Chapter 1.

Introduction

The field of micro-electromechanical systems, or MEMS. MEMS encompass the process-

based technologies used to fabricate tiny integrated devices and/or systems that integrate
functionalities from different physical domains into one device. Such devices are fabricated
using a wide range of technologies, having in common the ability to create structures with
micro- and even nanometer accuracies. The products range in size from a few micrometers to
millimeters. These devices (or systems) have the ability to sense, control and actuate on the
micro scale, and generate effects on the macro scale.

The interdisciplinary nature of MEMS relies on design, engineering and manufacturing

expertise from a wide and diverse range of technical areas including integrated circuit
fabrication technology, mechanical engineering, materials science, electrical engineering,
chemistry and chemical engineering, as well as fluid engineering, optics, instrumentation and
packaging. The complexity of MEMS is also seen in the extensive range of markets and
applications that incorporate such devices. MEMS can be found in systems ranging from
consumer electronics, automotive, medical, communication to defense applications. Current
examples of MEMS devices include accelerometers for airbag sensors, microphones,
projection display chips, blood and tire pressure sensors, optical switches, and analytical
components such as lab-on-chip, biosensors and many other products.

Introduction to MEMS:-

1 Microelectronic systems(MEMS) also written as micro electro mechanical, Micro

Electro Mechanical or microelectronic systems and the related micro Mechatronics is
the technology of very small devices; it merges at the nano-scale into nano electro
mechanical systems (NEMS) and nanotechnology. MEMS are also referred to
as micro machines, or micro systems technology – MST (in Europe).

2 MEMS are separate and distinct from the hypothetical vision of molecular
nanotechnology or molecular electronics. MEMS are made up of components
between 1 to 100 micrometers in size (i.e. 0.001 to 0.1 mm), and MEMS devices
generally range in size from 20 micrometers (20 millionths of a meters) to a
millimeter (i.e. 0.02 to 1.0 mm). They usually consist of a central unit that processes
data (the microprocessor) and several components that interact with the surroundings
such as micro sensors. At these size scales, the standard constructs of classical

1
 physics are not always useful. Because of the large surface area to volume ratio of
MEMS, surface affects such as electrostatics and wetting dominate over volume
effects such as inertia or thermal mass.

3 The potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology existed.
MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor
device fabrication technologies, normally used to make electronics.

1.1 Historical perspective of MEMS

MEMS have developed in the past decades, especially in the last fifteen years. In the
beginning of 1990s, MEMS emerged with the aid of the development of integrated circuit
(IC) fabrication processes, in which sensors, actuators, and control functions are co fabricated
in silicon. Since then, remarkable research progresses have been achieved in MEMS under
the strong capital promotions from both government and industries. In addition to the
commercialization of some less integrated MEMS devices, such as micro accelerometers,
inkjet printer head, micro mirrors for projection, etc., the concepts and feasibility of more
complex MEMS devices have been proposed and demonstrated for the applications in such
varied fields as micro fluidics, aerospace, biomedical, chemical analysis, wireless
communications, data storage, display, optics, etc.

In 1958, Silicon strain gauges commercially available. Later on in 1967, Invention of surface
micromachining (Nathan son, Resonant Gate Transistor). In 1970s, Bulk-etched silicon
wafers used as pressure sensors & First silicon accelerometer demonstrated. In late 1980s,
micromachining leverages microelectronics industry, widespread experimentation and
documentation increased public interest; Early transduction and actuation methods produce
simple actuators; Micromachining methods aimed toward improving sensors, thermal and
electrical isolation between layers with suspended structures. Micromachining has become
the fundamental technology for the fabrication of micro electro mechanical devices and, in
particular, miniaturized sensors and actuators. Silicon micromachining is the most advanced
of the micromachining technologies, and it allows for the fabrication of MEMS that have
dimensions in the sub millimeter range. It refers to fashioning microscopic mechanical parts
out of silicon substrate or on a silicon substrate, making the structures three dimensional and
bringing new principles to the designers.

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1.3 Basics of MEMS:-

Though MEMS (micro electromechanical systems) technology has been on the job for about
two decades in airbag deployment and automotive pressure sensors, it took the motion-
sensing user interfaces.

