Cereals

Structure and Composition

Most cereal grains have four major components: the hull or husk, the bran layer, the
endosperm, and the embryo or germ.
Bran is the outer layer of the grain seed. It’s full of B vitamins, trace minerals, and,
especially, fibre. Endosperm: Sometimes referred to as the kernel, the endosperm contains
the majority of the material within the seed and is meant to nourish a seedling. The
endosperm is where most of the protein, carbohydrates, and small amounts of vitamins are
located. It is composed mainly of starch, and often it is the only part of the grain that is eaten.
Germ (the embryo): The germ is the part of the seed from which the new plant sprouts. It
has the highest concentration of nutrients, including B vitamins, trace minerals, and some
proteins. It also contains fat, which increases its perishability.

Nutrition
1. Because grain seeds are composed mostly of starch, between 65 and 90 percent of the
calories supplied by grains are carbohydrates.
2. Protein accounts for 6–15% of the grain and the limiting amino acid is lysine, with
maize additionally low in tryptophan. Gluten is the major protein in wheat and rye
and oryzenin the major protein in rice.
3. All cereals are low in fat, oats have more; most of the fat is polyunsaturated.
4. Important minerals found in whole grains are iron, potassium, phosphorus,
magnesium, and zinc, selenium, copper, and manganese. The net contribution of
cereals to mineral intake may be less than anticipated because phytate in the outer
bran layers binds some minerals and inhibits their absorption. Bioavailability of
minerals is better from refined products but because the mineral content is less,
overall more minerals will be provided by whole grains. Mineral bioavailability is
increased by some processing methods, such as fermentation
5. Whole grains are also a source of B vitamins (niacin, thiamine, riboflavin) and
antioxidants, such as vitamin E and selenium.
6. Grains are rich in dietary fibre, both insoluble and soluble fibre.

Effect of processing on nutrient contents of cereal grains

The refining and processing of grains remove many of the nutrients grains naturally provide.
The bran and the nutrients it contains are often removed during the milling process. Refined
wheat flour has both the bran and the germ removed.

Enrichment
Many grain products are enriched, meaning nutrients originally found in the grain are added
back to the product during processing. But not all the nutrients are returned. Insoluble fiber is
milled away when the bran is removed, and antioxidants usually are not added back into
refined flours. Phytochemicals also may be missing in refined products.

Methods of preparation and utilization

A. Barley
i. Barley, especially the unrefined type requires soaking before, and requires cooking
for about an hour. Refined barley does not require soaking, and can be cooked for a
shorter period of time.
ii. Barley flour has a low gluten content, as such, it must be combined with higher-
gluten flours (such as wheat) in baked goods or they will not rise as desired.
iii. It can be substituted for rice in many recipes or combined with beans and vegetables
to provide a high-protein meal.
iv. It can be added to soups and stews, where it also acts as a thickening agent.
v. Barley can also be served on its own as a hot cereal.

B. Corn
i. It can be served fresh and still on the cob. Corn on the cob can be cooked by boiling,
or roasting in its husk on the grill or in the oven.
i. Canning or freezing can preserve fresh kernels.
ii. Dried kernels can be roasted or popped.
iii. Corn can be ground into coarse meal or flour that is made into cornbread, pancakes,
or waffles.
iv. Oil derived from corn is used widely for cooking.
v. Starch derived from corn is often used as a thickening agent in gravies, soups, and
other dishes.
vi. Corn is also fermented and is the basis for whiskey.
vii. It’s also processed to make breakfast cereals, e.g cornflake.

C. Millet
i. Millet’s prepared mostly by boiling in water.
ii. Ground millet is used as flour to make puddings, breads, and cakes.
iii. Because millet produces no gluten, it cannot be used on its own to make raised
breads.

D. Oats
i. All types of processed oats make a terrific hot cereal.
ii. Oats are also one of the main grains in granola (and many snack foods).
iii. Oats can be added to muffins, cookies, and bread for a different texture.

