyanashi (Argemonemaxicana) is
the most objectionable weed in mustard seed production, which must be removed
altogether as often as required.
14) Harvesting and threshing: It is important to harvest seed crop soon after plants start
turning a light yellow. At this stage, most of the siliqua are light yellow and seed inside
the siliqua light brown. After harvesting, the crop should be left in the field in small
bundles for two to three days to dry in the field. After plants have been well dried,
threshing can be done by bullocks, tractor or flailed with sticks. Before storage, dry seeds
to reduce moisture content to 8 per cent.
15) Seed Yield: With good management crop yield up to 15 to 20 qtl per hectare may be
obtained.
4. Soybean
In addition, the field should be well-drained.
2) Preparation of land: prepare the seed field to fine tilth by deep ploughing and two to
three harrowing followed by leveling.
3) Isolation distance: The dehiscence of anthers takes place in the bud itself before the
opening of the flower and hence, normally self-pollination takes place. Cross- pollination
by insects is usefully less than one percent. An isolation of 3 meters from other fields of
soybean is sufficient to maintain genetic purity
4) Time of sowing: First fortnight of July is most appropriate time for sowing soybean
seeds.
5) Inoculation of seed: Inculcation of seeds with soybean culture is important especially on
soils new to the crop. Two types of soybean culture are available which are given below.
a) Inoculation with peat culture: Dissolve 100 gm of sugar in one liter of water
and boil it for fifteen minutes. Let it cool at room temperature. Sprinkle this
solution over the soybean seeds, dust with the peat culture and mix thoroughly. for
planting one hectare half a kilogram me of peat culture mixed with seed is
sufficient.
b) Inoculation with soil culture: For inoculation with soil culture prepare 100 ml
sugar solution as mentioned above prepare slurry by mixing soil culture with
sugar solution and mix it well with the seed.
The inoculation of seeds should be done in the shade. Triple the amount of culture if the
crop is raised on soils new to the crop.
6) Method of sowing: the seed crop must be planted in rows with a drill. The depth of
seeding should be 2 to 3 cm in fields where soil moisture conditions are optimum.
Seeding up to 4 cm depth can be done on light soils.
7) Spacing: Row to row 45 to 60 cm and Plant to plant 4 to 5 cm
27
9) Fertilization: Apply 20 to 25 kg nitrogen. 80 to 100 kg phosphorus and 30 to 40 kg
potash per hectare, at the time of sowing if zinc deficiency is noticed, spray zinc sulphate
and lime mixture on this crop.
10) Irrigation: Irrigate the crop as and when required. There should be adequate moisture in
the soil particularly during flowering, seed development and the maturation stage to
obtain high seed yields.
11) Roguing: Start rouging plants affected by yellow mosaic virus and soybean mosaic virus
as soon as they appear. So as to check further spread up to first two to three weeks.
Continue removal of plants affected by soybean mosaic up to last. At flowering stage
remove off-type plants on the basis of plant characteristics and flower colour. Do final
rouging at maturity stage, to rogue out off- type plants on the basis of pod characters.
12) Harvesting and threshing: The time of harvesting and method of threshing is most
important for maintaining seed quality Experiments conducted at Mississippi State
University, U.S.A. indicate that crop harvested in the second week of October retained
higher germination than crop harvested in second week of December, Therefore, to retain
higher seed germination harvest the crop as soon as it is ready for harvest. Moisture
content of soybean at this stage is around 13 to 14 per cent. Harvesting may be done by
hand or the crop can be directly combined.
5. Sesame
In addition, the soil of selected fields should be rich in organic matter, free of weeds,
well- drained.
2) Preparation of land: Prepare the field to good tilth. One deep ploughing and 2 to 3
harrowing followed by leveling are sufficient to prepare field to the desired tilth.
3) Isolation distance: Sesame is mainly a self-pollinated crop, but some cross- pollination
by insects occurs, Cross- pollination up to five percent has been recorded. For pure seed
production, the seed fields must be isolated from other sesame fields by hundred meters
for foundation seed class and fifty meters for certified seed class (in Texas, U.S.A.
different varieties of sesame are isolated at 180 to 360 meters).
4) Time of sowing: First week of June to first week of July for kharif crops. In southern
states, it can be sown during rabi from mid-October to mid-November. For good
germination the average temperatures should be between 25 to 27oC.
5) Method of sowing: Crop must be sown in rows with the help of drill. The depth of
seeding should be 2.5 to 3.5 cm.
6) Spacing: Row to row 30 to 45 cm and Plant to plant 15 to 22 cm.
7) Seed rate: 2.5 kg per hectare.
8) Fertilization: This Crop responds well to organic fertilizers. on low fertility lands apply
34 kg nitrogen, 17 kg phosphorus and 34 kg potash, per hectare, on fertile land the crop
can be grown even without fertilizer, or apply 30 kg nitrogen and 20 kg phosphorus per
hectare. It is desirable to meet these fertilizer needs through application of farmyard
manure or compost.
28
9) Irrigation: Irrigate the crop if prolonged periods of drought are experienced.
Intercultural operation: Two to three hoeing and weeding are necessary the first hoeing
should be done prior to irrigation, when the plants are 15 to 20 cm high, subsequent
hoeing, may be done as per requirements. For control of broadleaf weeds, spraying of
simazin (1.40 kg to 2.8 kg per hectare) has been hound effective.
10) Plant protection: Major pest: Caterpillars, gall fly and leaf roller. Major disease: blight
spot. For effective control follow the recommended plant protection measures.
11) Roguing: Remove off-type plants and diseased plants affected by rosette, phyllody and
leaf spot blight from field from time to time as required.
12) Harvesting and threshing: The crop is ready for harvest when the plant turns yellow
with capsules still green. The crop is hand-cut and stacked in bundles (12 to 14) by hand.
These are piled in circular stacks on threshing floors with the root end outwards. For a
week or more, the stacks are opened out and the bundles spread each day in the morning
and collected and stacked again in the evening. When the plants are completely dried,
threshing is done by shaking or beating the plants with sticks.
13) Seed Yield: 2 to 6 qtl/ha
Exercise:
1. Write seed rate of following crops.

1. Castor 2. Ground nut 3. Sesame 3. Soybean 4. Mustard
2. How much isolation distance should be kept in ground nut, mustard, sesame
and soybean?
3. Give seed yield of ground nut, mustard, sesame and castor.
4. Write short note on inoculation of seed in soybean crop
5. Explain in brief commercial hybrid seed production in castor.
6. Mention botanical and common name of brassica species from which seed
field of mustard should be isolated.
7. Discuss harvesting and threshing operation of ground nut, soybean, sesame,
mustard and castor.
8. Describe maintenance of parental lines in hybrid seed production of castor.
9. Give package of practices for seed production of ground nut, sesame and
soybean.
29
Exercise-4
Date:
SEED PRODUCTION IN COTTON
[A] Open-pollinated varieties:
1) Selection of land: The land to be used for seed production must be free of volunteer
plants and weeds. The soil should be deep, well drained and should be retentive of
moisture and fertile.
2) Preparation of land: Plough the land with deep ploughing and harrow two to three times
followed by leveling to make it well pulverized.
3) Isolation distance: Cotton is mainly a self pollinated crop but natural cross pollination to
the extent of 10 to 50 % in G. hirsutum, 1 to 2 % in G. arboretum while 5 to 10% in G.
barbadense has been recorded, so a minimum isolation distance of 50 meters for
foundation class and 30 meters for certified class is recommended.
4) Sowing time: Cotton should be sown about one week of more earlier than usual date of
the on set of monsoons.
5) Seed rate :American cotton : 20-25 kg/ha , Desi cotton : 12-15kg/ha
6) Spacing : American Cotton : 90 x 45 cm, Desi cotton: 75 x 30 cm
7) Sowing method: The sowing should be done by dibbling two to three seeds per hill.
8) Fertilization: In general, apply 15-25 cart loads of farm yard manure per hectare as
before opening of ridges. Apply 50 kg nitrogen, 50 kg phosphorus and 50 kg potash per
hectare as basal dose. Top-dress twice at the rate of 25 kg nitrogen per hectare once after
sixty days and again at ninety days from sowing.
9) Irrigation: Depending on soil type and climate conditions, irrigate the crop once in 15 to
20 days. Heavy irrigation during flowering should be avoided. Give light irrigation after
each picking.
10) Plant protection: A number of insect, pests and diseases affect the crop. Important
among these insects are jassids, thrips, aphids, mites, spotted boll worm and American
boll worm. For effective control follow the recommended plant protection measures.
11) Stage wise roguing: Roguing for off type and diseased plants should start at vegetative
growth stage, subsequent roguing should be done at square initiation and flowering time.
12) Picking: The time of picking is important for maintaining seed quality. The picking
should start when the cotton is fully mature. Since maturing (ripening) of balls is
continuous process several picking may be done. Seeds obtained from initial two to three
picking give better germination but planting seeds will be best when collected at the peak
of the harvest. The seed cotton picked from last picking should not be kept for seeds or
dew. Balls damaged due to insect pest may be discarded for seed purpose.
13) Ginning and de-linting: Ginning of cotton seed should be done on the gins approved by
certification agency. The machinery must be thoroughly cleaned before the ginning. Gin
only those cotton seed with a moisture content of 6 to 8 percent and the ginning rate
should not exceed 4.5 to 5.5. kg of lint cotton per hour. Removal of seed coat hairs and
short fiber that remains after ginning is called delinting. This may be done with the help
of machine, acid or flame.
30
14) Seed cotton yield: Average seed cotton yield varies from 6 to 10 quintals per hectare
depending upon the yield potential of the variety.
[B] Hybrid seed production in cotton

The hybrid cotton seed is produced by hand emasculation and pollination. The
individual bud emasculation of the female parent is done in the evening of the previous day
and the same is pollinated in the morning of next day with the pollens of male parent. The
emasculated bud is covered either with butter paper bag or a soda straw tube after
emasculation and pollination.
1) Selection of land: The land selected for seed production must be free from volunteer
plants and weeds. The plot should not have cotton crop in the previous year or season. It
should be well drained, moisture retentive and well fertile.
2) Preparation of land: Prepare the land with deep ploughing followed by 2 to 3 harrowing
and leveling.
3) Isolation distance: 50 meters from other cotton crop variety.
4) Sowing time: Cotton should be sown about one week of more earlier than usual date of
the on set of monsoons. The flowering period in cotton is spread over a long time.
Therefore, sowing of male parent should be done in 2 to 3 installments at an interval of
eight to ten days in order to get sufficient pollens for pollination of female flower.
5) Planting ratio: Female to male ration is 4 : 1 to 5:1
6) Spacing: Female parent : 150 cm between rows and plant to plant at 100 cm within row.
Male parent : 150 cm between row and 50 cm within row.
7) Seed rate: Female parent : 3.75 kg/ha., Male parent : 2.5 kg/ha.
8) Fertilization, irrigation and plant protection is same as described earlier for open-
pollinated varieties.
Precautions to be taken during crossing programme:

a. Rogue out all off type plants before starting of the crossing programme.
b. Emasculate and pollinate, all buds appearing during the first seven weeks of the
reproductive phase duration to ensure good seed setting and better development of
balls.
c. Emasculate the flower bud in the evening time i.e. 2 to 6 pm only and pollinate them
in the next morning between 9 to 13 pm.
d. Emasculate the flower bud i.e. removes all the anthers carefully.
e. Remove un-emasculated flower if any found open.
f. Do not choose very young or old buds for emasculation.
g. Cover the buds of male parent with paper bags in the previous evening for their use in
the next day.
h. Emasculated bud may be covered with coloured butter paper bag or soda straw tube to
identify for pollination in the next morning.
i. Tie a thread to the pedicel of the bud after pollination. Cover crossed buds with soda
straw tube.
j. Close the crossing programme after 11th week and remove all buds and flowers
appearing subsequently to facilitate better development of crossed balls. Nip the top
end shoots to stop further vertical or horizontal growth.
k. Give light irrigation as and when required during the crossing programme.
31
9) Stage wise roguing: Stage wise roguing is same as described earlier for open-pollinated
varieties.
10) Picking of hybrid seeds: Pickup the ripe and completely opened balls along with threads
on and collect in basket for a second sorting. Collected crossed balls should be sorted to
verify that they are actually crossed seeds. Sundry for one to two days and store in gunny
bags till supplied to processing unit. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical mixture
during and after picking.
11) Ginning and delinting: Ginning cotton seed should be done on the gins approved by
certification agency. The machinery must be thoroughly cleaned before ginning. Gin only
those seed cotton with a moisture content of 6 to 8 % and the ginning rate should not
exceed 4.5 to 5.5. kg lint cotton per hour. Delinting may be done using machine, acid or
flame.
12) Seed cotton yield: Average seed cotton yield varied from 8 to 10 quintals per hectare.
Exercise:
1. Give isolation distance, seed rate , spacing and seed yield in cotton crop
2. Mention precaution taking during seed production on cotton crop.
3. Write short note on hybrid seed production in cotton.
4. Explain in brief picking, ginning and de-linting operation in open pollinated
cotton variety.
5. Write isolation distance of cotton crop.
32
Exercise-5
Date:
SEED PRODUCTION IN VEGETABLES
1. Brinjal
[A] Varieties:
1. Selection of land: There are no requirements as to the previous crop, but the land should
be free of volunteer plants. The soil of selected fields should be fertile, rich in organic
matter, sandy loam and well-drained.
2. Preparation of land: Prepare the field to a good tilth by ploughing and three to four
harrowing followed by levelling.
3. Isolation distance: Brinjal is partially self and cross-pollinated, but self pollination
is more common. The extent of natural crossing depends upon insect activity and has
been recorded from 0 to 48 percent. For pure seed production, seed fields must be isolated
from other variety brinjal fields, and fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal
purity requirements of seed certification at least by two hundred meters for foundation
seed production and one hundred meters for certified seed production.
4. Time of sowing: Plains – February to March, June to July, October to November. Hills –
March to April. Sowing of the seed crop should be so adjusted that maturity does not
coincide with heavy rains. The winter crop needs special protection form frost.
5. Seed rate: 375 to 500 grams per hectare.
6. Sowing of seed in nursery: Seeds are sown on raised nursery beds, 15 to 20 cm high
from the ground in rows 2 to 3 cm apart. Twenty-five beds of 2 to 2.5 meters long and 1
to 1.25 meters wide will raise enough seedlings to transplant one hectare. Four to five
handfuls of ammonium sulphate, or C.A.N. dissolved in 7 to 8 gallons of water can be
sprinkled on nursery beds after about a fortnight of germination in order to get healthy
and vigorous seedlings. Wash out the fertilizer immediately from the plants by sprinkling
simple water. Thin sowing should be done to avoid "damping off". In infected area
drenching with captain at 150 gm in 100 liters of water to cover 200 square meters should
be used.
7. Fertilization: Apply 20 to 25 tonnes of well-rotted farm yard manure at the time of land
preparation; and 250 kg ammonium sulphate or C.A.N., 300 kg superphosphate and 125
kg potassium sulphate before transplanting time. For top-dressing, use 250 kg ammonium
sulphate or C.A.N. in two doses. The first fifteen days after transplanting, and the second
at flowering time spread around the plants. Irrigate immediately after top-dressing.
8. Transplanting: Transplant the seedlings, when 12 to 15 cm tall, preferably at evening
time. Irrigate immediately afterwards.
9. Spacing:
a) Non-spreading types: 60 x 60 cm between rows and plants.
b) Spreading type : 75 to 90 x 60 to 70 cm.
10. Irrigation: Irrigate at two weeks interval during the summer.
33
11. Interculture: Keep the fields free from weeds, and the soil well aerated by frequent
hoeing.
12. Plant protection: Major pest: Fruit borer, Shoot borer, Epilachna beetles, aphids, jassids
and mealy bugs. Major disease: Damping-off, Little leaf, Powdery mildew, leaf spot,
anthracnose and Phomopsis blight and fruit rot.For effective control follow the
recommended plant protection measures.
13. Rouging: An early rouging for off-type plants is possible, since off-types may often be
detected much before blossoming has occurred. While the first fruit is still only partially
developed, it is possible for growers familiar with varieties to rouge out more off-type
plants. Later, when each plant has several more or less mature fruits, rouging can be
based on fruit size, shape and colour, as well as the plant's overall performance.In
addition to off-types, plants affected by diseases such as phomopsis blight and little leaf
etc. should be removed from the field from time to time.
14. Harvesting and Seed Extraction: Harvesting is done when fruits are fully ripe. The
fruits are picked and collected. The outer covering is peeled off and the flesh with the
seeds is cut into thin slices. These are then softened by soaking till the seeds are separated
from the pulp. If the material is allowed in this condition to stand overnight, the
separation of seeds from the pulp becomes easier. After separation, the seeds are dipped
in to water. Those which float should be rejected. The seeds should then be dried in
partial shade to a moisture content of eight percent or below, before storing.
15. Seed yield: The average seed yield is 100 to 120 kg per hectare.
[B] Hybrid Brinjal Seed Production
In brinjal, hybrid seed can be produced by hand emasculation and pollination