Still, to an extent, the idea persists that inertial sensors are useful mainly when the end
product has a need to detect acceleration and deceleration. True enough from a purely
scientific view. Yet, that could be to miss out on many of the expanding uses of MEMS
accelerometers and gyroscopes in areas such as medical devices, industrial equipment,
consumer electronics, and automotive electronics.

Looking at what becomes possible in each of the five modes of motion sensing vastly
expands the options beyond today’s high volume MEMS applications. These five modes are
acceleration (including translational movement such as position and orientation), vibration,
shock, tilt, and rotation.

For instance, an accelerometer with activity detection can enable power management
techniques by telling a device to go into the lowest power consumption mode when that
device is determined to be inactive in the absence of movement or vibration. Complicated
controls and physical buttons are being replaced by gesture-recognition interfaces controlled
by the tap of a finger. In other use cases, the operation of end products becomes more precise,
such as when a compass has compensation for the tilt angle at which it is held in your hand.

This paper offers a sample of the ways that advanced, commercially available MEMS
accelerometers and gyroscopes are set to transform an incredibly diverse scope of end
products though the five types of motion sensing.

1.4 Applications

 Sensor is a device that measures information from a surrounding environment and

provides an electrical output signal in response to the parameter it measured. Over the
years, this Information (or phenomenon) has been categorized in terms of the type of
energy domains but MEMS devices generally overlap several domains or do not even
belong in any one category. These energy domains include:
 Mechanical - force, pressure, velocity, acceleration, position
 Thermal - temperature, entropy, heat, heat flow

3
  Chemical - concentration, composition, reaction rate
 Radiant - electromagnetic wave intensity, phase, wavelength, polarization.

 Actuator is a device that converts an electrical signal into an action. It can create a force
to manipulate itself, other mechanical devices, or the surrounding environment to perform
some Useful function.

 Inkjet printers, which use piezoelectric or thermal bubble ejection to deposit ink on paper
Accelerometers in modern cars for a large number of purposes including airbag
deployment in collisions.
 MEMS gyroscopes used in modern cars and other applications to detect yaw, e.g. to
deploy a roll over bar or trigger dynamic stability control
 MEMS microphones in portable devices, e.g. mobile phones, head sets and laptops.
 Silicon pressure sensors e.g., car tire pressure sensors, and disposable blood
pressure sensors.
 Displays e.g., the DMD chip in a projector based on DLP technology, which has a
surface with several hundred thousand micro mirrors or single micro-scanning-mirrors
also called micro scanners. Optical switching technology, which is used for switching
technology and alignment for data communications.
 Bio-MEMS applications in medical and health related technologies from Lab-On-Chip to
MicroTotalAnalysis (biosensor, chemo sensor), or embedded in medical devices e.g.
stents.]
 Interferometric modulator display (IMOD) applications in consumer electronics
(primarily displays for mobile devices), used to create interferometric modulation −
reflective display technology as found in Marisol displays
 Fluid acceleration such as for micro-cooling
 Micro-scale Energy harvesting including piezoelectric, electrostatic and electromagnetic
micro harvesters.
 Micro machined Ultrasound Transducer including Piezoelectric Micro machined
Ultrasonic Transducers and Capacitive Micro machined Ultrasonic Transducers.

4
 Chapter2.

Literature Review
Introduction to Motion Sensing and MEMS Acceleration, vibration, shock, tilt, and
rotation—all except rotation are actually different manifestations of acceleration over
different periods of time. However, as humans we don’t intuitively relate to these motion
senses as variations on acceleration/deceleration.

