CQB 10303

Cereal & Grains

Chapter 2
 Cereal & Grains
Chemistry & Products
technology
Aim of the course:
•To provide the knowledge on physico-chemical
properties of cereal flours and their contribution
in attaining the specific properties of cereal-based
products
•To provide the knowledge and hands-on
experience on processing of different products.
 Intended Learning Outcomes:-
At the end of the course student will be able to;
1. Describe the physico-chemical properties of cereal flour and
flour constituents
2. Evaluate the functionality of cereal flour constituents in
flour-based products
3. Explain the principles of methods used in determining the
physicochemical properties of cereal flours and starches
4. Compare the techniques of processing of products
5. Discuss the quality control practices applied in industry
6. Practice the preparation of basic products
At the end of the lesson student will be able to;
• Identify structure & composition of cereal grains
• Compare the nutrient composition and physico-
chemical properties of different cereal flour
• Differentiate cereal starch according to structure
• Explain the specialty of different cereal starches
Cereal Grains
 Many types
 Markets have expanded their range of uses
Structure & composition of cereal grains

Barley

Wheat

Rice

Maize (corn),
Oats
Cereals

• Belongs to gramineae (grass) family

• Seed is commonly called as grain/ caryopsis
• Main CHO source in many nations diet
• Each cereal has unique properties which make it
suitable for a variety of food products
• Cereals require different conditions to grow.
Ex: rice - tropical climates, oats – cold temperate
General Structure and Composition
 Outer bran coat
 5% of the kernel
 Cellulose
 Minerals and some vitamins
 Aleurone layer
 8% of the kernel
 Lies just under the bran coat
 Rich in proteins, phosphorus and thiamine
 Endosperm
 82% of the kernel
 Large, central portion of the kernel
 Contains the most starch
 Also contains most of the protein but has very little mineral or fiber
 Germ
 Small
 Rich in fat, protein, minerals also contains most of the riboflavin
Cereals
 Processed grains that are generally 75-80% carbohydrates
 Fiber is also an important attribute
 Bran cereals may contain 10-26 grams of fiber per cup
 Contain both soluble and insoluble fiber
 Insoluble fiber is good for the digestive tract and helps reduce
the risk of certain cancers
 Soluble fiber- lowers blood cholesterol, originates in the
endosperm and is found in oats, legumes, fruits and vegetables
Starch
Starch
 Storage form of carbohydrate deposited as granules or
aggregate of granules in the cells of plants
 Size and shape of the granules differ from various sources
 Parts of the plant that serve most prominently in the
storage of starch are:
 Seeds—cereals and legumes
 Roots and tubers—parsnips, potatoes, sweet potatoes
 Cassava root—Tapioca
 Pith of the Tropical palm--Sago
Starch Make-up
 Granules are made up of many starch molecules arranged
in an organized matter
 Two types
 Amylose
 Amylopectin
Amylose
 Polysaccharide of glucose
 Contributes gelling characteristics to cooked and cooled
starch mixtures
Amylopectin
 Highly branched polysaccharide of glucose
 Provides thickening properties but does not usually
contribute to gel formation
 Most starches are a mixture of the two
Milling of Grains
History of Milling
 Stones, wood were used by primitive people
 Led to water driven mills with large mill stones
 Modern milling replaced the mill stone with rollers
Flour Milling
 Bran covering, germ and endosperm are seperated to a
desired extent
 Endosperm is pulverized
 Middlings (inner portion of the kernel) is fed through a
series of smooth rollers after being seperated from the
bran to further reduce the size of the particles and
produce a finer flour
 6-8 streams of flour are produced from the rolling and
sifting of the purified middlings, this results in various
grades and types of flours. They vary in bran, germ and
gluten content
White Flour
 Final production step is often bleaching and/or maturing
 Freshly milled unbleached flour is yellowish in color when used
for baking produces a fairly course textured loaf
 If the flour is stored for several months, the color lighten and
the baking qualities improve
 FDA approves the use of nitrogen trichloride and
nitrogen tetroxide, chlorine dioxide, benzyl peroxide,
acetone peroxides, & azodicarbonate to bleach and
mature flour
 The flour then must be bleached
Flour Composition Depends On
 Class of wheat used
 Conditions under which the wheat is grown
 Degree of fractionation
Classes of Wheat
 Hard, Soft, Durum
 Durum is used almost exclusively for producing semolina-
granular flour of high gluten content and is in the
manufacturing of macaroni products