technique, as its floral morphology favours rapid emasculation and pollination. Also, a large
number of seeds are formed in a single fruit (800 to 1000 seeds in long brinjal and 1000 to
1500 in round brinjal). Therefore, a very limited number of fruits produce a sizable amount of
seed.
Technique of Hybrid seed production:
In producing the hybrid seed, the variety setting the large number of seeds in a single
fruit should be taken as the female parent, so that a large amount of seed could be obtained in
a single attempt.
The flower buds which are expected to open the next day are selected on the female
parent. With the help of forceps the flower buds are opened and the stamens, the number of
which varies from five to seven, are removed one by one. This process of removing the
stamens is called "emasculation". The emasculated buds are then bagged in butter paper or
muslin cloth bags to prevent pollination with the undesirable pollens. While emasculating the
flower, care should be exercised that no anther is ruptured or crushed. If it happens, such
flowers should be rejected and the forceps should be sterilized with spirit or alcohol.
The flower buds of the male parent should also be bagged to avoid contamination.
Next day in the morning, the flowers which were bagged for taking the pollen grains are
plucked and collected in a petri dish. The female buds are then uncovered. The anther from
34
the male flower is removed and is held in between the arms of the forceps. As the pollen
grains in the anthers of brinjal are released through apical pores, the anther is held
perpendicular to the stigma surface. The forceps are tapped and the yellow coloured powder
of pollen mass is dusted on the stigma. The process of dusting the pollen grains on the stigma
is known as 'pollination'. The pollinated buds are again bagged to prevent cross-pollination.
The emasculation and pollination can be done simultaneously. However, the success in
fruit setting when this method is followed is marginally reduced, but the labour and time
required for bagging the emasculation if effectively saved. The emasculated and un-pollinated
buds and male buds are tagged with tags of different coloures so that each set of buds can be
distinguished with the help of the colour of tags.
2. Tomato
[A] Varieties:
1. Selection of land: There are no requirements as to the previous crop, but the land should
be free of volunteer plants. The soil of selected fields should have good texture, fertile and
well-drained. The pH of soil should be from six to seven.
2. Preparation of land: Prepare the field to a good tilth by ploughing and three to four
3. Isolation distance: Tomato is normally self-pollinated. Although the stigma is receptive at
about time of anthesis, dehiscence of anthers does not usually occur until 24 to 48 hours
later. Self-fertilization is favoured by the position of receptive stigma within the cone
anthers and the normal pendant position of the flower. However, cross-pollination to some
extent can occur. Seed fields should be isolated from other variety fields of tomato, and
fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements of certification by
at least fifty meters for foundation seed production and twenty-five meters for certified
seed production.
4. Time of sowing: Northern plains – June to August, Novemeber to December, Hills –

March to April, Southern states – September to October
5. Seed rate: 500 grams per hectare.

6. Sowing of seed in nursery: Seed may be sown on raised nursery beds. (15 to 20 cms. high
from the ground) In rows 3 to 4 cm. apart. Twenty-five nursery beds of size 2 to 2.5 meters
long and 1 to 1.25 meters wide will raise enough seedlings to transplant one ha. A spray of
four to five handfuls ammonium sulphate, or C.A.N. dissolved in 30 to 35 liters of water
will be helpful in producing healthy and vigorous seedlings. Wash out the fertilizer
immediately by spraying plain water. Thin sowing should be done to avoid "damping off"
disease.
7. Fertilization: Apply 25 tonnes of well-rotted farm yard manure at the time of land
preparation; and 550 kg superphosphate, 175 kg potassium sulphate and ammonium
35
sulphate or C.A.N. at the time of final preparation of field. Top-dress 275 kg ammonium
sulphate or C.A.N. in two doses, one after 15 to 20 days of transplanting, and the other at
flowering time. Irrigate immediately afterwards. Foliar spray of one percent urea enhances
the yield. 35 kg nitrogen per hectare, in four to five sprays is recommended.
8. Transplanting: Transplant the seedlings, when 7.5 to 10 cms. in height, preferably at

evening time. Irrigate immediately afterwards.
9. Spacing: 1. Autumn, winter crop 75 x 60 cm; 2. Spring, summer crop 75 x 40 cm.

10. Irrigation: Irrigate fortnightly during winter and weekly during summer.
11. Interculture: Shallow cultivation is frequently required especially during the first four
weeks. Two to three hoeing and weeding are necessary to keep the field free from weed.
12. Plant protection: Major pest: Leaf eating caterpillar, fruit borer, jassids and mealy bugs.
Major disease: Damping-off, early blight, fruit rot, wilt, virus and root knot. For effective
13. Rouging: Careful rouging on a plant basis is essential, particularly for foundation seed
production. Plants with off-type foliage should be removed before they blossom, to reduce
any possibility of cross-pollination. When the fruits begin to mature, the plants and fruits
should be examined for overall performance and type. When too large a proportion of the
fruits on a plant fails to meet the requirements as to shape, colour, general size and interior
characteristics, the entire plant should be removed. It is too late to rouge for plant types
after the fruit has been picked.
In addition to off-types, rouge out diseased plants affected by early blight, leaf spot
and mosaic (TMV) from the field, from time to time as required.
14. Harvesting and Seed Extraction: Harvesting and Extraction of seed:
Tomato fruit is harvested for seed much in the same way that it is picked for the
market. However, the fruit should not be left on the vine until decay begins.
There are two methods for extracting tomato seed.
1. The use of juice extracting equipment.
2. The use of equipment similar to that used for vine seeds followed by fermentation or acid
or alkali treatment.
Juice and seed extraction. In this method, such cannery equipment as pulpers and cyclones are
primarily used, and after extraction the processers have in general two products; the juice
and the pumice, or more or less the dry mass of squeezed pulp, skin and seeds. The only
heat used may be scalding process to loosen the skin of the fruit. Such a mechanical
method of seed extraction is rapid and leaves the seed practically free of the gelatinous
tissue surrounding it in the fruit. Seed obtained by juice extracting equipment may be
separated from the pumice by washing it with an abundant supply of water as described
further on.
Ordinary seed extraction. When machinery similar to that for vine crops is used, the chief
difference is the lack of any heavy knives. The tomato is easily cut and crushed. It is
usually made to pass between corrugated rollers before falling into a revolving wire mesh
36
cylinder. The material and juice which passes through the screens is then poured into large
tubes or vats where the extraction processes is completed by one of the methods described
below.
Separation by fermentation. The fermentation process is an old established procedure which
effectively controls bacterial canker. It is best to allow the mass of fruit pulp and juice to
ferment without the addition of water. Fermentation should take place long enough for the
mucilaginous material adhering to the seed to disintegrate sufficiently so as to release the
seeds, which sink to the bottom. The un-decomposed pulp floats to the top leaving a layer
of clear liquid in between. Since, gas and floating pulp often entrap good seed and hold it
in the upper layer, the contents of vats require fairly frequent stirring. Stirring tends to
release such seed and also prevents fungus growth from starting at the surface of the mass.
If this fungus is allowed to grow, some discoloration and even injury to the seed may
result.
Temperature determines to a large extent the length of time the fermentation process
continues. If it remains around 24 to 270C most of the time, fermentation is rapid and
satisfactory separation of seed and pulp is attained in about two days. For the control of
canker, however, fermentation must continue for at least 96 hours. Since such a long
period may result in injury to the seed, it is advised that under such circumstances the
fermenting pulp be kept as close to 210C as possible. Lower the temperature, slower the
fermentation process.
Acid separation. In the acid method, hydrochloric acid is added to the pulp at the rate 100 ml for
every 14 kilogrammes of the pulp (approximately 10 liters per tonne). If a thorough
mixing of the acid and pulp occurs, the seeds may be washed free within 15 to 30 minutes.
By proper arrangements to equipment it is possible to have an almost continuous process.
The acid method has several advantages:

1. The seed can be extracted and dried on the same day.
2. Less number of vats is required.
3. The problems of low and high temperatures are avoided.
4. Dis-coloured seed resulting from fermentation is entirely eliminated.
To control bacterial canker the extracted seed, in addition, may be treated with 0.8
percent solution of pure acetic acid in water for 24 hours, at temperature below 210C.
Alkali separation. In alkali method equal volume of an alkali mixture (425 gm ordinary
washing soda added to 5 litre of boiling water) is added to pulp and mixed. When the
alkali mixture is cooled, allow it all to stand overnight in an earthen pot. Next day, all the
seeds will settle down at the bottom of the container. Now decant-off the clear liquid at
the top and wash the seeds thoroughly.
Washing. After extraction the seeds are washed with water to remove the pulp, etc. The water
is added to containers with the pulp and seed. It is stirred thoroughly and is drained out
along with pulp and other mucilaginous substance. This process is repeated until the
seeds are clean.
37
Drying. After washing, the seeds should be dried as rapidly as possible. Seed may be spread
on screen bottom trays, or cloth, and placed in the open where a maximum exposure to
sun and dry air is attained. The seeds should be dried to eight per cent moisture before
storage.
15. Seed yield: The average seed yield is about 100 to 120 kg per hectare.
[B] Hybrid Tomato Seed Production
For hybrid seed production, hand-pollination is carried out with or without