Fig 1:- MEMS based on some basic operations

Each mode separately helps in envisioning more possibilities. Acceleration (remember,

including translational movement) measures the change in velocity in a unit of time. Velocity
is expressed in meters per second (m/s) and includes both the rate of displacement and
direction of movement. It follows that acceleration is measured in meters per second squared
(m/s2). Acceleration with a negative value—imagine a car slowing down when the driver
applies the brakes—is known as deceleration. Now consider acceleration over various periods
of time. Vibration can be thought of as acceleration and deceleration that happens quickly
and in a periodic manner. Similarly, shock is acceleration that occurs instantaneously. But
unlike vibration, a shock is a non periodic function that typically happens once. Let’s stretch
out the length of time again. When an object is moved to alter its tilt, or inclination, some
change in position with respect to gravity is involved. That movement tends to happen rather
slowly compared with vibration and shock. Because these first four modes of motion sensing
each involve a certain aspect of acceleration, they are measured by g-force, the unit of force
that gravity exerts on an object on the Earth. (One g equals 9.8 m/s2.)A MEMS accelerometer
detects tilt by measuring the effect the force of gravity exerts on the axes of the
accelerometer. In the instance of a 3-axis accelerometer, three separate outputs measure
acceleration along the X, Y, and Z axes of motion. The accelerometers with the largest share
of the market today use differential capacitors to measure g-force, which is then converted
into volts or bits (in the case of digital output accelerometers) and then passed to a

5
microprocessor to perform an action. Recent advances in technology have made it possible to
manufacture tiny MEMS accelerometers in low-g and high-g sensing ranges with much wider
bandwidth than previously, greatly increasing the field of potential applications. A low-g
sensing range is less than 20 g and deals with motion a human can generate. High-g is useful
for sensing motion related to machines or vehicles—in essence, motion that humans cannot
create. So far we have discussed only linear rate motion, the type of motion that includes
acceleration, vibration, shock, and tilt. Rotation is a measure of angular rate motion. This
mode differs from the others because rotation may take place without a change in
acceleration. To understand how that works, picture a 3-axis inertial sensor. Say that the
sensor’s X and Y axes are parallel to the Earth’s surface; the Z axis is pointing toward the
center of the Earth. In this position, the Z axis measures 1 g; the X and Y axes register 0 g.
Now rotate the sensor to move only about the Z axis. The X and Y planes simply rotate,
continuing to measure 0 g while the Z axis still measures 1 g. MEMS gyroscopes are used to
sense this rotational motion. Because certain end products must measure rotation in addition
to other forms of motion, gyroscopes may be integrated in an IMU (inertial measurement
unit) that embeds a multiaxis gyroscope and multiaxis accelerometer.
.

Automotive Applications

Automotive has been the first mass market for MEMS products and was for a long time the
main driving force for the MEMS industry. The increasing complexity of the cars, due to
demands on safety, driver and passenger comfort and environmental restrictions will cause
this market to grow for the coming years. Expected growth areas are: IR sensors for air
quality, accelerometers for motor maintenance, micro scanners for displays, energy
scavengers for tire pressure management etc. Due to increasing compatibility with IC
production technologies, the number of suppliers is increasing and prices are expected to
decrease over the coming years.

2.1 Vibrating Structure gyroscope

Gyroscopes are physical sensors that detect and measure the angular motion of
an object relative to an inertial frame of reference. The term "Gyroscope" is attributed
to the mid-19th century French physicist Leon Foucault who named his experimental
apparatus for Earth's rotation observation by joining two Greek roots: gyros - rotation
and skopeein - to see. Unlike rotary encoders or other sensors of relative angular

6
 motion, the unique feature of gyroscopes is the ability to measure the absolute motion
of an object without any external infrastructure or reference signals. Gyroscopes allow
unmetered tracking of an object's angular motion and orientation and enable
standalone Heading Reference Systems (AHRS). Combining 3 gyroscopes with 3
accelerometers in a complete 6-axis Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) enables self-
contained Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) for navigation, guidance, and dead
reckoning.

Fig 2: Gyroscope die

2.2 Crash Sensing for Airbag Control

Crash sensing for air bag control represents the largest automotive use of inertial
MEMS sensors. In this application, an accelerometer continuously measures the acceleration
of the car. When this parameter goes beyond a predetermined threshold, a microcontroller
computes the integral of the acceleration (i.e., the area under the curve) to determine if a large
net change in velocity has occurred. If it has, the air bag is fired. The decision to fire side air
bags must be made even more quickly because the car door is closer to the occupant than the
steering wheel or dashboard.