Durum Hard Red Spring Hard Red Winter

Geographical Production Areas
 Hard Spring Wheats
 North Central US, Western Canada
 Hard Winter Wheats
 South Central and Middle Central States
 Soft Winter Wheats
 East of the Mississippi River and Pacific Northwest
 Climatic and soil conditions affect the composition of
wheat, wide varations may occur within the classes
 http://www.smallgrains.org/WHFACTS/growreg.htm
Grades of Flour
 Based on the four streams used to make them
 Straight grade should contain all the four streams resulting
from the milling process
 However, 2-3% of the poorest streams is withheld and very little
flour on the market is straight grade
 Patent flours come from the more refined portions of the
endosperm & may be made from any class of wheat and are
divided as followed in order of quality
 First Patent
 Second Patent
 First Clear
 Second Clear
 Red Dog
Types of White Flour
 Bread Flour
 Slightly higher percentage of gluten and a much stronger and more elastic gluten
than other types of flour
 Made chiefly from hard wheat
 All-Purpose Flour
 Less strong and elastic gluten than bread flour
 May be a blend of hard and soft wheat or entirely hard or soft winter wheats
 Pastry Flour
 Made from soft winter wheat
 Contains a weaker quality of gluten and a slightly lower percentage of gluten
than bread and all purpose flours
 Cake Flour
 Specially prepared to reduce the gluten content about 7%
 Best made from soft wheat
 Finely ground
 Highly bleached with chlorine
Enriched Flour
 White flour to which specified B vitamins and iron have
been added
 Calcium and vitamin D may also be added
 Enrichment of baker's white bread and rolls was made
compulsory by the federal government in 1941 as a war
measure to improve the nutritional status of people
 After the war, enrichment became voluntary
Gluten
 85% of the proteins of white flour are insoluble
 Separate into two fractions
 Gliadin—syrupy substance that may bind the mass together
 Gutenin—exhibits toughness and rubberizes that contribute to
strength
 Together they form gluten
Other Flours
 Cornmeal
 Used to make quick breads
 Corn flour
 Used to make commercial pancake mixes
 Barley flour
 Used for making extruded cereals, cakes, cake donuts, cookies and
crackers
 Oat flour
 Not common
 Cakes, cookies, crackers
 Rice flour
 Used in many products as a substitute for those who have an allergy to
wheat
 Cannot be used in products that require gluten
 Basically rice starch
 1. Wheat
•Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a grass that is cultivated
temperate zone.
• The most important human food grain and ranks
second in total production as a cereal crop behind
maize; the third being rice
• Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour
for breads; cookies, cakes, pasta, noodles.
Common Species of wheat :-

•Triticum aestivum – Common wheat

•T. monococcum
•T. vulgare
•T. dicoccum – has certain disease resistance qualities
•Triticum compactum – Two types; white & red varieties
•T. durum/ Durum wheat/ Macaroni wheat – has a hard,
translucent, light colored endosperm which makes it suitable as
an ingredient for pasta
Common bread wheat can be categorized as:

• Hard / Soft varieties

• Spring / winter varieties

• White / red varieties

• Hard Red Spring — Hard, brownish, high protein wheat
used for bread and hard baked goods
- use to make bread Flour and high gluten flours
• Hard Red Winter — Hard, brownish, high protein wheat
used for bread, hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other
flours to increase protein in pastry flour
- use to prepare some brands of unbleached all-purpose flours
Soft Red Winter — Soft, low protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits.
- use to make cake flour, pastry flour, and some self- rising flours
Hard White — Hard, light colored, opaque, chalky, medium protein wheat planted in
dry, temperate areas
- Used for bread and brewing.
Soft White — Soft, light colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist
areas
- Used for pie crusts and pastry.
• Hard wheats are harder to process, and red wheats may need bleaching. So, soft
and white wheats usually have higher prices than hard and red wheats on the
commodities market.
• Raw wheat seed - food ingredient called whole wheat

• can be powdered into flour, germinated and dried creating

malt, crushed and de-branned into cracked wheat,
parboiled (or steamed), dried, or processed into semolina,
pasta