emasculation. Where emasculation, is used, buds are first emasculated and then enclosed in
grease-proof bags fastened with pins or threads the day before flowering. At flowering,
flowers are hand-pollinated with forceps or camel hair brush, and are re bagged. Four or five
days later, the bags are removed when fertilization is assured. Bud-pollination is not used. The
time taken for hand-pollinating each flower is about fifty to sixty seconds. In Japan, two well-
trained women pollinate eighty flowers per hour. In the USA, the use of stored pollen at 270C
is preferred to fresh pollen at this temperature. Fresh or stored pollen is applied with a
blackened matchstick to male sterile flowers at temperatures below 290C. If functional male-
sterility is used it is unnecessary to emasculate flowers as pollen cannot reach the stigma
without artificial aid.
3. Chilli (Hot pepper)
1) Selection of land: There are no requirements as to the previous crop, but the land should
be free of volunteer plants. The soil of selected fields should be well-drained and aerated.
2) Preparation of land: Prepare the field to a good tilth by ploughing, two to three
3) Isolation distance: Chilly is self- and cross-pollinated crop. Cross-pollination is
done mainly by insects. The extent of cross-pollination from 7 to 36 per cent has been
recorded in the U.S.A. The seed fields must be isolated from other variety fields of
chilly, and fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements of
seed certification at least by four hundred meters for foundation seed production and two
hundred meters for certified seed production.
4) Time of sowing: Northern plains – (i) Kharif crop - June to July
(ii) Spring crop – February to March
Eastern and southern zone – through out the year.
6) Sowing of nursery: Seed should be sown by broadcasting on raised nursery beds raised
18 to 20 cm high from the ground. Each bed may be 2 to 2.5 meters long and 1 to 1.25
meters wide. Twenty-five such beds will raise enough seedlings to transplant one hectare.
Seedling in the nursery should be thinned to avoid "damping off" disease. One or two
handfuls of ammonium sulphate, or C.A.N. dissolved in 2 to 3 gallons of water can be
sprinkled in nursery beds to get healthy and vigorous seedlings. The fertilizers should be
38
washed off from the plants immediately by sprinkling plain water. Apply a band of 10
percent BHC dust around beds to keep the ants off.
7) Fertilization: Apply farm yard manure at the rate of 25 tonnes per hectare for rainfed
crop, and 50 tonnes per hectare for an irrigated crop, in the soil at the time of preparation.
Apply 175 kg ammonium sulphate, 175 kg single super phosphate and 100 kg potassium
sulphate per hectare at the time of transplanting. Top-dress 175 kg ammonium sulphate
before flowering (40 to 45 days after transplanting).
8) Transplanting: After 4 to 5 weeks, the seedlings grow about 15 to 20 cm tall and then
ready for transplanting. The transplanting may be done on ridges.
9) Spacing: 60 cm from row to row and 45 cm from plant to plant.
10) Irrigation: The maintenance of uniform soil moisture is essential to blossom and prevent
fruit drop. Generally 8 to9 irrigations are given, depending upon rainfall, soiltype,
humidity and prevailing temperature.
11) Interculture: Two to three hoeing and weeding are necessary to keep the field clean of
weeds.
12) Plant Protection: Major pest: Thrips, aphids, pod borer, mites and white grub. Major
disease: Dieback and fruit rot, powdery mildew, bacterial fruit and leaf spot. For effective
13) Rouging: Rouging should be based on the plant and its fruit crop as well, on the whole
rather than on individual fruits. Off-type plants should be removed as soon as they are
observed. The small-leafed plants can usually be detected among plants with large leaves
and vice versa. As the first fruits are approaching edible maturity, plants with undesirable
fruit type must be rouged out. This not only eliminates their seed from the harvest but
prevents any further cross-pollination with normal adjacent plants. When the fruits begin
to show their final colour of red or yellow, occasional plants with off-colour fruits have to
be removed. In addition to off-type plants, remove plants affected by leaf blight,
anthracnose and virus diseases, from the seed field.
14) Harvesting and Threshing: Fruits are picked when red ripe. Picking of immature fruits
may result in serious germination difficulty. Fruits are crushed, cut or macerated. Seeds
are washed free of pulp and skins. After washing, seeds are dried in the sun to below
eight per cent moisture content, before storage.
15) Seed yield: The average seed yield varies from 50 to 80 kg per hectare.
4. Okra
In addition, the soil of selected fields should be fertile, well-drained and free from soil-
borne disease.
2) Preparation of land: Prepare the field to a fine tilth by deep ploughing, three to four
3) Isolation requirements: Okra is partially self and cross-pollinated. The extent of natural
crossing varies from 4 to 19 percent. Isolation of seed fields is necessary for production
of pure seed. The seed fields must be isolated from field of other varieties, and fields of
39
the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification and from
wild Abelmoschus species, at least by four hundred meters for foundation seed class and
two hundred meters for certified seed class.
4) Time of sowing: In the northern plains, okra can be sown from February to July and in
East and South India throughout the year. The sowing of the seed crop should be so
adjusted that the maturity of pods does not coincide with the rains. The best time for
sowing the seed crop in the northern plains is 20th June.
5) Seed rate: Kharif crops – 8 to 10 kg per hectare. Spring crop – 10 to 15 kg per hectare
6) Method of sowing: The sowing should be done in rows. Use overnight soaked seeds.
Sow the seeds in full soil moisture behind the plough in shallow furrows. Seed should not
be sown more than 3 cm deep.
7) Spacing: Kharif crop – 60 x 30 to 45 cm, Spring crop 45 x 30 cm.
8) Fertilization: Apply 25 to 30 tonnes of farm yard manure per hectare two weeks before
sowing and incorporate it in to the soil. Drill 350 kg superphosphate, 125 kg muriate of
potash and 300 kg ammonium sulphate in the rows before sowing. Top-dress 300 kg of
ammonium sulphate, after about a month.
9) Irrigation: The summer crop needs irrigation twice a week. The rainy season crop needs
irrigation only if there is a prolonged drought.
10) Interculture: Two to three hoeing and weeding, from time to time, are necessary to keep
the seed field clean of weeds.
11) Plant protection: Insect pest of okra are jassids, aphids, white flies, cotton leaf roller,
borers, red spider mite etc. Diseases occurred in okra are yellow vein mosaic, powdery
mildew etc. For effective control follow the recommended plant protection measures.
12) Rouging: Rouging of the seed crop should begin with uprooting and destroying of yellow
vein mosaic affected plants soon after they are noticed. This should continue up to three
fruit stage. Subsequent rouging for off-types and wild Abelmoschus species should be
done prior to flowering. This should continue during the flowering stage also. The off-
type plants are easily distinguishable on the basis of plant height, leaf and stem
characteristics, pigmentation, flower size and shape, fruit shape, etc.
13) Harvesting and Threshing: Pods should be harvested when they dried (about thirty-five
days old). Varieties with angular pods, which open along sutures, should be harvested
promptly to avoid shattering. The pods are usually picked by hand, and threshed by
flailing seed should be dried to at least ten percent moisture content before storage.
14) Seed yield: The average seed yield is 12 qtl per hectare.
Exercise:
1. Write isolation requirements of brinjal, tomato, chilly and okra crop.
2. Mention the hybrid seed production in brinjal, tomato and chilly.
3. Give seed yield of brinjal, tomato, chilly and okra.
4. Explain in brief rouging operation in brinjal, tomato, chilly and okra crop.
5. Discuss in brief sowing of seed in nursery for brinjal, tomato and chilly crop.
40
Date: Exercise-6
SEED SAMPLING AND PHYSICAL PURITY TEST
What is Seed Sampling?
The process of taking out a representative seed sample of suitable size from a seed lot
for various tests is known as seed sampling
Objectives:
1. To obtain a suitable sample size for tests, in which the same constituents are present as
in the seed lot and in the same proportion.
2. To obtain uniform and accurate results in seed testing.
The results obtained from the samples should project the real picture of the seed lot from
which they were drawn. To obtain uniform and accurate results in seed testing, it is
essential that the samples must be drawn and prepared with care and in accordance with
the methods prescribed in the ISTA( International seed Testing Association ) rules.
Terminology related to seed sampling
1. Seed lot: A seed lot is a specified quantity of seed physically identifiable in respect of
which an International Analysis Certificate may be issued.
2. Primary sample: A small portion of seed taken from one point in the seed lot is called
primary sample.
3. Composite sample: The sample formed by combining and mixing all the primary
samples taken from the seed lot is called composite sample.
4. Submitted sample: The representative sample taken from seed lot that is submitted to
the seed-testing laboratory is called submitted sample. It comprises of all the composite
samples to reduce the necessary size.
5. Working sample: A reduced sample taken from the submitted sample in the seed
testing laboratory on which one of the quality test is to be made is called working
sample.
Principles for sampling the seed lot:
1. Before sampling of a seed lot is carried out, the sample should be satisfied that the seed
lots do not show any heterogeneity.
41
2. The size of the seed lot shall also not exceed certain limits e.g. small seeded crops, the
seed lot shall not exceed 10,000 kg, for the large seeded crops 20,000 kg and for maize
40,000 kg is permitted limits.
3. The Seed lot shall be in bags or other containers which should be sealed and labeled for
identification by a single lot designation. In case of loose seed, which cannot be sealed,
international seed lot certificate can be refused.
Fig. 6.1: Steps involved in seed sampling
(A) Equipments: Different kinds of apparatus are used for taking the sample
(Fig.6.2).
42
Fig. 6.2: Apparatus used for seed sampling
1. Stick or sleeve type trier:

It is the most commonly used apparatus and consists of a hollow brass tube inside a closely
fitting outer sleeve having a solid pointed end. Both the tube and sleeve have open slots in
their walls such that on turning the tube, the slots in the tube and sleeve are in line,
allowing seeds to flow into cavity of the tube. The tube is given a half turn, the openings
are closed. The triers are of different lengths and diameters so as to suit different kinds of
seeds and various sizes of the containers. To draw cereal seed sample, the trier should be
760 mm in length and 25 mm in outside diameter with six slots.
43
2. Bin Sampler:
Bin sampler is large in size than sleeve type trier. The length and diameter of this sampler
may range upto 1.6 m and 38 mm, respectively with either six or nine slots. Bin sampler is
used horizontally or vertically. The trier must be divided into a number of compartments
using in vertical direction.
3. Nobbe trier:
It is a pointed tube having an oval hole near the pointed end, of sufficient length to reach
the centre of the bag. For cereals, the length from opening to handle should be 350 mm
with internal diameter of tube is 14 mm. Nobbetrier is used for sampling from bags only.
(B) Sampling by hand:
In addition to seed trier, sample can also drawn by hand when seed lot is of chaffy and non-
free flowing seeds as in cynadon, chloris, panicum etc.
Procedure for sampling the seed lot:

1. Using the sampler vertically or horizontally, it should be inserted diagonally out the bag
or container.
2. For seed in bulk, vertical insertion is more practicable.
3. The trier is thrust into the bag in closed position, than opened and turned a couple of
times or gently agitated to fill it completely.
4. Afterwards, it is turned to close again, withdrawn and emptied into a suitable container.
5. The seed should not be damaged while closing the trier.
6. The stick trier upto a certain diameter can be used through the walls of coarsely woven
jute or other similar materials.
7. After the trier is withdrawn, the point should be run across the hole a number of times in
opposite direction to pull the threads together to close the hole.
8. The closed paper bags may be punctured for drawing sample and thereafter the hole
should be closed with adhesive tape.
Note: The sampled meant for germination test should not be packed in moisture proof
containers. A separate sample for moisture test should be packed in a moisture proof
container.
Preparation of submitted sample:

If primary samples apples uniform, they all shall be combined and mixed to from the
composite sample. From that the submitted sample is obtained by one of the laboratory
methods described below for preparing working samples. If the composite sample is of
appropriate size, it may be regarded as the submitted samples without reduction. The
44
submitted sample of prescribed weight must be packed in clean cotton or jute bags or
very long paper bags along with the slip.
Sampling Intensity:
For seed lots in bags or other containers of similar capacity, the following sampling
intensity is regarded as the minimum requirement:
Sr.No. Seed containers No. of Primary Samples
/ Bulk heaps
When seeds are in containers
1 Up to 5 containers One primary sample from each container and take at least
five primary samples.
2 6-30 containers One primary sample from every three containers, but total
number of primary samples must not be less than five.
3 31 to 400 containers One primary sample from every five or ten containers, but
total number of primary samples must not be less than ten.
4 401 or more containers One primary sample from every seven containers or take
sample from 80 Containers, but total number of primary
samples must not be less than ten.
When seeds are in bags or heaps
5 Upto 1500 kg At least 5 primary samples, except that lots less than 50 kg
fewer but not less than 3 samples need to be taken.
6 1501 to 3000kg One primary sample for each 300 kg, but not less than 10.
7 3001 to 20,00 kg One primary sample for each 500 kg, but not less than 10.
8 20,001& above One primary sample for each 700 kg, but not less than 40.
-: Sample slip:-
(1) Date of sampling (5) Quantity of seed in lot:

(2) Kind and variety: (6) Name of sampler:
(3) Lot No.: (7) Sender's name and address:
(4) Origin/Class of seed: (8) Kind of test requires: Purity/Germination/Moisture
45
Method for preparing a working sample:
One of the following methods is used to prepare working sample.
(1) Mechanical method:
There are four different types of mechanical divider:
a) Conical divider
b) Soil type divider
c) Centrifugal divider
d) Precision divider
All the four of dividers divide a given quantity of seed into two approximately equal
portions. The sample can be mixed be passing it through the divider, recombining the
two parts and passing the whole sample for a second time, and similarly a third if
necessary. The sample is reduced in size by passing the seed through repeatedly and
removing one-half portion of the sample on each occasion. This process would been
continued until a working sample of required size is obtained.
Gamet type devider
Fig. 6.3: Preparation of working sample by mechanical method
46
(2) Random cup method:
In this method, 6-8 small cups are placed on a tray at random. After preliminary mixing,
the seed is poured uniformly over the tray and the seed that falls into the cup is taken as
a working sample. For a particular group of similar species, a certain size of cup is
needed. At least six cups should be taken. If minimum weight is not obtained, one or
more cups can also be added.
Fig. 6.4: Preparation of working sample by random cup

methodmethod
(3) Modifies halving method:
In this method, an apparatus comprises of a tray in which a grid of equal sized cubical
cells are fitted, open at the top and every alternate one having no bottom. After
preliminary mixing, the seed is poured evenly over the grid. When the grid is lifted,
approximately half the sample remains on the tray. This process can be repeated until
required sample size is obtained.
Fig. 6.5: Preparation of working sample by repeated halving method
(4) Spoon method:
This method is only permitted for small seeded species. A tray, a spatula and a spoon
with a straight front edge are required. After preliminary mixing, the seed is poured
47
evenly over the tray. The tray must not be shaken while taking samples. Take the spoon
in one hand and the spatula in the other hand and using both, small portions of seeds are
drawn from more than three random places. Sufficient quantity of seeds is been taken to
constitute the working sample.
Fig. 6.6: Preparation of working sample by Spoon method
(5) Combined method:
It comprises the benefits of rapid reduction in sample size from mechanical method and
accuracy of the spoon method. Once this method is established in a laboratory, it proves
very efficient.
Table 6.1: Crop-Wise submitted and working sample size for various tests.
crops Submitted working Purity Field test Moisture
sample sample Test test
Groundnut 1000 1000 300 1000 100
Chickpea 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Mustard 160 160 16 100 50
Pigeonpea 1000 300 150 1000 100
Cotton (linted) 1000 350 35 1000 100
Cotton (delinted) 250 250 25 250 250
Rice 400 400 40 400 100
Pearlmillet, brinjal, chillies 150 15 15 100 50
Green gram 1000 120 120 1000 100
Castor 1000 500 500 1000 100
Sesamum, tomato 70 70 7 100 50
Sorghum 900 900 90 900 100
Maize 1000 900 900 1000 100
Wheat, barley 1000 120 120 500 100
Okra 1000 150 15 1000 100
48
Onion 80 80 80 1000 100
Bottle gourd 700 700 70 700 700
Bitter gouard 1000 1000 450 1000 1000
Cucumber, Muskmelon 150 150 70 150 150
Carrot 30 30 3 30 30
Radish 300 300 30 300 300
Soybean 1000 1000 500 1000 1000
Fenugreek (methi) 40 40 4 40 40
Cauliflower 100 100 10 100 100
Physical purity Test:
What is Physical Purity?
The determination of the pure seed of a variety under question and other components
like seeds of other variety of the same crop, seed of other crops, inert matter, etc. by
weight from the seed sample being tested is known as physical purity.
Objectives
1. To determine the composition by weight of the sample being tested and by inference the
composition of the seed lot.
2. To determine the identity of various species of seed and inert matter particles
constituting the sample. [Purity denotes the percentage of seed (by weight) belonging to
the variety under certification].
Components of Physical Purity Analysis:
i. The working sample is closely examined with the help of Physical Purity Board to
classify it into the following components.
I. Pure seed: Seed of the variety under certification.
II. Seed of other varieties of the same crop: Seed of different varieties of the same crop
other than the seeds of variety under certification.
III. Seed of other Crops: Seed of plants being grown as crops other than the crop under
certification.
IV. Seed of weeds/objectionable weeds: Seeds, bulblets or tuber etc. of plants recognized
as weeds under laws, official regulations or by general usage is considered as either
seeds of weed or objectionable weeds.
V. Inert matter: Sand, straw, stones, debris, soil particles, seed without seed coat, empty
glumes, lemmas, sterile florets of grasses and cereals, etc . are considered as insert
matter.
49
VI. Defective seeds: A broken and shrunken seed which is smaller than half of the original
size is classified as defective seed (inert matter). A broken seed which is larger than half
of the original size and has intact embryo is classified as a pure seed.
i. The component II to VI are impurities. There is a maximum permissible limit for each
of these impurities in seeds of different crops.
Equipment/ materials required:
1. Magnifying Glass 6. Analytical Balances 11. Test Tubes
2. Purity work board 7. Weighing Table 12. Funnels
3. Cupboard 8. Working Table 13. Spatula
4. Shallow Trays 9. Forceps 14. Sieves
5. Spoons 10. Blower
Sample for Purity Test Purity Analysis Purity Work Board
Objectional Weed Seed Physical Purity Analysis Analytical Balance

Examination
Fig. 6.7: Apparatus for physical purity
50
Procedure for the physical purity on weight basis:
The physical purity analysis shall be made on a working sample taken from the
submitted sample.
(1) The working sample is spread on the working table and each component is judged
individually for shape, size, colour, surface texture and / or appearance in transmitted
light.
(2) All the impurities as mentioned earlier are removed leaving only the pure seed.
(3) After separating all the components, they should be weighted in grams to the minimum
number of decimal points as given below.
Weight of the Weight components should be noted in

Example(g)
working sample(g) the following decimal point
Less than 1 4 0.3036
1 to 9.999 3 3.036
10 to 99.99 2 30.36
100 to 999.9 1 303.6
1000 or more 0 30456
(4) Calculation of purity percentage:

(i) Purity % = Weight of pure seed___ x 100
Total weight of working sample
The physical purity test is done on two or more samples from the same lot as replicate
samples to get accurate and reliable results.
Wt. of Inert matter
(ii) Inert matter % = ---------------------------------------------------- x 100
Total wt. of all seed components
(iii) Wt. of other crop seed

Other Crop seed (%) = -------------------------------------------- x 100
51
(iv) Wt. of weed seed
Weed seed (%) = ----------------------------------------------------- x 100
(5) If percentage of seed of any other crop species or weeds together is more than 0.1 per
cent or if the number of seeds is more than 20, separate out all seeds of the species from
working sample as well as submitted sample.
The number of weed seed & other crop seed need to be counted and calculate the number
of seeds per kg as per requirement.
No. of weed seeds