About 15 or 20 years ago, when air bags first appeared in automobiles, air bag control
module makers relied on g switches (an inertial switch made up of a contact, ball, and spring
housed in a cylindrical enclosure) distributed throughout the automobile. These switches
don't give a lot of information about the nature of the acceleration that is being sensed. They
simply provide an on/off signal telling you that the acceleration is above or below a
threshold. As a result, a simple center console air bag control module requires several
switches (generally three to seven) to decide if the acceleration is the result of road roughness
or a crash. Worse yet—because of the reliability and long life required of their contacts—g

7
switches are costly. Wiring them to several locations throughout the car increased their cost
and reduced their reliability.

The introduction of MEMS accelerometers to air bag control modules virtually eliminated the
use of g switches as the primary acceleration sensor in air bag modules. Because the MEMS
accelerometer reads a continuous (analog) measurement, you can replace the g switches with
one MEMS device in the center console. The resulting increase in reliability (e.g., Analog
Devices' highly integrated accelerometers achieve single-digit ppm defect rates) and
reduction in price of the air bag system helped bring about its near universal inclusion in cars.
Better still, MEMS accelerometers can perform robust self-testing, allowing the air bag
module processor to determine if the sensor's data are reliable or if the air bag module must
be serviced.

MEMS accelerometers commonly control side air bags. Because the fire decision must be
made quickly, there is no time to wait for the propagation of the sensor's signal through the
car's chassis, so the satellite must be placed close to the air bag it controls. In addition,
because there is virtually no crush zone between the impact and the accelerometer, the
measurement range must be above the center console accelerometers. As a result, many
vehicles outfitted with side air bags may add two to four more MEMS accelerometers for this
function.

Front-looking crash sensors placed just behind the front bumper are being added to some
models to help determine the severity of the frontal crash. The acceleration signature of the
front-looking sensor is compared with that of the center console accelerometer, allowing the
air bag module controller to modulate the inflation rate of the air bag to match the
deceleration rate of the car. Here, too, high range and compact size are important factors in
this application.

2.3 Vehicle Dynamic Control

Vehicle dynamic control (VDC) systems help the driver regain control of the
automobile when it starts to skid. If the VDC works properly, the driver may not even be
aware that the system intervened.

A VDC system consists of a gyroscope, a low-g accelerometer, and wheel-speed sensors at

each wheel (the wheel-speed sensors may also be used by the ABS). Wheel speed is
measured, and the predicted yaw (or turn) rate of the car is compared with that measured by
the gyroscope. A low-g accelerometer is also used to determine if the car is sliding laterally.

8
If the measured yaw rate differs from the computed yaw rate, or if lateral sliding is detected,
single-wheel braking or torque reduction can be used to make the car get back in line.

A typical MEMS gyro uses a quartz tuning fork. The vibration of the tuning fork, along with
applied angular rotation (yaw rate of the car), creates Coriolis acceleration on the tuning fork.
An accelerometer or strain gauge attached to the tuning fork measures the minute Coriolis
force.

Signal output is proportional to tuning-fork size. To generate a strong enough output signal,
the tuning fork must vibrate forcefully. You can best accomplish this with a high Q structure.
Manufacturers often place the tuning fork in a vacuum to minimize mechanical damping by
air around the tuning fork. High Q structures can be fairly fragile.

Because the gyro must be rigidly connected to the car to accurately measure yaw rate, the
gyro often experiences shock and vibration. Separating the signal from the noise isn't easy.
Often, the shock or vibration saturates the circuitry and makes the gyro output unreliable for a
short time (this explains why your VDC warning light may occasionally come on for no
apparent reason).

Conventional MEMS gyros are usually bulky (100 cm3 or more is not uncommon). This is
partly the result of the addition of mechanical ant vibration mounts, which are incorporated to
minimize sensitivity to external vibration.

New MEMS devices avoid these shortcomings, though. For example, Analog Devices'
iMEMS gyro (which is in development) is 7 by 7 by 3 mm (0.15 cm3). Rather than quartz, it
uses a resonating polysilicon beam structure, which creates the velocity element that
produces the Coriolis force when angular rate is presented to it. At the outer edges of the
polysilicon beam, orthogonal to the resonating motion, a capacitive accelerometer measures
the Coriolis force. The gyro has two sets of beams in antiphase that are placed next to each
other, and their outputs are read differentially, attenuating external vibration sensitivity.