• These processed wheat are a major ingredient in such

foods as bread, breakfast cereals, crackers, biscuits,
pancakes & cakes
Structure of the wheat grain:

• Wheat grains - generally oval shaped (range from spherical

to long, narrow and flattened shapes)

• 5 and 9mm in length, weighs between 35 and 50mg

• Wheat grain has a crease down one side where it was

originally connected to the wheat flower.
Wheat grain, showing different sides and cross section to
illustrate the depth of the crease
 Pericarp Outer pericarp

Inner pericarp

Grain

Seed Seed coat (Testa)

Endosperm
Aleurone layer
Germ
Pericarp
• outer most cover
• outer pericarp consists of 3 layers
• epidermis
• hypodermis
• Inner thin-walled cell
• Inner pericarp consists of
• Intermediate cells
• cross cell
•Tube cell
Seed coat

• firmly attached to the tube cells

• if these layer carries pigments, kernel is colorful

Aleurone layer

• Outer most layer of the endosperm which contains

vitamin B
Structure of the Wheat grain
The three main parts are:
1. Bran
• outer layers of the wheat grain; removed during milling
• About 14% of the wheat kernel
• The outer coating or 'shell' of the wheat kernel is made up
of several layers
•These layers protect the main part of the kernel
• Bran is rich in B vitamins and minerals
• Wholemeal flour contains all the naturally occurring bran.
2. Endosperm
• main part of the wheat kernel or name given to the
interior of a wheat kernel
• represents about 80% of the kernel weight
• The endosperm, once it has been ground down to a
powder, is wheat flour
• It is from this part that white flour is milled. The
endosperm is rich in energy-yielding carbohydrate and
important protein.
3. Germ (Embryo)
• part of the grain which would sprout if it was planted as a
seed
• packed with nutrients and protein with which to nourish a
new plant
• During milling the germ is usually separated from the rest of
the wheat grain ( fat content limits the shelf life of the flour)
• The germ lies at one end of the grain and represents only
2% of the kernel
• rich source of B vitamins, oil, vitamin E and natural plant fat.
 Rice (Oryza sativa)
•most important cereal crop in developing world
• staple food of over half the world's population
❖ production is only slightly below that of wheat
❖ 90% is grown in southern & eastern Asian
Grain structure
❖ consists of an outer protective covering, the hull, and the
rice caryopsis or fruit
❖Brown rice consists of the outer layers of pericarp, seed-
coat and nucellus; the germ or embryo; and the endosperm
• Endosperm consists of the subaleurone layer and starchy
endosperm.
• The aleurone layer encloses the embryo
• The hull constitutes about 20 % of the rough rice weight.
•The distribution of brown rice weight:
• Pericarp 1-2%
• Aleurone, nucellus, seed-coat 4 - 6%
• Germ 1 %
• Scutellum 2%
•Endosperm 90 - 91 %
• The endosperm cells : thin-walled and packed with starch
granules

• The two outermost cell layers are rich in proteins and lipids

• have smaller amyloplasts & starch granules than the inner

endosperm.

• starch granules are polyhedral and mainly 3 - 9 µm in size

• Protein occurs mainly in the form of spherical protein bodies

 Chemical composition of rice grain

Hulled rice
Rice bran
Water 10 – 12%
Water 8.9 – 12.5%
Protein 5 – 9%
Protein 10.6 – 14.8%
Fat 0.6 – 2.6%
CHO 73 – 90% Fat 10.6 – 22.4%

Fiber 0.2 – 1% Fiber 9.6 – 11.1%

Ash 0.8 - 2% Ash 9.3 – 15%
A. Oats (Avena sativa); B. Barley (Hordeum vulgare); C. Bread Wheat
(Triticum aestivum);
D. Rye (Secale cereale).
 Rye
Chemical & physical characteristics
-The rye kernel is a caryopsis.
- Caryopsis is a small dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit.
-6 – 8 mm in length & 2 – 3 mm in width.
-The color is normally grayish yellow