E. Rice
Rice is commercially classified by its grain size:
i. Short-grain (round-grain), medium-grain and long grain rice.
 ii. Generally, rice is cooked by adding it to liquid (two parts water to one part rice) and
then simmering it until the liquid is absorbed. Both brown rice and parboiled rice may
require longer cooking times.
iii. It can be served as a pilaf, which can be jazzed up by adding cut-up vegetables and
seasonings.
iv. Rice can be added to soups, stuffings, and salads.
v. It offers the perfect opportunity to make a grain the centrepiece of a meal.
vi. Rice flour can be used to thicken sauces.

F. Wheat
There are three major types of wheat.
a) Hard Wheat: It is high in protein (10 - 14 %). It is also high in gluten content, which
gives the flour elasticity and makes it particularly suitable for yeast breads.
b) Soft Wheat: The low-protein (6 - 10 %) flour is lower in gluten. It’s often used to
make “softer” baked goods, such as cakes.
c) Durum Wheat: This is the hardest wheat grown and is highest in gluten. Despite that,
it is not used in baked goods. Instead, it is used to make semolina. Semolina is a
yellow, granular flour that is ground from durum wheat. Semolina is made from the
endosperm of the durum wheat seed. It has a high protein content. Although it can be
used in a variety of baked goods, semolina mainly is used to make pasta.

Cereal products
1. Bread
2. Breakfast cereals
3. Flours
Flour is the powdery substance made from grinding grains. The characteristics of flour
depends on the type of material used to make it. Because most flour is used to make bread
and other baked goods, most flour is ground from wheat. The high gluten content of wheat
works well in leavened bread, leading to a light and airy finished product. Different types of
flour include:

All-purpose flour
Bread flour: A specialty flour used for bread making, this flour has a higher gluten content.
Cake flour: It is made specifically for cake making. It gives cakes a light, soft texture.
Because it is so refined, it has a low gluten content and cannot be used to make raised breads.
Pastry flour is a less refined version of cake flour.
Durum flour: Made from hard wheat, durum flour is often used in pasta because
it is high in gluten.
Gluten flour: This flour undergoes a manufacturing process so that its gluten has about twice
the strength of regular flour. It is useful for adding to recipes to balance flours that are low in
gluten.
Self-rising flour: This flour contains salt and a leavening agent, such as baking soda. It
should not be used in yeast breads. In addition, leavening agents in this flour can lose strength
with age.
Whole-wheat or whole-grain flour: This is flour that has the wheat germ and bran (or the
bran and germ from the grain being used) that were removed during milling added back
before it is packaged for consumers. Sometimes this is called graham flour. This type of flour
is higher in nutrients.
Pasta: Pasta is used broadly and generically to describe a wide variety of noodles made from
dough. The main ingredients in pasta dough are flour—which is usually made from durum
wheat and is called semolina—and a liquid. The dough is rolled out, cut or pressed into the
desired shape. Pasta is sold fresh, frozen, or dried. Pasta also may include other ingredients.
Some dough have a little egg added. Other ingredients may include soybean and mung bean
flour, vegetables (spinach, tomatoes, beets, carrots), gluten, whey, herbs, spices, and
flavourings. Colour can be provided by vegetable purées or food coloring. Macaroni: This
includes just about every pasta shape and size. Ingredients such as salt, eggs, and flavourings
also may be added. Noodles: Noodles are generally made with softer durum wheat flours
than semolina and contain egg.

Legumes
Legumes are the edible seed from the Leguminosae family (Fabaceae) and include dried peas,
beans, soya beans and lentils. Peanuts are also legumes.