2.4 Rollover Detection

Vehicles have rollover detection systems, but automakers are rapidly adopting this
feature. This is particularly true for vans, pickup trucks, and sport utility vehicles, which are
more likely to roll over because of their higher center of gravity. These systems read the roll
angle and roll rate of the vehicle to determine if it is tipping over. If it is, the system fires the
side curtain air bags to protect the occupants.

9
Rollover detection systems use a gyroscope to read the roll rate. The roll rate is integrated to
determine the roll angle of the vehicle, but roll rate data alone are not enough to predict if a
vehicle is (or will be) rolling over. An accelerometer reading vertical acceleration (Z axis) is
also required because large roll angles can be encountered in banked curves with no
possibility of rollover.

Many rollover detection systems use a second accelerometer to measure lateral acceleration
(Y axis). If a car is sliding sideways, it's less likely to roll over if unobstructed. But if it hits a
curb or another object, the chances of a rollover increase significantly. The side crash
detection accelerometer generally can't perform this task because the magnitude of
acceleration when sliding sideways is close to the noise floor of the typical >100 g range used
for side impact detection. A low g range, dual-axis accelerometer is best suited to reading the
Y and Z axes' acceleration.

Gyros used for rollover sensing don't require the same resolution as those used in VDC
systems because the roll rates are almost half an order of magnitude greater, but they must
have excellent rejection of external shock and vibration. It's not unusual for a car to roll over
immediately after striking another vehicle or stationary object. A gyro whose output is
unreliable for a short time after a shock event is next to useless.

2.5 Antitheft Systems

In response to threat, many automakers (particularly European manufacturers) are
including antitheft systems incorporating tilt detection systems. Pan European specifications
require accepted tilt detection systems to be capable of measuring a change in inclination of
3° over a 3 min. period (i.e., a rate of 0.016° of tilt per second).
Large electrolytic fluid tilt sensors have the required sensitivity for this application, but they
fall short in many other areas. Their tilt range is limited, so it's possible to park a car at an
inclination that is greater than the sensor can tolerate. In addition, fluid tilt sensors don't
perform well in the widely varying automotive temperature environment. On the other hand,
low g MEMS sensors are ideal in this application.

2.6 Electronic Parking Brake Systems

When you activate your parking brake, you normally pull it (or push, if pedal
actuated) fairly robustly without concern for how much braking force is required. As a result,
conventional parking brakes must be substantially overbuilt.

10
Pushing a button activates electronic parking brake systems. The system measures the
inclination of the vehicle, determines how much braking force is required, and applies it. This
relieves the manufacturer of the burden of having to grossly overbuild the braking system and
allows such features as the automatic parking brake (once the system determines that the car
is in park and at rest, it applies the parking brake).

Once again, a low-g accelerometer is used. The performance requirements are similar to
those of the antitheft system. In some cases, a single sensor can provide inclination data for
both systems.

2.7 Vehicle Navigation Systems

A global positioning system (GPS) is a fundamental part of a navigation system, but
GPS information alone is insufficient for navigation. The GPS can tell you where you are
(position and altitude), but not what direction you are facing. Magnetometers (electronic
compasses) are not reliable because they're confused by large ferrous metal objects close by
(e.g., a truck full of scrap metal in the next lane).

Navigation systems rely on compass and GPS information when the system is first started.
The direction of travel is matched up with map data to give the system more certainty
regarding direction. Once initial direction is established, gyroscope information is used to
determine when and how much the car has turned, until directional data can be verified by
map matching.

2.8 The Sensor Cluster

In some cases, there are as many as 15 axes of inertial sensors (accelerometer and
gyro) per vehicle. The main reason is that to date no one has had the expertise or interest to
integrate all the functions in a single system. Manufacturers often deem inertial sensor signals
of safety systems off limits to external functions for fear they'll lose the crash sensor signal
because another subsystem (e.g., the navigation system) takes the bus down.

11
 Figure 3 Clusters inertial MEMS sensors in the center of the
automobile

Figure 4. 15 axes of inertial sensors (accelerometer and gyro).