Number of Weed seed/kg = ---------------------------------------------- x 1000
Wt. of all seed components (g)
Number of other crop seed

Number of other crop seed/kg = ---------------------------------------------- x 1000
Wt. of all seed components (g)
Terminology:
1. Pure Pellets: This part includes
a. Entire pellets irrespective of whether or not seed is present inside the pellet.
b. Damaged/broken pellets in which more than half of the surface of the seeds
covered by pelleting material, when it is not clear that either the seed does
not belong to the species stated by the sender or no seed is present
2. Unpelleted Seed: This component consists of
a. free seeds of any plant species.
b. Broken pellets containing seed recognized as one of the species stated by the sender
but not included in the pure pellets fraction.
3. Inert Matter: This fraction includes
a. Loose pelleting materials
b. Broken pellets where it is cleat that there is no seed inside.
c. The other materials which are defined as inert matter.
52
Worked Example
The following observations were recorded from the two analytic samples A and B taken from
wheat bag and analyzed for purity.
Sr. Components Weight (g)
No. Sample A Sample B
1 weight of the sample 150 150
2 weight of inter matter 2.7 3.0
3 weight of other seeds 1.7 1.5
4 weight of the defective seeds 1.9 2.5
Total amount of impurity=(2)+(3)+(4) =2.7+1.7+1.9 =3.0+1.5+2.5
= 6.3 g = 7.0g
Weight of pure seeds =150-6.3 =150-7.0
=143.7 g =143.0g
Weight of pure seeds =(143.7/150)x100 =(143.0/150)x100
Purity%= --------------------------------x 100 =95.8% =95.3%
Total weight of working sample
Average purity percentage of both samples =(95.8+95.3)/2
=95.6%
Thus, the purity percentage of the sample taken from wheat bag is 95.6%.
Note: If the difference in purity percentage of the sample (from same sources) is high
(more than 1%) then fresh samples are to taken and the test is to be repeated.
Exercise:
1. What is seed sampling? Why sampling is required?
2. Which equipments are required to draw a sample from the following type of seed
packing?
a. A bin
b. A bag
c. Working sample for laboratory tests
3. What will be the sampling intensity if you have the following seed lots?
a. 300 containers
b. 500 kg in bulk
c. 20000 kg in bulk
4. Write the principles and procedure for sampling the seed lot.
5. What are the methods for preparing a working sample?
6. Determine the physical purity of a given sample.
7. What are the components of a seed purity analysis? Describe each in brief.
8. Define: a) other crop seeds b) Weed seeds c) Impurity d) Inert matter
9. When the physical purity test is been repeated?
10. How will you test the coated or pelleted seeds?
***********
53
Date: Exercise-7
SEED GERMINATION AND VIABILITY TEST
What is Seed Germination?
The emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential structures
which for the kind of seed tested indicate the ability to develop a normal plant under
favorable conditions in soil (ISTA, 1985). OR The process by which the dormant
embryo wakes up and begins to grow is known as seed germination.
General Principles:
1. Germination test is the most important quality test in evaluating the planting value of
the seed lot.
2. Germination test is conducted with seeds from the pure seed fraction of a puritytest.
3. At least four hundred seeds are required to conduct germination test.
4. No pretreatment is to be given to the seed except those recommended for breaking the
hard seed coat or dormancy.
Types of Seed Germination:
Based on the fate of the cotyledons or storage organs, there are two kinds of seed
germination and neither appears to be related to seed structure (Fig.7.1)
1) Epigeal Germination:
ii. In this type germination, the cotyledons are raised above the ground where they
continue to provide support to the growing points.
iii. During root establishment, the hypocotyls elongates in an arch that breaks the soil,
pulling the cotyledons and enclosed plumule through the ground and protecting them
into the air afterward, the cotyledons open, plumule growth continue and the
cotyledons wither and pull to ground.
iv. Epigeal germination is characteristics of bean and pine seeds.
v. Epigeal germination considered evolutionary more primary than hypogeal

Germination.
54
(2) Hypogeal Germination:
vi. In this type of germination, the cotyledons or comparable storage organs remain under
the soil, while the plumule pushes upward and emerges above the ground.
vii. In hypogeal germination, the epicotyl is the rapidly elongating structure.
viii. Regardless of their above or below ground locations, the cotyledons comparable
storage organs continue to provide nutritive support to the growing points throughout
the process of germination.
ix. Hypogeal germination is characteristics of pea and gram seeds, all grasses and many
other species.
Epigeal Germination
Hypogeal Germination
Fig. 7.1: Types of seed germination
55
General requirements for seed germination:
a) Substrata:
The substrata serve as the moisture reservoir and surface or medium on which the
seeds can germinate and the seedlings grow. The commonly used substrata are paper,
sand and soil.
b) Adequate water or moisture:
Moisture is supplied to seeds through the substratum. Water should be free from
organic or inorganic impurities. Its pH should be 6.0 to 7.5
c) Favorable Temperature:
Germination of seeds occurs under different ranges of temperature provided the seed
is given adequate moisture. For seeds of various crop species, temperature
requirement for germination is different and is given in Table 7.1.
d) Light: Some seeds such as lettuce, tobacco etc. requires light during germination test.
e) Seeds: Seeds of a crop variety under germination test.
Table 7.1:Germination methods, temperature and days for first and final count
requirement for important crop seeds
crops substrata Temperature 1st count days Final count days

0
( C)
Wheat TP,BP,sand 20 4 8
Okra TB,BP 20-30 4 21
Groundnut BP, sand 20-30,25 5 10
Onion BP,TP 15-20 6 12
Mustard TP 20-30 5 7
Pigeon pea BP,sand 20-30,25 4 10
Chilies TP,BP 20-30 7 14
Brinjal BP, sand 20-30,20 5 8
Chickpea BP, sand 20-30,25 5 7
Green gram BP, sand 20-30,25 4 12
Cotton BP, sand 20-30,25 4 7
Maize TP,BP 20-30 5 14
Tomato TP 20-30 7 16
Tobacco TP,BP, sand 20-30,30 5 14
paddy TP,BP 20-30 3 7
Pearl millet BP, sand 20-30 7 4
Castor TP 20-30 3 6
Sesame, Sorghum TP,BP 20-30,25 4 10
TP=Top of paper, BP=Between Paper
56
Apparatus used for germination test (Fig 7.2):
1. Seed Counting Board, Computerized Seed Counter, or Vacuum Counter
2. Seed Germination Chamber or Seed Germinator
Seed Counting Board Seed counting Board Vacuum Seed Counter
Computerized Seed Counter Germination Chamber Plant Growth Chamber
Fig. 7.2: Apparatus for germination test

General procedure for germination test:
1) The working sample for germination test consists of 400 pure seeds, randomly drawn
either manually or with the help of counting devices such as counting board of seed
counter should be tested in replicates of 100 seeds.
2) The seeds counted and evenly spaced on the germination substrate.
3) Temperature must be maintained within 10C of prescribed limit when using alternating
temperature for germination e.g. in groundnut, the test is conducted at low temperature for
16 hrs and at high temperature for 8 hrs per day.
Methods for germination test:

There are mainly three methods for seeds germination test based on substratum used.
1. Germination in paper substratum :
(a) Top of paper (TP)
(b) Between paper(BP)
57
2. Germination in sand substratum :
(a) Top of sand (TS)
(b) In sand (S)
3. Germination in soil substratum:
1. Germination in paper substratum:
Criteria for selection of paper:
a) Several Types of absorbent paper are available for germination test. It should be of good
quality and free from toxic substances. The size of paper towel may be 46 cm x 29 cm.
b) Select paper that is relatively cheap, easily available and strong enough to withstand
handling and the weight of the seeds when damp.
c) The paper must be free from chemical residues that could interfere with the germination
of seeds.
d) The most common papers used are toweling, filter paper or rice straw paper.
e) Filter paper and paper toweling are more expensive. Rice straw paper is cheap but fungal
spores from the plant material may cause contamination unless heat-treated before use.
f) The towel may be soaked in water for 2 to 6 hrs to moisten it evenly and to remove water
soluble toxic substances, if present.
g) Before putting seeds for germination on the paper, it must be ensured that the paper is not
very wet.
 There are two ways to test germination of seeds by using paper substratum:
a) Top of paper (TP) method and b) Between paper (BP) methods.
a) Top of paper(TP)method:
Procedure:
1. Cut the paper to the size and shape of the petri dish or germination box or a tray fitted
with lid.
2. Place a layer of paper in each petri dish. If the paper is too thin, use a double layer.
3. Label the top and bottom of each petri dish with the accession number, number of the
replicate and date of test.
4. Moisten the papers with good quality water.
5. The thickness of paper used should be more than 2mm when moist.
6. The water used must be reasonably free from acid, alkali, organic material or other
impurities. It can be either tap, distilled or de-ionized water.
7. Seeds are placed directly on one or more layers of moist filter papers or blotters either in
a petri dish, germination box or a tray fitted with lid to restrict moisture loss e.g. small
58
seeded species.
8. Arrange the seeds in a regular equidistant pattern on the surface of the paper and placed
inside the germination cabinet.
9. Add more water if required.
 Advantage: The seeds can be observed through the transparent lid and the
germinating seed are easy to count.
 Disadvantage: The petri dish soon dry out and need daily watering.
b) Between paper (BP) Method:

Procedure:
1. Cut the paper to a convenient size to hold one replicate of the seeds when spaced at
regular intervals. If the paper is too thin, use a double layer.
2. Label each sheet on the outside of the paper at one end with the accession number,
replicate of the test and the date of the test.
3. Moisten the paper with water.
4. Arrange the seeds at regular intervals on the paper, leaving at least two centimeters clear
from the edges all rounds.
5. Leave enough space around the edges of the paper so that the paper can be folded back
without damaging the seeds.
6. Cover the seeds with another sheet of paper and fold in the edges to prevent the seeds
from falling out.
7. Normally 100 seeds are placed on two wet towels and one towel is placed over the seeds.
Thus, the seeds are sandwiched between the paper towels.
8. Folding the edges is especially important for large spherical seeds which tend to fall out
because of their weight and shape.
9. Roll the paper loosely towards the end with the label.
10. Do not roll the paper too tightly because the compression and lack of oxygen cause the
seedlings to develop contorted roots and shoots.
11. The rolled paper towel is then kept in upright position in a germination chamber at a
specified temperature for a specific period, which varies from species to species. If
germination chamber is not available, then place the rolled papers inside ventilated plastic
bags or boxes and put these in an upright position in wire baskets or plastic boxes at
ambient conditions.
12. Oxygen is essential for respiration during germination. Therefore, any containers used
should be adequately ventilated.
13. Keep the paper moist with water if necessary.
59
 Advantage:
i) The between paper method is cheap and easy to prepare the samples for germination test.
ii) The use of new paper at each test has the advantage that fungal contamination cannot be
carried from one test to another test.
 Disadvantage: The seeds cannot be observed without unrolling the paper.
II) Germination in sand substratum:

Germination in sand is especially useful for large seeds which are too large to be
germinated in petri dishes or too heavy for the between paper method. Sand should be
washed, free from toxic materials and sterilized. The sand particle size should range
between 0.05 to 0.8 mm in diameter (Fig.7.3.). The amount of water to be added to the
sand is calculated as follow:
Amount of water (ml) to be = 118.3 ml sand x 12.2
added to every 100 g of sand Weight of 118.3 ml sand(g)
Generally, there are two methods using sand substratum:

i) Top of Sand (TS): The seeds are pressed into the surface of the sand.
ii) In Sand(S): The seeds are placed on a leveled layer of moist sand.
Procedure:
1. Pack clean sterile sand into pots or trays with drainage holes at the bottom.
2. Water the sand until it is moist. Do not use excess water.
3. Fine sand should be used. Make sure that the sand is clean by sterilizing before use.
Quarry or river sand is better than shore sand, which must be washed thoroughly to
remove all the salts.
4. Mack holes in a regular equidistant pattern at about the same depth to maintain
uniformity of test for each replicate. Ideally, the distance between holes should be at least
three to five times the seed diameter.
5. Prepare a label with the accession number, date of sowing and replicate of the test and
place in each pot or tray.
6. Fill seeds from each replicate into the holes and cover with sand.
7. Water the sand again to cover the seeds, but do not make it too wet.
8. Sprinkle with water slowly, so that the seeds do not float out from the holes and become
mixed. Bottom watering is better that top watering.
60
Fig 7.3 : Germination in sand
III) Method using soil substratum:

It is generally difficult to obtain consistency in soil or artificial compost, It is not
recommended as a primary testing substrate.
Seedling Evaluation:
The time of the first count is most appropriate but must be sufficient to permit the
seedling to reach a stage of development so that accurate evaluation of seedling may be
made. The time of first count is given in Table 7.1 along with temperature. During first
count, sufficiently well developed seedlings are recommended to be counted in order to
make evaluation easier and to prevent them from affecting the development of other
seedlings. If the germination test is conducted in sand, the first count is omitted. If lower
temperature is chosen, the first count should to be postponed. If the maximum
germination of the sample is obtained before the end of prescribed test period, a test may
be terminated.
On the request of the producer, the seed testing laboratory may release the result of seed
germination test on the basis of first count, if the sample meets the minimum prescribed
germination standard for certification and labeling seedlings which have reached a stage
when all essential structures is accurately assessed shall be removed from the test first or
any other intermediate counts. Badly decayed seedlings should be removed to avoid
secondary infection to other seedlings but abnormal seedling with other defects should be
assessed only on the final count.
Categories of seedlings (fig 7.4):
The seedlings for germination test are classified into the following categories:
(1) Normal Seedlings:

Seedlings which show the potentiality for continued development into normal plants
when grown in good quality soil and under favorable conditions of moisture, temperature
and light are called normal seedlings. In addition, the normal seedlings must be
conformed to one of the following categories.
(a) Intact Seedlings:

Seedlings with all the essential structures (like roof system, shoot axis, elongated
hypocotyls and epicotyls etc.) well developed and complete in all respect showing the
proportionate growth and healthy are classified intact seedlings.
61
(b) Seedlings with slight defects:
Seedlings which show certain slight defects in their essential structures (like primary root
with limited damage or slight growth retardation, hypocotyls, epicotyls, mesocotyl,
cotyledons, primary leaves/leaf, coleoptiles with limited damage) provided they show an
otherwise satisfactory and balanced development comparable to that of intact seedlings
are classified as seedlings with slight defects.
(c) Seedlings with secondary infection:
Seedlings which confirm either intact seedlings or seedlings with slight defects, but are
affected by fungi or bacteria from sources other than the parent seeds are classified as
seedlings with secondary infection.
(2) Abnormal seedlings (fig. 7.5 to 7.9):
The seedlings which do not show the potentiality to develop into a normal plant, when
grown in good quality soil and under favorable conditions of moisture, temperature and
light are called abnormal seedlings because one or more of the essential structures (like
primary roots, hypocotyls, epicotyls, mesocotyl, cotyledons, primary leaves/leaf,
coleoptiles, seedlings as whole deformed, etc.) are defective.
Abnormal seedlings can be classified into the following types:
(a) Damaged seedlings:
Seedlings with any of the essential structures missing or so badly damaged that balanced
development cannot be expected.
(b) Deformed or unbalanced seedlings:
Seedlings with weak or unbalanced development or physiological disturbances or in
which essential structures are deformed or out of proportion are called unbalanced
seedlings. The damage to the embryo inside the seed is caused by external factors like
mechanical handling, heat, drought or insect damaged which leads to such abnormalities.
(C) Decayed seedlings:
Seedlings with any of the essential structures causes diseased or decayed as a result of
primary infection due to which normal development is prevented. These seedlings may
result from external or internal seed born diseases.
(3) Un-germinated seeds:
Seeds which remain un-germinated by the end of germination test. This includes the
following categories:
(i) Hard seeds:
Seeds which remain hard at the end of the prescribed test because they have not absorbed
water due to an impermeable seed coat, e.g. Fabaceae. Malvaceae, Cucurbitaceae etc.
62
(ii) Fresh ungerminated seeds:
Seeds other than hard seeds which absorbed water but not germinated and appeared firm
or clean and remained apparently viable at the end of the test period.
(iii) Dead seeds:
Seeds which absorbed water but not germinated due to loss of viability. Such seeds are
usually mouldy and soft in appearance.
i. Normal Seedling ii. Abnormal Seedling
iii. Ungerminated Seed
Fig 7.4 : Categories of seedlings
63
Fig 7.5 Types of abnormal seeding based on radical and plumule
64
Recording and reporting of germination test:
iv. The results of the germination test are recorded on the analysis cards of a suitable format.
The seed analysts should interpret the results and decide whether the results of the four
replications are within the permissible limit of tolerance before reporting the results.
v. The result of germination test should be calculated on the basis of the percentage of
normal seedlings and should be reported in whole number. The percentage of hard seed
should be reported separately. The per cent of germination is calculated as under:
Germination (%) = Total number of seeds germinated X 100

Total number of seeds planted
Retesting:
If the results of the germination test are considered unsatisfactory, it shall not be reported
and a second test shall be made by the same method or by alternate method.
Report Form:
Crop : Variety Seed sample No:
Date of placing: Replications: Temp 0C:
Substrata: Date of observation:
Category: Replication Total Average Remark
1. Normal seedlings:
(i) Intact:
(ii) Slight Defect:
2. Abnormal seedlings:
3. Un-germinated seed:
i. (i) Hard
ii. (ii) Fresh
iii. (iii) Dead:
65
Fig.7.6: Types of abnormal seedlings based on growth of seedlings
66
Fig.7.7: Types of abnormal seedlings based on growth of seedlings
67
Fig.7.8” Seedling of wheat Fig. 7.9” Seedling of Sorghum
A –Normal seedling A & B –Normal seedling
B to G- Abnormal seedlings C to G- Abnormal seedlings
Viability Test
What is Seed Viability?
According to the seed technologists and commercial men, ―a seed is capable for
germination and growth for producing a normal seedling‖ or ―the property of the seed
that enable into germination under condition favorable for germination‖ is termed as
viability of that seed, provided that only dormancy in the seed is removed before the
germination test.
Factors Affecting Seed Viability:
A) Pre-harvest conditions:
1. Quality of initial seed
2 Fertility status of the soil
3 Temperature and photoperiod requirements
4 Moisture status of soil at the time of harvesting of seed
68
B) Harvesting and processing conditions:
1. Mechanical injury to the seed during harvesting
2 Seed size and shape, thickness of seed coat, structure and relative position of embryo etc.
3 Seed moisture content at the harvesting and processing of seed.
C) Postharvest/Storage condition:
This is the key consideration in seed technology with respect to relative short term
storage between harvest and storage time of the longer term requirements of a genetic
resources seed gene ban. The three main parameters of the storage conditions which
determine seed survival are:
1. Seed moisture
2 Temperature
3 Atmospheric oxygen concentration
Methods for determining seed viability:
There are various tests for determination of seed viability as listed below:
1 Tetrazolium test
2 Germination test
3 Biochemical test
4 Conductivity test
5 Excised embryo test
6 X-ray test
7 Free fatty acid test
1. Tetrazolium (Tz) test:
iv. Tetrazolium test is widely used as a quick and accurate method for determining seed
viability and vigour of field and horticultural crops.
v. This test is accepted as an official test for certain tree seed species.
vi. This test was developed by Prof.Georgehakon (1940) in Germany when he was trying to
distinguish between live and dead seed by exposing them to Sodium Salt.
vii. In this method, a chemical called 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride is used to judge the
viability of seeds.
viii. The viable seeds take red stain while unviable seeds are colourless.
Mode of Action of Tetrazolium Test:
In this test, reduction process takes place in living cells and is made visible by the
reduction of an indicator. The indicator used in this test is a colouress solution of the
tetrazolium salt.
69
Tetrazolium chloride or bromide which is imbibed by seed within the seed tissues, it
interferes with the reduction process of living cells and accept hydrogen from
dehydrogenase. By dehydrogenation of 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride or bromide, a
red stable and non-diffusible compound to ― triphenylformazan‖ produces in living cells.
This makes its possible to distinguish the red coloured living parts of embryo from the
colourless dead ones ( Fig.7.10)
2,3,5-tirphenyl
tetrazoliumTriphenyl 2H Tirphenyl
chloride or bromide = -------------------------------------- = Formazan

(colourless)
Dehydrogenase group of (Red)
enzymes
Why is tetrazolium test designated as the topographical tetrazolium test?
Since the reaction takes place within the respiring (living) cells and produced formazan which
is red, stable and non-diffusible and a clear topography of living and non-living areas within
the seed can be developed by using this procedure. For this reason, the test is designated as the
topographical tetrazolium test.
Apparatus:
1) Conditioning media: Germination blotting/filter paper and paper towel.
2) Dissecting devices: Needles, foreceps, knives, blades, etc.
3) Staining dishes: Watch glass, petridishes, beakers etc.
4) Medical dropper: for removing tetrazolium solution after test is completed.
5) Magnifying devices: A suitable hand lens and a stereoscopic microscope.
6) Tetrazolium salt: 2,3,5- triphenylTetrazolium chloride or bromide (TTC or TTB).
Procedure:
(A) Conditioning and preparing the seed ( Fig.7.10)
1) At least 200 randomly pure seeds should be tested in replicate of 100 seeds or less.
2) Seeds should be soaked in water overnight at room temperature.
3) The water soaked monocot seeds are then cut longitudinally (e.g. wheat, maize) or
laterally (e.g. small seededgrasses ) to express the embryo. seed coats of dicot should be
removed to facilitate the quick penetration of Tetrazolium (e.g. gram)
70
Fig. 7.10: Tetrazolium test for seed viability
(B) Staining in tetrazolium solution:

1) After preparing the desired number of seeds, they should be soaked in one per cent
Tetrazolium solution (pH 6 to7) at above 300C for 3-4 hrs.
2) Solution with high pH value develops darker stain. While with low pH value develops
weaker stain.
3) If the acidity of the Tetrazolium solution is higher, the colour will not develop even with
a viable embryo.
4) Methods for conducting Tetrazolium test a few important crops are given in Table 7.2
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Table 7.2 : Methods for conducting Tetrazolium test for important crops
Crop Pre-Moistening Preparation Before Staining Staining at 300C
Type Time Solution Time
(hrs) (%) (hrs)
Rice BP and 18 Bisect longitudinally through embryo and 0.5 3
water ¾ endosperm
Wheat BP and 6-18 Bisect longitudinally through embryo and 0.5 2-4
water ¾ endosperm
Maize BP and 18 Bisect longitudinally through embryo 0.5 2-6
water
Gram, water 18 Remove seed coat 0.5 3-5
Mung
Cotton water 6-18 Remove seed coat 0.5 2-6
Fig. 7.11: Staining of seed by tetrazolium test

(C) Examination of stained seed (Fig.7.12):
1) After the complete staining theTz solution should be drained and de-stained.
2) Seed should be washed thoroughly with water 2-3 times and evaluated.
3) Since the Tetrazolium solution is photo– reducible, if it is not removed after the staining
period, the test is spoiled.
(D) Interpretation of staining pattern(Fig.7.13)
1) Knowledge of seed and seedling structure.
2) Understanding the mechanism of the test and its limitation.
3) Combining interpretation of staining pattern with other visible aspects of seed quality.
4) Interpret the results based on experience.
72
Fig. 7.12: Examination of seed by tetrazolium test
Advantages of TZ test:
1) Quick estimate of viability can be obtained (within 12-20 hrs.)
2) Seeds are not damaged (in dicot only) in test, therefore,they could be germinated.
3) This test is used even with dormant seeds.
4) Close examination of the individual seeds reveals the reason for proper germination
results.
5) No sophisticated equipments are required to carry out the test.
Disadvantages of TZ test:
1) It is difficult to distinguish between normal and abnormal seedlings.
2) This test is not applicable to differentiate between dormant and non-dormant seeds.
3) Since the TZ test does not involved germination, microorganisms, harmful germinating
seedlings are not detected.
4) Evaluation of staining pattern requires considerable skill and experience.
73
Fig. 7.13: Staining pattern in sunflower by tetrazolium test
74
Evaluation :
The seeds are evaluated with the help of magnifying devices. Individual seed is evaluated
as visible or dead on the basis of staining pattern in embryo followed by cotyledons.
(A) Assessment on the basis of staining embryo: Results
Embryo completely stained Viable
Embryo unstained Non viable
Plumule or radical unstained Non viable
(B) Assessment on the basis of cotyledons:
Complete staining Viable
No Staining Non viable
(C) Assessment on the basis of necrosis:
Unstained tissues at the attachment of embryo Non viable
Unstained tissues are away and not connected with embryo Viable
(D) Assessment on the basis of colour intensity:
Dark red Vigorous seed
Pink colour Weak seed
Dark red fractured Non viable
Calculation: Per cent viable seeds in relation to total seeds tested are to be calculated.
Seed Number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n
Embryo:
Complete
staining
No staining
Necrosis
Cotyledons:
Complete
staining
No staining
Necrosis
Colour:
Red
Pink
Fractured
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Exercise:
1. Differentiate the following :
i. Seed germination and seed viability.
ii. Dead and hard seed.
iii. Epigeal and hypogeal germination.
iv. Normal and abnormal seedlings.
v. Intact and damaged seedlings.
2. Why are seeds taken only from the pure seed fraction in germination test?
3. What is seed germination? Explain different kinds of seed germination.
4. Write general principles of seed germination test.
5. What are the general requirements of seed germination test?
6. List out different methods of seed germination test. Describe any one in brief.
7. Describe in brief the various categories of seedlings evaluation.
8. Explain in brief the procedure for seed germination tests.
9. How will you calculate germination percentage and how will you report the results?
10. What is seed viability? Enlist different factors affecting seed viability.
11. Enlist various methods of determining seed viability. Describe any one in detail.
12. Why is Tetrazolium test designated as the topographical tetrazolium test?
13. Describe in brief the procedure of Tetrazolium test for seed viability.
14. Give advantages and disadvantages of Tetrazolium test.
15. Write different categories of seed staining evaluation of Tetrazolium test.
*********
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Date: Exercise-8
SEEDLING VIGOUR TEST
What is Seed Vigour?
Seed vigour:
Sum of those properties of seed which determine the activity (i.e rapid and uniform
production of healthy seedling) and potential level of performance of seed lots of
acceptable germination in a wide range of field conditions is called seed vigour.
Objective: To determine seed vigour of a given sample
Methods for determination of seed vigour:
(A) Physical test:
1. Seed size 2. Seed density 3. Physical soundness
(B) performance test in optimum condition:
1 First count 6 Strong and weak seedling
2 Speed of germination 7 Vigour index length
3 Seedling growth rate 8 Vigour index mass
4 Seedling length 9 Seed metabolic efficiency
5 Seedling dry weight 10 Mobilization efficiency
(C) Stress test:
1 Accelerated ageing test 7 Cold test
2 Brick gravel test 8 Cool germination test
3 Paper piercing test 9 Exhaustion test
4 Compact soil test 10 Water sensitivity test
5 Pathogen infected soil 11 Osmotic stress test
6 Low or high pH 12 oxygen stress test
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(D) Biochemical test:
1 Tetrazolium test 4 Glutamic acid decarbooxylase activity

(GADA) test
2 Electrical conductivity test 5 Mitochondrial efficiency test
3 Respiration test 6 Volatile aldehyde test
(A) Physical test:
1 Seed size (g): One hundred seeds drawn randomly and weighed in gram. The seed lot
with high seed weight is considered as vigorous.
2 Seed Density (cm3): kerosene oil is placed in a graduated measuring cylinder and initial
level is measured. Weighed sample is poured in this measuring cylinder and the level of
kerosene is again measured. The difference between initial level of kerosene and after
placement of seed shows the density of the seed. The lot with higher density is
considered as vigorous.
3 Physical soundness: Seed lot containing shriveled seeds, undersized, undeveloped,

discolored and insect damaged seeds are considered as weak.
(B) Performance test in optimum condition:
1. First count: The number of seedlings counted at the first count on fourth day represents
the faster germinating seeds. Higher percentage of normal seedlings during the first
count indicates good seed vigour.
2. Speed of germination (N): High speed of germination is an indication of vigorous seed

lot. Number of germinated seeds are counted every day from the first day and the
cumulative index is made by the formula
N = n1/1+n2/2+…………..+nx/x
where, n1, n2……….nx are the number of seed germinates on day 1 today x 1,2……. x,
is the number of days
i. High value of N indicates high seed vigour. Seed is considered as germinated seed
when the radial has appeared hence, it should be counted daily and seed observed as
germinated should be removed daily.
3. Seedling growth rate (SGR): Twenty seeds are placed in straight line on a paper
towel moistened with distilled water and kept at an angle of 75 in a germinator at
optimum temperature. Only 10 competitive normal seedlings are selected for
observations. The remaining seedlings are removed. For the next 10 days, the length
78
of each seedlings is measured daily in cm. Seedlings growth rate is determined by
dividing the mean increase in length from each previous measure by the number of
days the seedlings had been in the germinator. Sum of count at the end of the test
period is expressed as seedlings growth rate.
SGR = SL1/F1 + (SL2-SL1)/F2 + [ SLn – SL(n-1)] / Fn
Where,
SL1 = Mean seedlings length at first count
SL2 = Mean seedlings length at second count
SL2-SL1 = Mean increase in length in second count
F1 = Days to first count
Fn= Days to final count
4. Seedlings length (cm): The length of 10 normal seedlings grown in moist towel
paper kept at optimum temperature is measured in cm on the day of final count. The
lot showing maximum seedlings length is considered as vigorous.
5. Seedlings dry weight (g): The weight of seedlings (in grams) excluding the
cotyledon is taken on the 10th day after oven drying at 1000C for 24 hours. The lot
exhibiting the maximum seedling dry weight is considered as vigorous.
6. Strong and weak seeding: Seeds are placed on a moist paper towel at optimum
temperature in an incubator. After five days of planting, seedlings are observed as
strong or weak. Seedlings are designated as weak when primary root, cotyledon or
primary leaf, spindly or poor developed seedling.
7. Vigour index length: A combination of standard germination test with seedling

length provides broad evaluation of seedling vigour. Seed lot with high vigour index
is considered as vigourous.
Vigour index(%) = Germination (%) x Seeding length(cm)
8. Vigour index mass: Vigour index in terms of mass is determined by multiplication of

germination percentage with seedling dry weight on the day of final count.
Vigour index(%) = Germination (%) x Seedling Dry Weight(g)
9. Seed metabolic efficiency (SME): The amount of dry seed weight that is respired for
producing one gram of dry root and shoot is metabolic efficiency of the seed. Thus,
higher the value of SME, lower the efficiency of seed as more seed reserve would be
used for producing root and shoot. Amount of food material respired (RESP) is
79
calculated as:
RESP = SDW – (SHW + RTW + RSW)
Then seed metabolic efficiency (SME) is calculated as.
SME = (SHW + RTW)/RESP
Where,
SDW= Seed dry weight before germination
SHW = Shoot dry weight
RTW = Root dry weight
RSW = Root- shoot (seedling) dry weight after germination
10. Mobilization efficiency (ME): Seed with higher mobilization efficiency is

considered as vigourous because of its capacity to supply maximum food material to
seedling, Weight seeds are placed on paper towel and kept for germination in a
germinator for required period of time at optimum temperature. On the day of final
count, seedlings and cotyledons are dried separately at 1000 for 24 hours.
Increase in dry weight of embryonic axis