-The seed consists of an embryo attach through a scutellum to

the endosperm & Aleurone layer
-The pericarp or fruit coat surrounds the whole seed & adhere
closely to it.
-A crease or furrow extends the full length of the grain on the
ventral side
-The nutritional quality of rye protein - superior to that of other
cereals because of its better balance of EAA.
-Its protein efficiency ratio seems to be higher due to; - the
greater amount of lysine present in the water soluble proteins
& the higher proportion of globulin & albumin
-Rye lipids differ from those of most other cereals by having
a slightly greater proportion of the highly unsaturated
linolenic acid.
-Therefore susceptible to oxidation. cause rancidity
-Starch granules have a mean particle diameter greater
than those of other cereals
-shape lenticular shape
spherical shape
- 8% pentosans in rye (in wheat is 3%)
- rye bread has large pores & moisture than wheat bread
-Rye has few micronutrients;
•Thiamine
•Nicotinic acid
•Riboflavin
•Pyridoxin
•Pantothenic acid
•Tocopherol
 Oats (Avenea sativa)
-grown in cooler & moisture regions of the
temperate zones
-varieties
o red oats – heat tolerant
•southern US, South America, Australia
• Winter oats – planted in the late fall, latitude of 20 - 400
• Spring oats – planted when the threat of frost is
minimum
- used to prepare cakes, biscuits, & breakfast cereals
- The physical structure of the oat grain is similar to that of
kernel of wheat & barley
- The 3 major divisions
- Bran - Endosperm - Germ
- The oat germ is larger & narrower than the germ of wheat
- Compared to other cereals oat grains are characterized by
low CHO contents & higher protein & fat content
 Barley
Genus: Hardeum
Most of the cultivated barley classified in to two groups
1. H. vulgare – six rowed barley
2. H. distictum – two rowed barley
Structure of Barley kernel
The caryopsis is composed of
❖ Pericarp
❖ Integuments
❖ Starchy endosperm
❖ Germ
-The outer layer of endosperm is made out of aleurone cells
-In blue barley, blue color is due to color given by the
anthocynin pigments in alkaline aleurone cells

Composition of barley
Protein 12%
CHO 70%
Mineral 2%
-Low in EAA esp lysine & Methionine
-Have more lysine than corn
-Contains larger amount of vitamin compared to corn
-Barley granules Large granules(A)
Small granules(B)

Large granules(A) - contain high amylopectin

-have lower gelatinization tem
small granules(B) -contain low amylopectin
-have higher gelatinization tem
There are two major groups of protein
1. Glutelins & Prolamins
2. Albumins & globulins