Nutrition
1. Legumes are high in carbohydrate and dietary fibre. They provide around 10 - 13 g
carbohydrate that is the slowly digested type, and 6–9 g of fibre per 100 g of cooked
beans. Some of the fibre are soluble fibre. Legumes also contain oligosaccharides,
which escape digestion in the gut to be fermented by bacteria in the large intestine.
This is responsible for the abdominal discomfort and flatulence often experienced and
is perhaps the factor limiting consumption.
2. Legumes are low in fat (<2.5%) but soybeans and peanuts contain 8% and 47% fat,
respectively. This fat is mostly monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Soybeans
contain the ω-3 fatty acid linolenic acid.
3. They supply adequate protein. Cooked legumes contain about 6–9% protein, about
twice as much protein as in cereal foods. Soybeans and peanuts contain 14% and 24%
respectively, when cooked. The limiting amino acids in legumes are the sulphur-
containing methionine and cysteine but, being rich in lysine, legume proteins are well
complemented by cereals. Because that the amount of indispensable amino acids in
soy protein products is sufficient to meet protein requirements for normal human
growth and development, soy proteins are usually considered as complete protein.
4. Legumes supply vitamins and minerals including thiamin, niacin, iron, zinc, calcium,
and magnesium, but lacking in vitamin B12.
5. There are, however, several substances in uncooked legumes that inhibit their
nutritional quality. Most of these toxic substances are destroyed or inactivated by
normal cooking or processing.
i. Trypsin inhibitors may reduce the effectiveness of the digestive process
i. Haemagglutinins appear to reduce the efficiency of absorption of digestive
products.
ii. phytate binds metals, like zinc and iron, decreasing their absorption
iii. goitrogens interrupt the absorption of iodine.

Methods of preparation and utilization

Processing is essential to make beans edible and improve the nutritional quality and
digestibility of the bean.
1. Pre-soaking and rinsing with cold water is recommended to remove anti-nutrients and
to minimize gastrointestinal discomfort and flatulence that may occur after
consumption.
2. Cooking and processing inactivates most anti-nutrients and toxins.
 3. Germination and fermentation improve the nutritional quality of the bean, resulting in
increases in vitamin C, niacin, riboflavin and thiamine, and vitamin E content.

Nuts and seeds

Common types of nuts include almonds, walnuts, pecans, cashews, brazil nuts, macadamias,
hazelnuts, pine nuts, and pistachios. Sunflower, sesame, and pumpkin seeds are the most
common seeds eaten as foods.

Nutrition
Nuts and seeds have similar nutritional qualities; their low water content and high content of
energy, protein, vitamins and minerals makes them nutritious foods.

1. The energy content of nuts is mostly due to their high fat content. The fat in nuts
varies in both quantity and type. Chestnuts are low in fat, but other nuts contain from
45% to 75% fat. Majority of nuts contain unsaturated fatty acids, either
monounsaturated (e.g. macadamia) or polyunsaturated. Walnuts are rich in ω-6
polyunsaturated fatty acids but also a good source of ω-3 linolenic acid. Although
nuts are high in calories for their size, they are also considered a “nutrient-dense”
food. They contain a lot of nutrients in relation to their calories.
2. Relative to their size, nuts are also among the best plant sources for protein. The
proteins in nuts and seeds lack an essential amino acid called lysine, which can be
gained from legumes and animal products.
3. Nuts are also rich in different plant compounds e.g. flavonoids.

Preparation and Uses

1. Nuts and seed are eaten whole, sliced, slivered, diced, or chopped. Example almond
2. They can be cooked by toasting/roasting before adding them to dishes eaten the way
they are. This enhances their flavour and texture e.g. almond, cashew nut, chestnut,
sunflower seed, sesame seed, walnut,
3. Some nuts and seeds can be used as fillings and as ingredients in pastries and other
baked goods, e.g. almond, sesame seed
4. The oils derived from nuts and seeds may be added to salads, e.g. almonds, walnut,
5. Nuts and seeds extract or essence may be used as a flavouring in baked goods and
drinks e.g. almond.
6. Cashews also can be made into a delicious nut butter.
7. Most nuts are used for baking or dipping in chocolate for a treat e.g. cashew