Nevertheless, many automotive OEMs are adopting the concept of using a cluster of inertial
sensors to send information to whatever system needs it (see Figure 1). In this configuration,
a six-degree-of-freedom inertial measurement unit (IMU) is located in the center of the
automobile. All the inertial accessory systems (e.g., antitheft, VDC, electronic parking brake,
and navigation systems) use the IMU signals, and the unit can also pass information to the air

12
bag control unit. Separate stand-alone accelerometers are still placed at locations around the
car for crash sensing. This is necessitated by the proximity-to-crash-zone demand of some of
the applications.

A side benefit of the inertial sensor cluster concept is that new features can be developed at
little additional cost because the inertial information is available for free. All the designer has
to do is add some intelligence.

2.9 Pressure sensors

MEMS pressure micro sensors typically use a flexible diaphragm that deforms in the
presence of a pressure difference; this deformation is converted to an electrical signal.
Pressure sensors are used in a multitude of applications. In its most simple form a MEMS
pressure sensor is created by bulk micromachining to create the silicon membrane.
Piezoresistors are patterned across the diaphragm. The sensor die is then bonded to a glass
substrate, to create a sealed cavity under the diaphragm. The die is packaged in such a way
that the topside of the diaphragm is exposed to the environment. The change in ambient
pressure forces a deformation of the diaphragm, resulting in a change of resistance of the
piezoresistors. On-chip electronics measure the resistance change, resulting in a voltage
signal. Those sensors can include a temperature controller (in a hybrid package) for constant
temperature operation.

Piezoresistive pressure-sensor technology has become a low-cost, highly reliable batch-

fabrication manufacturing technology. In practice the technology is slightly more complex,
including ion implantation for improved control of the piezoresistor fabrication; etch stops for
better control of the diaphragm thickness. DRIE was introduced for better process control and
to decrease the die size. Capacitive sensors are less sensitive to temperature variations but
have lower output signals.

Major applications for pressure sensors are in automotive, medical, industrial/process control,
aerospace and defense. Pressure, but can also transfer the information wireless, preferable
this is also a system which is self sustaining and needs therefore some form of energy
harvesting.

13
 Fig 5: MEMS positions in car

In terms of turnover automotive and process control are the biggest segments, in terms of
numbers automotive is the largest with medical coming second. A relative new segment in
automotive is Tire Pressure Management. This application is becoming mandatory in the
USA and needs a system with can not only detect the tire.

14
 Chapter 3
Conclusion
The inertial MEMS content of cars is substantial and growing. As the capabilities of these
sensors grow, designers are finding more uses for them to improve the safety and reliability
of automobiles. Today, manufacturers primarily use inertial MEMS sensors to implement
safety features (e.g., air bag control), but performance and convenience applications are
quickly becoming a major market.

The future of MEMS is integrally linked to market trends in general and driven by the
increasing demand to monitor and control our environment and the equipment and
instruments we use in our daily lives. This demand does, undoubtedly, lead to the need for
more sensors in cars, more sensors in industrial equipment and installation and, more sensors
for our ambient intelligence. In order to avoid the need for a multitude of wires, such sensors
must be self sustaining and able to communicate wirelessly. As a result, not only more
sensors are needed, but also small energy generating modules and wireless transmission
components. Clearly, the increased numbers of devices will drive size reduction which in turn
will enable higher levels of integration.

Simultaneously there are some general technical trends which will influence the MEMS
industry. In the first place the, long awaited, ending of the Moore’s law will lead to an
increasing attention in the IC industry for other ways to improve the performance of ICs. The
so called Moore than Moore trend will add new technologies to the rather mono cultural
landscape of semiconductors to enable extra functionalities, to exploring further
miniaturization by using die stacking etc..

There is also a tendency to explore more flexible and more affordable production
technologies. This will be driven by the production research into typical low cost, large
surface area devices like solar cell, displays, wearable electronics and disposable diagnostics
devices. (Re) introduction of printing technologies is one of the possibilities, low cost
substrates like plastics are another.

Last but not least, a plethora of products will come from the large amount of nanotechnology
research investments; in many cases MEMS will act as an interface between the nano and
human size world.

15
 Chapter 4
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