ME (dry weight of seedling)
(%) = -------------------------------------------------- x 100
Decrease in weight of cotyledons
(C) Stress Test:
1. Accelerated ageing test: For rapid determination of seed vigour and storage potential
of the seed lot, the process of ageing is accelerated into weeks or days by increasing
the seed moisture content and temperature. Seed germinated well after the ageing
treatment is considered as vigourous.
Potassium hydroxide solution in distilled water is prepared for maintaining the

required humidity (Table 8.1). This solution (200-250 ml) is kept at the base of
desiccators and sealed with the help of grease after keeping moisture meter on the
wire mesh. The desiccatoris kept at the required temperature in an incubator for 24
hours. This ensures that there is required humidity in the desiccators.
80
Table 8.1: Preparation of 100g KOH solution for required relative
Humidity 200C
Relative humidity (%) KHO(g)

100 0.0
90 11.75
80 19.25
70 25.00
50 29.50
60 33.70
The seeds are spread on the tray of wire mesh in a single layer and placed in the
desiccator. The desiccator is made air tight and kept in an incubator at required
temperature. Samples are drawn periodically to test germination as per Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Observation for accelerated ageing test
Lot No. Days to accelerated ageing

5 10 15 20 N
Germination percentage
1
2
3
2. Brick gravel test: Seeds are placed at a depth of 3.00 cm in the tightly packed
crushed brick granules of 2-3 mm size. As the seedlings emerge, the brick granules
place a stress on the emergence of elongating seedlings and impede the emergence of
weak and mechanically injured seedling (Table 8.3).
Table 8.3.: Observation of brick gravel test
Lot No. Number of seed First count Germination Speed of

sown (%) germination
1
2
3
3. Paper piercing test: Seedsare planted on 1.25 cm of moist. It is covered with
specially selected dry filter paper. This filter paper is again covered with 3.00 cm of
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moist sand. This is kept at 20-250C for the days required for final count. The seedlings
which are able to penetrate the paper are considered vigourous.
4. Compact soil test: Seeds are planted in soil at optimum condition in a tray. It is
covered with uniform compact layer of the same soil. The seed lot with maximum
percentage of emergence under this condition is considered as vigourous.
5. Pathogen infested soil test: Seeds are planted in soil mainly infested with species of
Pythium, Fusarium or Rhizopus and fungi and kept at 100C for days followed by 3
days at 300C up to the day of final count. The lot showing maximum germination
percentage is considered as vigorous.
6. Low or high pH test: Seeds are planted in soil with low or high pH and kept in
optimum temperature in an incubator for germination up to the day of final count. Lot
with high germination percentage is considered as vigorous.
7. Cold test: Seeds are planted on the 2 cm thick leveled moist soil. The same quantity
of soil is then placed on top of the seed. Enough cold water (100C) is added to the soil
to bring the medium to 70% of its water holding capacity and then incubated at 100C
for 7 days. After 7 days, it is transferred at optimum required temperature for
germination. Suitable check should be run simultaneously without any treatment. The
lot showing minimum variation in germination (%) than check is considered as
vigorous.
8. Cool germination test: Seeds are planted in moist towel paper or sand and incubated
at low temperature (10-150C) up to the day of final count. The lot with more
germination, seedling length and dry matter production is considered as vigorous.
9. Exhaustion test: Paper towel is soaked in 30 ml water for cereals and 50 ml for
legumes. Seeds are placed on this paper towel along a printed line. The rolled towel
paper is placed inside a cylindrical glass container of 20 cm length and 5 cm diameter
for 10 days at 100C in complete dark. After 10 days, the seedlings that have shoots or
roots extending more than 5 cm or above placement line are considered vigorous.
10. Water sensitivity test: Germination is tested in petri dishes of 9 cm diameter,

containing 70 g dry sterilized sand to which 9 ml (low moisture level) or 18 ml (high
moisture level) of distilled water is added. The dishes are incubated for 7 days at 250C
after sowing of 20 seeds per dish at a depth of 0.5 cm. Germination percentage is
82
evaluated on the day of final count (Table 8.4).
Table 8.4: Observation for water sensitivity test
Lot No. Germination(%) Water sensitivity

A B
9 ml 18 ml [(A-B)/A] x 100
1
2
3
11. Osmotic stress: Counted seeds (20-25) are placed on a blotter in petri plate
moistened with mannitol solution prepared by using the following formula:
gRT PVm
P = ----------- OR g = ------------
mV RT
Where,
P = Osmotic pressure,
g= Mannitol in grams,
V = Volume in liters,
m= Molecular weight of mannitol,
R= 0.0825 atmosphere / degree / mole,
T= Absolute temperature of water
Stress condition: 75 g mannitol / litre of water.
ii. The covered petri plates are placed in incubator at the prescribed temperature for
germination test. Germination, seedling length and seedling dry weight is recorded on
the 14th day. Seed lot showing maximum germination, seedling length and seedling
dry weight in stress is considered as vigourous.
(D) Biochemical test:
1. Tetrazolium (TZ) test:
Principle:The intensity of the red colour in the stained seed during TZ test depends
83
upon the amount of formazan formed which in turn is regulated by the dehydrogenase
activity. In a vigourous seed, the intensity of the colour is, therefore, expected to
more, the activity of dehydrogenase is expected to be higher in more vigorous seed in
comparison to less vigorous seed.
Equipment and chemicals: Petri plates filter paper, incubator, razor, beaker,
spectronic 20, distilled water, Tetrazolium, methyl allosolve.
The Tz test has been modified in two ways to assess seed vigour.
(a) Aleurone TZ test and
(b) Colorimetric estimation of formazan
(a) Aleurone TZ test: Aleurone layer of cereal seed plays an important physiological role
in germination because it produces enzymes which hydrolyse the starch reserves of
the endosperm.
Procedure:
1) Seed sample are first washed to remove any traces of fungicides etc. and then soaked
for 16-20 hrs in water at 300C.
2) The soften seed are cut longitudinally from the distal end towards the base, parallel to
the plane of the embryo, leaving two halve joined at the base.
3) Shallow cuts are made through the pericarp of seed half not containing the embryo
and the seeds are soaked in 1 % solution of Tz salt for 2-4 days at 300C in covered
glass dishes.
4) Some antibiotic compounds (e.g penicillin and streptomycin) may be added at low
concentration to prevent microbial infection.
5) Live aleurone cells stains red, while dead cells remain unstained.
6) Seeds are classified into groups according to the area of stained surface.
No Per cent of total aleurone surface stained Categoris of vigour

(i) 100-75 High vigour
(ii) 75-25 Medium to low vigour
(iii) less than 25 Poor vigour
(b) Colorimetric estimation of formazan:
1. Put 100 seeds in a petri dish lined with moist paper and keep at 25+ 10C for 24 hours.
2. Exercise the embryonic axis and add 1 ml of Tz solution to 25 embryonic axes in

quadruplicate.
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3. Incubate in dark at 300C + 1 0C for 2 hours.
4. Drain out the excess solution and wash thoroughly in distilled water.
5. Soak the axis (25) in 10 ml methyl allosolve (methooxycellosol) for 4-6 hours with
occasional stirring till the extraction of red coloured formazan is complete (i.e axes
turns colourless).
6. Extract is decanted and its colour intensity is read at 480 mm in spectrophotometer.
7. Higher the intensity of extracted formazan, more is the seed vigour.
Seed lot Intensity at 480 nm Vigour

1
2
3
Exercise:
1. What is seed vigour? Write the objective of seed vigour test.

2. Describe physical test of seed vigour in detail.
3. Enumerate the methods for estimation of seed vigour and describe the performance test
in brief.
4. List out the various stress tests for testing seed vigor. Describe in brief the accelerated
ageing test.
5. Write short notes on following
i. Brick gravel test
ii. Paper piercing test
iii. Cold test
iv. Exhaustion test
v. Compact soil test
vi. See metabolic efficiency
vii. Cool germination test
6. List out the various biochemical tests for testing seed vigour.
7. Explain the osmotic stress.
8. Describe in brief the ‗Tetrazolium test‘.
*********
85
Date: Exercise-9
GENETIC PURITY TEST - GROW OUT TESTS AND

ELECTROPHORESIS
What is Grow-out test (GOT)?
The tests in which appropriate samples of seeds are grown to determine the genetic
purity of a given seed lot of released and notified variety/hybrid in the field and the
extent to which the submitted sample conforms to prescribed standards.
viii.  Morphological characters are studied in details and compared with authentic
sample at proper stage of crop growth.
ix.  The seeds are sown in the main field in a prevailing environment after proper
land preparation.
x.  The Check and authenticated samples are also grown along with the test
samples.
xi.  The crop is grown up to peak flowering and fruiting stage.
xii.  Based on distinguishable characters, the varieties/hybrids are identified.
xiii.  This serves as the standard test for genetic purity examination under seed
certification programme.
i.  Genetic purity: It is the trueness of the cultivar, where it should reproduce or

resemble its mother plant in all the characteristics.
ii.  Field of applicability:
iii.  Grow- out test is the official measure for controlling the genetic purity of the
seed lot.
iv.  It is serves as 'pre-control' as well as a 'post-control' test for avoiding genetic

contaminations.
v.  According to the official regulations in India, it is prerequisite for seed

certification of hybrids of certain species such as cotton, castor, musk melon
and brinjal.
vi.  The test is conducted for checking the sellers label with respect to genetic purity
status of the seed lot under the provisions of the Seed Act, 1966.
86
vii.  In addition, grow-out test can also be used as measure to judge the efficacy of
the certification agency or the inspector.
viii.  Sampling:
The Samples for "grow-out test" shall be drawn simultaneously with the samples
for other seed quality tests in accordance with the prescribed sampling
procedures.
ix.  Size of submitted sample:

The size of submitted sample for grow-out test for various crops is given in
Table-9.1.
Table-9.1.: Recommended size of submitted sample for grow- out test
Sample size Crops
1000g Maize, cotton, groundnut, soybean and species of other genera with seeds
of similar size.
500g Sorghum, wheat, paddy and species of other genera with seeds of similar
size.
250g Sugar beet and species of other genera with seeds of similar size.
100g Pearl millet, jute and species of all other genera with seeds of similar size.
250 Propagules Seed potato, sweet potato and other vegetatively propagating crops i.e
tubers/planting stakes/roots/corms/bulbs etc.
x.  Size of working sample:
xi.  The working sample for the grow-out test shall be obtained through
subsequent mixing and dividing of the submitted sample in accordance with
the prescribed procedure for seed sampling.
xii.  The minimum population requires for taking the observations shall be 400
plants. However, it depends on the maximum permissible off-type plants
prescribed for the species under consideration in the Indian minimum seed
Certification Standards (Table 9.2.)
Table 9.2.: Number of plants required for recording observations in a seed sample of
grow-out test.
Maximum permissible off Number of plants required per
Maximum Genetic Purity (%)
types (%) sample
0.10 99.9 4,000
0.20 99.8 2,000
0.30 99.7 1,350
0.50 99.5 800
1.00 and above 99.0 and above 400
87
xiii.  The number of seeds required for raising the crop to obtain the required number
of plants shall depend on the germination percentage of the seed sample. Hence,
seed rate should be adjusted accordingly.
xiv.  Location of the grow- out test:
xv.  The grow-out test shall be conducted in specified areas recommended for the
cultivar/hybrid or in off- season nurseries/glass house/green house.
xvi.  Standard sample:
xvii.  The Standard sample of cultivar (control) is the official standard against which
all other samples of the seed of a particular cultivar will be judged.
xviii.  The standard sample must not differ significantly in any character and to be
obtained from the originating plant breeder or breeding institute and be stored
under controlled temperature and humidity conditions so ad to use it each year
to sow control plots for cultivar under test.
xix.  Quantity of standard sample must be obtained from the originating plant breeder
as and when required.
xx.  A comparison must be made between the two lots of the standard sample before
changing from one standard sample to other.
Method of raising the crop:
xxi.  Standard and recommended agronomic/cultural practices such as field

preparation, size of the plot, row length, distance between the rows, distance
between the plants, irrigation, weeding, fertilization etc. in respect of the
specific crop shall be followed uniformly for the sample in question and its
control (standard sample).
xxii.  The germination percentage of the sample(s) in question and the standard
sample must be determined to adjust the seed rate.
xxiii.  Subsequent thinning is not recommended.
xxiv.  The samples of the same cultivars must be sown in succession and the standard
samples are sown at suitable intervals.
xxv.  There is need of one standard sample for every ten samples to be tested.
xxvi.  Recommended specifications for the above variables are provided in Table 9.3
which can suitably modify considered essential.
xxvii.  The field plots should be grown in two replicated to guard against failure in one
part of the field and to reduce environmental and soil fertility variations.
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Table 9.3: Recommended specifications for grow- out test
Sr. Crop Row Spacing(cm)
No. length Plant to plant Row to Plot to plot
(m) row
1 Wheat, Barley 6 02 25 50
2 Pea, Cowpea 6 10 45 90
3 Chickpea, Green gram,Black gram 6 10 30 60
4 Maize 10 25 60 90
5 Hybrid Cotton 5 10 45 45
6 Paddy
a) Very early to medium 6 15 20 45
b) Late and very late 6 25 30 60
7 Pearl millet 6 10 60 90
8 Sorghum 6 10 45 60
Methods for recording observations:

 Grow-out test plots must be examined throughout the growing season with
emphasis on the period from the flowering to ripening.
 All plants must be must be examined keeping in view the distinguishing
characters described for the cultivars both in the test crop as well as the control.
While taking the observation, the plants showing deviations in characters
against the control should be tagged and examined carefully at a later stage to
confirm whether they are off-types or not.
 The number of total plants and the off-type plants should be recorded.
Calculation and interpretation of the results
xxviii.  Percentage of other cultivars and species or aberrant found must be calculated
up to first decimal place.
xxix.  While interpreting the results, tolerances should be applied by using the reject
number for prescribed standards with reference to sample size as provided in
Table 9.4.
Table 9.4.: Reject number for prescribed standards and sample size
Genetic purity (%) Reject number for sample size of
800 400
99.5(1 in 200) 08 *
99.0(1 in 100) 16 8
95.0(5 in 100) 48 24
90.0(10 in 100) 88 44
85.0(15 in 100) 128 64
* Sample size is too small for a valid test.
Reporting of results:
xxx.  The results of the grow-out test shall be reported as percentage of other species,
cultivars or off-type plants.
xxxi.  If the sample is found to be cultivar other than stated by the sender, the results
shall be reported as such.
xxxii.  Disadvantages of grow – out tests:
1. High cost is required to conduct the grow-out test.
2 It is tedious and time consuming procedure.
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3 Unfavorable condition may lead to non-expression of original characters of a variety /
hybrid under testing.
xxxiii.  Other Distinguishing Varieties (ODV): Genetic purity of seed lot can also be
determined on the basis of Other Distinguishing Varieties(ODV).
xxxiv.  Principle:
The ODV determination is made only on the basis of readily apparent differences in the
stable and established morphological characters of the seed of the variety under test.
xxxv.  Procedure:
1. Determination is to be made on the whole submitted sample before conducting the
physical purity analysis.
2. Weigh the submitted sample.
3. Examine the authentic seed sample under magnification for the expression of seed
characters and to get familiarized with the seed characters of the stated variety.
4. Place the submitted sample on the work board and examine the same under illumination
and magnification.
5. Separate out doubtful seeds (ODVs) with the help of spatula/ forceps.
6. Re-examine the doubtful seeds under higher magnification in comparison with the seeds
of ‗Authentic sample‘.
7. Count the seeds of ODV.
xxxvi.  Calculation and expression of results:
1. The results of the investing must be expressed as number of seeds belonging to the other
distinguishable varieties (ODV) found in the actual quantity examined.
2. In addition, number per unit weight (e.g per kg) may be calculated.
3. The actual weight of the seed examined and number of seed of the other varieties present
in the sample should be reported under ‗Other Determination‘column of analysis
certificate.
xxxvii.  Precautions:
1. The weight of the working sample for ODV determination should be equivalent to the
weight of submitted sample of the species under consideration.
2. Wherever the differences are not clearly distinguishable or it has occurred due to
environmental fluctuations and other physiological factors, such as frost, drought,
immaturity, the analyst will not classify these seeds as ODV.
What is Electrophoresis?
A technique that separates charged macro molecules (DNA, RNA, Proteins) on the basis
of relative migration in an appropriate matrix (such as agarose, polyacrylamide)
subjected to an electric field.
I. Agarose Gel Electrophoresis:
i.  Electrophoresis through agarose is the standard method used to separate, identify
and purify DNA fragments.
90
ii.  DNA has a negative charge, due to its acidic phosphate groups. Therefore, if an
electric current is applied to the DNA, it will move towards the positive
electrode.
iii.  DNA fragments are separated based on size or molecular weight.
iv.  DNA molecules travel through pores in agarose gel.
v.  Concentration of agarose determines the resolving capacity of the gel. At higher
concentration of agarose, pore size of the gel decreases and only smaller
fragments will move through the gel. Decreasing the amount of agarose will
increase the pore size of the gel and larger DNA fragments can be separated
effectively.
vi.  To make the DNA bands visible, ethidium bromide is used. This dye intercalates
between the bases of DNA and fluorescence orange when irradiated with UV
light.
vii.  Each band contains thousands of DNA molecules, all of which are similar in
size. The array of bands forms a pattern that is sometimes referred as a
fingerprint.
II. Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis:
viii.  It is the latest method of cultivar identification based on protein banding and
isoenzyme activity.
ix.  A Few seeds are defatted and extracted for protein and isoenzymes.
x.  The extracted proteins or isoenzymes are separated by polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis.
xi.  Based on the banding pattern of protein and isoenzymes, the varieties can be
differentiated and identified.
Exercise:
1. What is grow-out test (GOT)? Write their characteristic features.
2. What is electrophoresis? How it is useful for varietal identification?
3. Write the field applicability of grow-out test.
4. Mention the recommended size of submitted sample for grow-out test for maize, wheat,
sugar beet, pearl millet and sweet potato.
5. What is meant by standard sample for grow-out test?
6. What is ODV? Write its principle and procedure.
7. What precautions should be taken during other distinguishing varieties test?
***********
91
Date: Exercise-10
PROCEDURE OF SEED CERTIFICATION

FIELD INSPECTION AND PREPARATION OF INSPECTION REPORT
Seed certification:
Seed certification is legally sanctioned system for quality control of seed multiplication
and production. Its consists of following control measures
1. An administrative check on the origin of propagating material for the purpose of

determining varietal purity (Genetic purity)
2. Field inspection of varietal purity, isolation to prevent cross pollination, mechanical
mixtures, crop conditions as regards to disease, pest disease and weed control.
3. Supervision of agricultural and commercial operations like harvesting, threshing,
storage, transport and processing to preserve the identity of seed lots.
4. Sample inspection : Drawing samples from the lot for laboratory testing like
germination, moisture content, weed seed content, mixtures and purity.
5. Bulk inspection in order to check homogeneity of the lot as compared to sample
drawn.
6. Control plot testing : Comparative field testing of samples drawn from the source seed
or final seed production and standard sample to determine the varietal purity and seed
health of the seeds produced.
Objectives
According to Douglas (1971) the three primary objective of seed certification are :
1. The systematic increase of superior varieties.
2. Identification of new varieties and their rapid increase under appropriate names.
3. Provision of continuous supply of comparable material by careful maintenance.
Basic (Fundamental) concepts of seed certification
The rapid loss of identity and genetic purity of varieties was a major problem in early
years of 20th century. Hence, in 1919 the International Crop Improvement Association (ICIA)
was formulated to solve the problem. In 1969 the ICIA changed its name to Association of
Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA). This association laid the beginning of modern
day seed certification system and explained the basic concepts of seed certification as under :
1. Pedigree of all certified crops must be based on lineage i.e. The Race.
2. The integrity (Honesty) of certified seed growers must be recognized
3. Field inspection must be made by qualified inspectors.
4. Field verification trials must be conducted to identify varieties/strains
5. Proper records must be kept to maintain pedigree of seed stocks.
6. Seed certification standards must be established for genetic purity and germination.
7. The principle of sealing of seeds must be approved to protect seed grower and the
users.
8. Species of farm weeds must be identified and defined as a inert matter.
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Procedure for certification of seeds:
As per the provision of seeds act, 1966 and seed rules, 1968, the certification of seeds
is done in the following manner :
1. Application for seed certification: All those interested in certified seed production
are required to submit an application in prescribed performa to the concerned state
seed certification agency along with an application fee Rs. 25/-. The seed certification
agency upon receipt of the application will verify the following conditions :
I. That the variety/varieties are notified and eligible for seed certification.
II. That the source of seed is authentic and in accordance with the conditions laid
down in the minimum seed certification standards.
III. That there would be no difficulties in reaching the field for carrying out timely
field inspections.
IV. That the seed producer is able to provide requisite isolation and the seed field
meets the land requirement as per minimum seed certification standards.
V. That the seed processing facilities are available to the seed producer.
VI. That the requisite application fee has been paid. If the applicant fulfills the
above conditions than certification agency would undertake the certification.
2. Seed certification fees: The application on the basis of above verification is accepted
by the agency then the applicant has to pay certification fees as under :
Inspection fees includes field inspection, supervision during seed processing,

seed treatment, packing, seed sampling, sealing and issue of certificate.
a) Self pollinated crop Rs. 50/ ha.
Hybrid, vegetable crops Rs. 75/ha.
b) Seed testing : Rs. 10/sample
c) Re-inspection : Rs. 30/ha.
d) Re processing : Rs. 1/quintal
e) Re testing : Rs. 10/sample
f) Re validation fee : Rs. 5/quintal
3. Inspection of seed fields: Staff of seed certification agency make field inspection at
appropriate stages of growth to ensure that the minimum standards for isolation,
preceding (previous) crop requirement, roguing are maintained at all the times and will
maintain the records of inspections.
4. Rejecting the field: After completion of inspection season, the staff submits the report
of field inspection and problems to the Director of Seed Certification Agency. The
board of Directors review the cases and if found not in accordance with the minimum
certification standards then officially reject the seed field.
5. Inspection of seed processing: The representative of seed certification agency makes
the visit of processing unit as may be required to check the mechanical admixture,
seed is cleaned and graded in satisfactory manner, seed is suitably dried, seed
treatment is given and seed lot is made homogenous (uniform).
6. Seed sampling: The staff of the agency take samples of all the seed lots which are
required to carry the tags. These seed samples are then sent to seed testing laboratory
for evaluation of genetic purity, germination and moisture content. If seed lots fail to
meet the requisite standard then re-sampling and re-testing is done.
7. Tagging and sealing: After receiving the satisfactory report from official seed testing
93
laboratory, tagging and sealing of seed lots is done under the supervision of the agency
staff. Fixing of tags and seals on the seed container will complete the certification
process.
8. Control plot testing: The seed certification agency arrange for a post season grow out
test (GOT) and concern the plant breeder to check the genetic purity.
9. Extension of validity period : The extension of validity period of certified seeds shall
be for a period of six months and at each subsequent validation as long as the seed
confirms the prescribed standards.
10. Revocation of certification: If the certification agency is satisfied that the certificate
granted by the agency has been obtained by mis-representation by the seed producer,
the agency will give grower a chance to submit causes and if grower does not satisfy
the situation then agency will revoke (withdraw) the certificate.
11. Appeal against certification agency: Any seed producer aggrieved by a decision of a
certification agency may appeal against the certification agency to the appellate
authority specified by the state government within 30 days from receiving the rejection
letter from agency. The appellate authority will discuss the matter critically and pass
the necessary order. The decision of the authority is final.
Field Inspection:
Field inspection is a key method in the whole process of certification for the
verification of the seed quality when the crop is standing in the field and is subjected to the
vagaries of weather and exposed to other known and unknown factors affecting its quality.
Field inspections are done by the seed certification inspector (field inspector) from SSCA by
examining seed crop in the field right from sowing up to harvesting. They verify key factor
(genetic purity, physical purity, seed health) which deteriorate seed quality in the field. Field
inspection of a standing seed crop to verify the prescribed certification standards in the seed
field to maintain the seed quality.
Objectives of field inspection-:
1. Verification of seed source.
2. Verification of cropping history of land for preceding season of year.
3. Verification of isolation.
4. Checking of planting method followed ie, planting ratio, border rows, in case
of hybrid seed production.
5. Rouging of off types, diseased plants and other mechanical contaminants.
6. Guidance to seed growers.
Principles of field inspection:-
1. All inspections must be made by well trained and qualified personal.
2. The prescribed procedure and techniques of field inspection and the minimum number of
inspections specified in the certification standards should be strictly followed.
3. Inspection of crop during flowering stage without prior notice.
4. The seed certification officer should achieve full cooperation from the seed crop field.
5. Upon arrival at the seed farm, the seed certification officer should check all information
94
about species variety, seed origin, cultivated area, class of seed, cropping history of the
field to be inspected and know adjacent field of the same species, which may be
dangerous from an isolation view.
6. Each field and its boundaries must be inspected.
7. During walk or inspection in the field, the S.C. Officer must make notice of other
varieties and impurities, diseased plants etc. present in the field.
8. In crops pollinated crop and hybrid seed field, if one third or more of the seed crop has
lodged just prior to flowering of during flowering such plot should be rejected.
9. If rogued plants and head etc., are observed lying is should be directed to remove it.
10. During inspection, if the seed field is bound to be liable for rejection part of full seed crop
field.
11. If on the basis of the first set of field count, the seed crop doesn't conform to the
prescribed standards for any factor a second set of count should be taken for the
concerned factor only,
12. If, at any given inspection, the seed of count should be taken for the conform to the
prescribed standards, further inspection need not be made unless the seed crop is eligible
for re inspection after removal of contaminating factor.
13. When re inspection is permitted, it should be shown on the field inspection report.
Factors and contaminants to be observed during field inspection:

1. Land requirement
2. Seed source and eligibility of variety
3. Isolation distance
4. Contaminants
i) Off-type
ii) Pollen shedder ( in hybrids A line Multiplication)
iii) Shedding tassels ( maize crosses)
iv) Inseparable other crop plants
v) Objectionable diseased plants
vi) Objectionable weed plants
Crop stage of inspection:

The number of field inspections required to be conducted is depend on the nature and
pollination behavior of the seed crop. However, the appropriate stages of inspection are as
under;
Stage Minimum no. of inspection
At the time of sowing 1
Vegetative or pre-flowering 1 (Self pollinated)
2 (Cross pollinated varieties)
Flowering stage 2-3 (Inbreds, hybrids)
Post flowering or pre- harvesting stage 1-2
Harvesting stage 1
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Key points to be observed at each inspection, are as under
Stage of the crop Inspection Key points to be observed
number
Sowing to pre I 1) Varietal eligibility for certification
flowering 2) Verification of source of seed
3) Land requirement
4) Isolation distance
5) Planting ratio and border rows in case of hybrids
seed plot
6) Area of seed plot
Flowering stage May be II, III, 1) Check on factors which were noticed during pre
IV flowering inspection
2) Confirm isolation from the source of
contamination and plot and calculation of area
rejected if any on account of isolation
requirement.
3) Confirm observation on planting rations, border
rows, rouging of off types, diseased plants,
pollen shedders, detasseling made during
previous inspection.
4) Taking field counts for different specific
requirements for prescribed crop being
inspected.
Post flowering May be III,IV 1) Confirm the correctness of observation made in
&pre-harvest or V earlier inspection.
stage 2) Rouging and taking field counts.
3) Issue of instructions to seed grower for
harvesting drying, threshing bulk packing,
storage and transportation to seed processing
plant.
4) Estimate seed yield.
Post-harvest Last 1) Verify in seed crops involving two parents that
stage male parents rows have been separately and
completely harvested and removed from the field
and to seal if necessary the harvested male row
produce.
2) Verify that the crop from the area rejected due to
inadequate isolation or poor rouging has been
separately and completely harvested and
removed from the field and to seal if needed the
produce so harvested.
3) Avoidance of admixture of any type of
contaminant at field stage threshing yard etc.
4) Sealing of threshed produce after initial cleaning
and drying.
5) Instruction to the seed grower for storage and
transportation.
96
Field counts :
It is a representative sample of plants taken at random from a seed plot for recording
the observation on off types, pollen shedders and diseased plants, inseparable other crop
plants. As per provision of seed certification it is necessary to examine each and every plant in
the seed plot for contaminant. It is however impracticable to do so. During each field
inspection field counts are taken randomly covering of the seed plot and observations are
made on the plants from each selected field count. The number of counts taken varies
according to the area of the seed plot. Minimum five counts are required to be taken for seed
plots having area of 2.0 ha and one additional count is to be taken for every additional area of
two hectares or part thereof.
Area of seed field (ha) No. of counts to be taken

Up to 2 5
2 to 4 6
4 to 6 7
6 to 8 8
8 to 10 9
10 to 12 10
Number of plants/heads or tillers to be included in one count depends
Crop No.of plants/head per count

Castor, cotton, groundnut, maize, pigeonapea, 100 plants
sunflower, bulb crop, tuber crops, broad spaced
vegetable
Beans, gram, cowpea, mugbean, urdbeansesamum, 500 plants
mustard, niger, sunnhemp, leafy vegetable, peas
Lucerne, berseem, jute soybean 1000 plants
Cereals other than maize 1000 plants
Procedure for taking field counts :