Uses
1. source of malt in manufacture of alcohols, wisky, beer
2. use as a flavoring agent in breakfast cereals, malted
milk, infant foods, medicinal syrups
 Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare )
-Staple food in drier part of tropical Africa, china, India
-Native home is Africa
-The grains are differently colored – Yellow, Red, or Brown
Composition
Fat 3%
CHO 70%
Fiber 12%
 Millets
-Common term used to large number of cultivated grasses
with very small seeds
-Used as forage & as a food for both man & domestic
animals
-More important in the East than West
-Generally known as poor man’s cereal
1. Fortail millets ( Setaria italica)
- Grown in Japan, China, India – grains are boiled
eaten
- In North America - mainly used as a forage crop
2. Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum)
- Contains 10 % proteins, 4 % Fat
- A palatable bread can be made from these
3.Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)
- Grown mainly in the tropics
- Most important cereal crop in Sri Lanka
 Maize (Zea mays)
-Originated in low land of tropical South America
-Leading producers : USA, China, Russia, India, Italy
Kind of maize:
Cultivars are divided into groups, according to structure of
grains
1.Pod corn — Zea mays var. tunicata
-Most primitive form
-not grown commercially
2. Popcorn — Zea mays var. everta
-Grains small with a little soft starch at the center
-When heating cause the grains to pop
3. Flint corn — Zea mays var. indurate
-Grains with hard endosperm
-A little, soft starch in the center
-Well adopted to poultry feed
4. Dent corn — Zea mays var. indentata
-Principle maize of US & North mexico
-White starch shrinks on drying to produce a characteristic dent
5. Sweetcorn — Zea mays var. saccharata
- Grain consist a glossy sweetish endosperm
- Cobs are picked immature for boiling as corn on the cobs
- Also use as a vegetable by canning or freezing
6. Flour corn — Zea mays var. amylacea
- Endosperm consists with soft starch
7. Waxy corn — Zea mays var. ceratina
- Starch is waxy & composed of entirely of amylopectin
Corn Refining
Corn Refining
 Leading example of value added agriculture
 1.2 million bushels of corn are used to produce for the
world market
 Food
 Industrial and feed products
 Refiners separate shell corn into its components
 Starch
 Oil
 Protein
 Fiber
 Convert them into higher value products
Inspection and Cleaning
 Upon arrival the corn is inspected and cleaned twice to
remove cob, dust, chaff and foreign materials
Corn Refining
 See handout
Steeping
 Corn is soaked for 30-40 hours in 50 degree F water
 Moisture level of the corn is increased from 15 to 45%
 More than doubles in size
 Mild acidity of the steep water begins to loosen the
gluten bonds and release starch
 Corn is coursely ground after steeping to break the germ
loose
 Steepwater is condensed to capture nutrients for use in
animal feed and for use in later fermentation processes
 Ground corn in a water slurry goes to the germ
seperators
Germ Separation
 Cyclone separators spin the corn germ out of the slurry
 Germs are pumped onto screens and washed repeatedly
to remove starch
 Mechanical and solvent processes are used to extract the
oil from the germ
 85% of the oil in the corn is found in the germ
 Oil is then refined and filtered into finished corn oil
 Germ residue is saved as another component of animal
feed
Fine Grinding and Screening
 Corn and water slurry are ground a second time in an impact
or attrition impact mill after leaving the germ seperator
 This releases the starch and gluten
 Suspension of starch, gluten and fiber flows over concave
screens that catch fiber but allow starch and gluten to pass
through
 Fiber is collected, slurried and screened a second time to
reclaim residual starch or protien then sent to the feed house
where it is used as a major ingredient in animal feeds
 Starch-gluten suspension called mill starch is piped to the
starch seperators
Starch Separation
 Mill starch is passed through a centrifuge where the
gluten is spun out for use in animal feeds
 Starch is diluted, washed 8-14 times, rediluted and washed
again to remove protiens to produce high quality starch
that is more than 99.5% pure
 Starch is dried and marketed in one of the following
forms
 Unmodified corn starch
 Modified speciality starch
 Corn syrup and dextrose (most)
Syrup Conversion
 Starch suspended in water is liquified in the presence of acid
and/or enzymes that convert the starch to a low dextrose
solution
 Treatment with another enzyme continues the conversion
process
 Throughout the process refiners can halt acid or enzyme
actions at key points to produce the right mix of sugars like
dextrose and maltose for syrups that meet different needs
 For example:
 To produce low to medium sweetness syrups starch to sugar
conversion is halted at an early stage
 In others the conversion is allowed to continue until the syrup is
nearly all dextrose. The syrup is then refined in filters, centrifuges and
ion-exchange columns and excess water is evaporated.
 Syrups are then sold directly, crystallized into pure dextrose or
further processed to create high fructose corn syrup
Fermentation
 Dextrose is one of the most fermentable sugars
 Following the conversion of starch to dextrose many
corn refiners pipe dextrose to fermentation facilities
where the dextrose is turned into alcohol
 After fermentation the resulting broth is distilled to
recover alcohol or concentrated through membrane
separation to produce other bio-products.
 Carbon dioxide from fermentation is recaptured for sale
and nutrients remaining after fermentation are used as
componenets of animal feed ingredients.
Bioproducts
 Ethanol
 Organic acids
 Amino acids-used in animal nutrition
 Vitamins
 Food gums
 Citric and lactic acids
 Plastics
 Eco-foam packing peanuts
Legumes
Legumes
 Provide protein and energy to much of the world’s
population
 Found almost everywhere in the world
Common Legumes
 Alfalfa
 Beans
 Kidney, Navy, Pinto, Snap
 Cowpea
 Chickpea
 Field pea
 Garden Pea
 Lentil
 Lima Bean
 Peanut
 Soybean
Nutritional Composition
 Good sources of
 Carbohydrates
 Fats
 Proteins
 Minerals
 Vitamins
 Mixtures of legumes and grains have a protein quality that
comes close to that of animal protein
Legume Products
 Fermented Foods
 Soysauce, tempeh, tofu
 Flours
 Soybean flour (used to make soy milk and low-gluten baked
foods)
 Imitation meat
 Infant formulas
 Oil
 Soybean and peanut
 Sprouts
Assignment
 Design a poster showing all the products that can be
made from soybeans. Show pictures of these products
and give a description of them.