A) For thickly sown row crops :eg. wheat, sorghum, soybean
1) 2) Enter the seed plot from a randomly selected site.
2) Count the number of plants or heads in a row in one step.
3) Count number of plants or heads per step at randomly selected five locations and work
out the average number of plants/head per step.
4) Calculate the number of steps required to complete a count.
5) Select at random any row and start from any point in that row. Take required number
of steps in that row to complete one count or take few steps in that row to inspect few
heads/plants say 1/10th of count, then cross over 2 to 3 rows and take few steps in next
row for inspecting another few plants or heads. Repeat this till required number of
plants/heads of one count is inspected.
6) Repeat this till required numbers of counts are taken.
7) Record number of contaminants observed in each count in the inspection report.
B) For broadly spaced crops :-Eg., chillies, cotton, castor, maize
97
1) Enter the seed plot from a randomly selected site.
2) Inspect 100 plants in any row or inspect half the palnts of one count in one row and
remaining half in 2nd or 3rd row.
3) Move across the seed field covering all portions and take requisite number of counts
on the basis of area of the seed plot.
4) Record the number of contaminant observed in each count in the inspection report.
C) For female and male rows in seed plots of hybrid sorghum and hybrid
pearl millet.
1) Size of one count is 1000, calculate the number of steps required to inspect 1000
heads.
2) Start inspecting the heads from any point in any row and inspect 100-200 heads in that
row shift over to 3rd or 5th row and again inspect 100-200 heads. In this way cover part
of seed plot for one count.
3) Repeat this procedure for taking required no. of counts separately for female, and male
rows.
4) Count contaminants separately for male and female rows for each count and record
them in inspection report.
For female rows- offtypes, pollen shedders, diseased plants
For male rows- off types, diseased plants.
Procedure for taking count in hybrid maize is more or less similar to that for hybrid
jowar except that size of one count for maize is 100 plants.
Procedure for field inspection:-
1) Note that field inspections of seedplots be carried out without pre-intimation to the seed
grower so as to ascertain whether the seed grower is regularly carrying rouging and other
essential items of work or not.
2) During 1st inspection, check all information of about species, variety, stage source of seed
used (tags, labels, seed bags, cash memo) area of the seed plot registered for certification,
cropping history of the seed plot.
3) Visit the seed plot, move on all sides of the plot for confirming whether the seed plot
meets isolation requirement. In case of doubt, measure the area of seed plot and also
distance between seed plot and contaminant field.
4) Draw a rough map of the seed plot showing location.
5) During every field inspection, every part of the seedplot should be covered. For this walk
across the seedplot while taking the field counts in all directions. Inspect adjacent fields,
wastelands for isolation requirement.
6) Count off type, volunteer plants and other contaminants observed during each count and
record them.
7) While taking count, barren rows or long gaps if noticed need not be included in the count.
8) Give guidance to seed producer or his representatives about rouging, off types plant
protection, harvesting etc.
9) At the end of each inspection field inspector fill inspection report (in prescribed
proforma) in quadruplicate and handover. He send green copy to seed producer or his
representative and yellow copy to Div. SCO office and pink copy to district seed
98
certification office. Retain white copy as record.
Field inspection reports
Field Inspection Report For Maize
Field No………………………….. Report No………………………………….
Date of sowing…………………… Date of inspection…………………………
Expected date of harvest……………. Time: from………………. To…………
1) Name of Producer/grower…………………………………………………………………
2) Village………………….. Taluka……………. District……………. State……………….
3) Location of farm……………………………………………………………………………
4) Code/Hybrid designation…………….
5) Class of seed…………………………………
6) Female parent………………………..………. Male parent………………………………
7) Total acreage under production of this seed crop…………………………………..
8) Acreage of the field No. inspected…………………………………………………………
9) Planting ratio……………………………………………………………………………….
10) Are both ends of male rows marked ?...................................................................................
11) Method of marking male rows…………………………………………………………….
12) Isolation distance in meters………………………………………………………………
13) Stage of seed crop at this inspection ………………………………………………………
14) Stage of seed crop at this inspection………………………………………………………
15) Field counts ( take one hundred plants per count) …………………………………………
Count No. Inbred Female parent Inbred line/ Male parent of
line/composite/ of maize cross composite/ maize cross
open-pollinated open-pollinated
variety/ female variety and
parent of maize female parent
cross of maize cross
Receptive silks Shedding off-type with off-types with
tassels shedding shedding
tassels tassels
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
99
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Total
Percentage
16. Side of field from which inspection was started…………………………………….

17. Crop condition……………………………………………………………………….
18. No. of times detasseled……………………………………………………………….
19. Frequency of detasseling …………………………………………………………….
20. Was ditasseling being done at inspection time?………………………………………
21. Quality of seed production work…………………………………………………….
22. Does this crop conform to be standards for certification?............................................
23. Estimated seed yield (qtl/hectare)…………………………………………………….
24. Was the grower or his representative, present at inspection time?...............................
25. Remarks……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………..
signature of grower Signature of inspector ……………

or Name……………………………….
his representative……………………… Designation……………………………..
Field Inspection Report For Sorghum/Pearl millet
Field No. …………………………………… Report

No……………………………………………
Date of sowing ………………..................... Date of inspection ……………………………
Expected date of harvest……………………… Time: From………………… To……….……
1) Name of producer/grower………………………………………………………………..
2) Village…………………………District……………………State……………………..
3) Location of farm…………………………………………………………………………
4) Line increase/ Hybrid designation ……………… 4.1. Class of seed……………………
5) Female parent……………………………………………Male parent……………………
6) Total acreage under production of this seed crop………………………………………
7) Acreage of the field no. inspected……………………………………………………….
8) Previous crop…………………………………………………………...........................
9) Are both ends of male rows marked? ………………………………………………….
10) Planting ratio…………………………………………………………………………..
11) Method of marking male rows…………………………………………………………
100
12) Isolation distance in metres……………………………………………………..
FEMALE ROW MALE ROW

Count No of No of No. of heads No. No. of heads
No. pollen heads of affected by heads of affected by
sheddin off- Head Kern gree off- Head Kern Gr
g heads types smut el n ear types smut el ee
sheddin ergot smut sheddin ergot smut n
g pollen grain g pollen grain ear
smut smut
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
Total
Percentage
14 Stage of Growth of Contaminant……………………………………………................
15 Stage of seed crop at this inspection…………………………………………………………
16 Field counts ( Take 1000 heads per count)
17 No. of border rows
18 Crop condition
19 No. of times shedders, off-types, etc., were removed
20 Frequency of removal of shedders, off-types, etc.
21 Was it being done at inspection time ?
22 Quality of seed production work
23 Does this crop conform to the standards for certification ?
24 Estimated seed yield ( qtls/ha)
25 Is this the final report ?
26 Was the grower of his representative present at inspection time………………………
27 Remarks……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
or Name……………………………….
101
his representative………………………… Designation……………………………..
Field Inspection Report for Other crops
Field No…………………………… Report No…………………………………………

Crop………………………………. Varity………………………………………………
Date of sowing……………………. Date of inspection………………………………….
Expected date harvest…………… Time: from……………………. To………….
1. Name of Producer/ grower …………………………………………………….

2. Village……………… District……………………State…………………
3. Location of farm……. ………………………………………………

4. Class of seed ………………
5. Source of seed …………….
6. Total acreage under. production of this seed crop……….
7. Acreage of the field No. inspected
8. Previous crop……………..
9. Isolation distance in meters……................................................................................
10. Stage of growth of contaminant..................................................................................
11. Stage of seed crop at this inspection...........................................................................
12. Field counts: Take 1000 heads per count for barley, oats, paddy and wheat.
Take 1000 plants per count for berseem, jute, lucerne mesta, soybean
Take 500 plants per count for mediyum-Spaced row crops such as bean, cowpea.
garden pea, gram, leaf crops, moong, musard, rape, sesame and sunn hemp.
Take 100 plants per count for wide-spaced row crop such as bhindi, brinjal, bulb
crops, capsicum, castor, chilli, cole crops, cotton, cucurbits, groundnut, potato, red
gram, root crops and tomato.
Count No. No. of heads/plants
off types inseparable objectionable affected by seed
other crops weeds borne diseases
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Total
percentage
13. Name ( s) of………………………………………………………………………………..

(a) Sees- borne diseases………………………………………………………………..
(b) Inseparable Crop plants…………………………………………………………….
102
(c) Objectionable weed plants……………………………………………………………
14. Manes of non-seed- borne diseases present………………………………………………….
15 Condition of crop……………………………………………………………………………..
16 Does this crop conform to the standards for certification?…………………………………..
17 Quality of seed production work……………………………………………………………..
18 Is this the final report? ………………………………………………………………………
19 Estimated seed yield (qtls/ha)……………………………………………………………….
20 Was the grower of his representative percent at inspection time…………………………….
21 Remarks………………………………………………………………………………………..

or Name……………………………….
his representative………………………… Designation……………………………..
All the columns of the proforma must be appropriately filled. On the basis of these reports the
certification agency will inform the grower of the inspection results.
Post- Harvest Inspection

In developing certification scheme, it is a necessity to inspect the seed producer's of
contractor's premises, particularly such features, bags used for storing seed and arrangements
for sampling, inadequate facilities and poor management in postharvest handling of seeds
may disqualify the seed lot from certification. During all these operations the inspection is
primarily dine to ensure that the identity of the lot maintained and that seed lot is being
handled carefully.
If the harvesting is done by combines, the inspection may be made at harvesting time
to ensure that combine, trailers, bags and storage place are clean. Combining one round
around a field does not clean the combine. Through cleaning can be accomplished only by
taking the time to blow, brush or clean out, in some other manner, each section of the
combine. Storage places should be sprayed with malathion to avoid insect damage.
Exercise:
1. Define seed certification. Write its objective.

2. What is field inspection? Write its objectives and principles.
3. Explain procedure for field inspection.
4. Explain in brief Factors and contaminants to be observed during field inspection
5. Write short note on field counts
6. Discuss the steps involved in seed certification
7. Describe in brief key points to be observed at each inspection
103
Date: Exercise-11
VISIT TO VARIETAL/HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION PLOT
Q.1 Where did you visit a seed production plot?
Q.2 Name the crop in which seed production was taken up by the farmer/organizer.
Q.3 What are the criteria for selection of a site for production plot?
Q.4 Write the Name of variety/hybrid and its parentage details.
Q.5 What was the isolation distance and planting ratio kept?
Q.6 What were the important stages of rouging in this seed production plot?
Q.7 Write the following agronomical details of seed production plot?
104
1. Date of sowing:
2. Spacing: a) Row to row:
b) Plant to plant:
3. Fertilizer: a) Basal:
b) Top dressing:
4. Number of irrigation:
5. Number of weeding
Q.8 What was the expected yield of hybrid/ variety seed production?
*********
105
Date: Exercise-12
VISIT TO SEED TESTING LABORATORY
Q.1 Where did you visit a seed Testing Laboratory?
Q.2 Which Types of Tests Were Performed In seed Testing Laboratory?
Q.3 What are the main objectives of the seed testing laboratory?
Q.4 How working samples were drawn in the seed testing Laboratoryfor various
tests?
Q.5 List out equipments/ apparatus and chemicals used in the seed Testing
Laboratory?
106
Q.6 How seed germination and seed moisture tests were conducted in the seed
testing laboratory?
Q.7 How seed vigour and seed viability tests were performed in the seed
testinglaboratory?
Q.8 How many seed Testing Laboratories are working in the state?Name them
along with their location.
*********
107
Date: Exercise-13
VISIT TO SEED PROCESSING PLANT
Q.1 Where did you visit seed Processing plant?
Q.2 Which crop(s) was processed in this seed Processing unit?
Q.3 Which are the important steps observed by the seed Processing unit that you had
visited?
Q.4 How seeds were dried in the seed dryer?
Q.5 Explain the method of seed cleaning in details.
Q.6 How seed packing and storage was done in the processing unit?
Q.7 What are the factors affecting seed longevity in seed storage?
Q.8 What is the moisture limit in crop(s) which was processed in processing unit for seed
storage?
*********
108

Seed Structure and Production Guide

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Seed Structure and Production Guide

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STUDY OF SEED STRUCTURE

A fruit is defined as matured or ripened ovary which contains one or more

(1) Seed Coat:-

(a) Embryonal axis or tigellum:-

Fig. 1.1. Seed Structure of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous seed

2) Preparation of land: Deep ploughing, followed by harrowing and leveling. Pre-sowing

3) Isolation distance: Wheat is normally a self-pollinated crop, however, natural cross-

6) Fertilization: The recommended doses of fertilizer are 80 kg nitrogen, 60 kg

9) Plant protection: As per recommendation

[B] Seed production of hybrid rice:

Hybrid rice can be produced by

(b)Two line approach:

Hybrid seed production (using three line systems)

Steps involved in hybrid seed production:

3) Preparation of land: Preparation of land is same as described for open-pollinated

Methods of improving seed setting:

12) Seed yield: 5 to 15 Quintals/ha

[A] Open-Pollinated Varieties:

[B] Hybrid seed production in sorghum:

Maintenance of male sterile lines (Line A):

Seed production of commercial hybrid:

4) Time of sowing: Time of sowing is same as described for open-pollinated varieties.

4. Pearl millet (Bajra)

[A] Composite and Synthetic varieties (Open pollinated Varieties):

[B] Production of hybrid seed in Pearl millet:

Important steps are:

Maintenance of male sterile lines (Line A)

[B] Seed production of commercial hybrid:

Transplanting 0.4 to 0.65 kg/ha 0.2 to 0.3 kg/ha

[A]Composite and synthetic varieties (Open pollinated Varieties):

3) Preparation of land: Usually one ploughing, two to three harrowing followed by

9) Irrigation: Maize is sensitive to excess water and drought conditions. Schedule

[B] Hybrid seed production of Maize:

[I] Maintenance of parental (inbred) lines:

8) Harvesting, threshing and cleaning:

1) Selection of land: Selection of land is same as described for open-pollinated (synthetic

Precautions to taken while de-tasselling

1. Pigeon pea (Red gram)

14) Seed yield: The average yield varieties from 15 to 20 qtl/ha.

[A] Open-pollinated varieties:

[B] Hybrid Seed Production in castor:

Hybrid seed production in castor can be discussed under two steps:

I. Maintenance of parental lines:

i. Conventional method: In conventional method, there is maintenance of 75% of

b) Maintenance of Male parent: It is similar to that of maintenance of varieties but the

II. Commercial hybrid seed production:

1) Selection of land: Selection of land is same as described earlier for open-pollinated

Brassica species from which seed fields should be isolated

4) Time of sowing: Last week of Sepember or 1stweek of October.

1. Write seed rate of following crops.

[A] Open-pollinated varieties:

[B] Hybrid seed production in cotton

3) Isolation distance: 50 meters from other cotton crop variety.

Precautions to be taken during crossing programme:

[B] Hybrid Brinjal Seed Production

In brinjal, hybrid seed can be produced by hand emasculation and pollination

4. Time of sowing: Northern plains – June to August, Novemeber to December, Hills –

5. Seed rate: 500 grams per hectare.

8. Transplanting: Transplant the seedlings, when 7.5 to 10 cms. in height, preferably at

9. Spacing: 1. Autumn, winter crop 75 x 60 cm; 2. Spring, summer crop 75 x 40 cm.

14. Harvesting and Seed Extraction: Harvesting and Extraction of seed:

The acid method has several advantages: