TE Lab-I Manual

SSCE, Udaipur Lab: THERMAL LAB-I
INDEX
Sr. Date of Detail of The Experiment Date of Remark Faculty

No. Performing Submission Signature
Study of working of four stroke

petrol engine and four stroke
diesel engine with the help of cut
01 section model.
Study of working of two stroke

petrol engine and two stroke
02 diesel engine with the help of cut
section model.
To draw a valve timing diagram

03 of a single cylinder diesel engine.
To study various types of boilers.

04
To study various types of

05 mountings and accessories.
Demonstration of steering system

and measurement of steering
06 geometry angles and their impact
on vehicle performance.
Study of braking system with

specific reference to types of
07 braking system, master cylinder,
brake shoes.
Study of transmission system

08 including clutches, gear box
assembly and differential box.
SSCE, Udaipur LAB: THERMAL LAB-I
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM
Study of working of four stroke petrol engine and four stroke diesel engine with the help
of cut section model.
BASIC CONCEPT
A four-stroke (also four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which
the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A stroke refers to
the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate
strokes are termed:
1. Intake: Also known as induction or suction. This stroke of the piston begins at
top dead center (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C.). In this stroke
the intake valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel
mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through
its downward motion. The piston is moving down as air is being sucked in by the
downward motion against the piston.
2. Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the suction
stroke, and ends at T.D.C. In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel
mixture in preparation for ignition during the power stroke (below). Both the
intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage.
3. Combustion: Also known as power or ignition. This is the start of the second
revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a
full 360 degree revolution. While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end of the
compression stroke) the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug (in
a gasoline engine) or by heat generated by high compression (diesel engines),
forcefully returning the piston to B.D.C. This stroke produces mechanical work
from the engine to turn the crankshaft.
4. Exhaust: Also known as outlet. During the exhaust stroke, the piston, once again,
returns from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels
the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.
2|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

Fig: IC Engine
Fig: Four Stroke Petrol Engine Cut section Fig: Four Stroke Diesel Engine Cut section
FOUR-STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
In this gasoline is mixed with air, broken up into a mist and partially vaporized in a
carburetor Fig. The mixture is then sucked into the cylinder. There it is compressed by
the upward movement of the piston and is ignited by an electric spark. When the mixture
is burned, the resulting heat causes the gases to expand. The expanding gases exert a
pressure on the piston (power stroke). The exhaust gases escape in the next upward
movement of the piston. The strokes are similar to those discussed under four-stroke
diesel engines. The compression ratio varies from 4:1 to 8:1 and the air-fuel mixture from
10:1 to 20:1.

Fig: Working Principle of Four Stroke Petrol Engine
Basic Concept Diesel engine
A type of internal combustion engine which ignites fuel by injecting it into hot, high-
pressure air in a combustion chamber. It has neither carburettor nor ignition system. The
fuel is injected in the form of a very fine spray, by means of a nozzle, into the combustion
chamber. There it is ignited by the heat of compressed air which the chamber has been
charged with. The diesel engine operates within a fixed sequence of events, which may
be achieved either in four or two strokes. The low-speed (i.e. 70 to 120 rev/min) two-
stroke diesel is used for main propulsion units, since it can be directly coupled to the
propeller and shafting. The medium speed four-stroke engine (250 – 1200 rev/min) is
used for the auxiliaries such as alternators and also for main propulsion with a gearbox.
A four-stroke diesel engine resembles a gasoline engine as it works on the four-stroke

cycle, that is: admission, compression, power and exhaust. When the piston gets down on
the air admission stroke, the lower pressure in the cylinder allows a charge of air into the
cylinder through the inlet valve which opens just before top dead centre.
Once the piston has passed the bottom dead centre and is beginning to ascend, the inlet
valve closes and the upward movement of the piston compresses the air charge in the
cylinder causing a quick rise of temperature. Before the second stroke is over, the charge
of fuel oil is gradually injected into the cylinder by an injector. The burning of the air-
fuel charge makes the gases expand. They push the piston downwards and create the
power stroke. Before the piston reached the bottom dead centre, the exhaust valve opens
and, as the piston goes up again, the burnt gases are forced out through the exhaust valve.
Just before top dead centre the inlet valve opens and the cycle begins again.
High-speed diesel engine – Trunk piston type engine having a rated speed of 1400 rpm
or above.
Medium-speed diesel engine – Trunk piston type engine with speed range from 400 rpm
to 1200 rpm.
Low-speed diesel engine – Crosshead type engine with rated speed of less than 400 rpm.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
In four-stroke cycle engines there are four strokes completing two revolutions of the
crankshaft. These are respectively, the suction, compression, power and exhaust strokes.
In Fig. The piston is shown descending on its suction stroke. Only pure air is drawn into
the cylinder during this stroke through the inlet valve, whereas, the exhaust valve is
closed. These valves can be operated by the cam, push rod and rocker arm. The next
stroke is the compression stroke in which the piston moves up with both the valves
remaining closed. The compression ratio usually varies from 14:1 to 22:1. The pressure at
the end of the compression stroke ranges from 30 to 45 kg/cm2. As the air is
progressively compressed in the cylinder, its temperature increases, until when near the
end of the compression stroke, it becomes sufficiently high (650-80O C) to instantly
ignite any fuel that is injected into the cylinder. When the piston is near the top of its
compression stroke, a liquid hydrocarbon fuel, such as diesel oil, is sprayed into the
combustion chamber under high pressure (140-160 kg/cm2), higher than that existing in
the cylinder itself. This fuel then ignites, being burnt with the oxygen of the highly
compressed air. During the fuel injection period, the piston reaches the end of its
compression stroke and commences to return on its third consecutive stroke, viz., power
stroke. During this stroke the hot products of combustion consisting chiefly of carbon
dioxide, together with the nitrogen left from the compressed air expand, thus forcing the
piston downward. This is only the working stroke of the cylinder. During the power
stroke the pressure falls from its maximum combustion value (47-55 kg/cm2), which is
usually higher than the greater value of the compression pressure (45 kg/cm2), to about
3.5-5 kg/cm2 near the end of the stroke. The exhaust valve then opens, usually a little
earlier than when the piston reaches its lowest point of travel. The exhaust gases are
swept out on the following upward stroke of the piston. The exhaust valve remains open
throughout the whole stroke and closes at the top of the stroke. The reciprocating motion
of the piston is converted into the rotary motion of the crankshaft by means of a
connecting rod and crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates in the main bearings, which are set
in the crankcase. The flywheel is fitted on the crankshaft in order to smoothen out the
uneven torque that is generated in the reciprocating engine.

Fig: Working Principle of Four Stroke Diesel Engine
Comparison of CI and SI Engines:-
The CI engine has the following advantages over the SI engine.
1. Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than that of the SI engine. This is because
in case of the failure of the battery, ignition or carburetor system, the SI engine cannot
Operate, whereas the CI engine, with a separate fuel injector for each cylinder, has less
Risk of failure.
2. The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is uniform as each of them has a separate
Injector, whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel mixture is not uniform, owing
to the design of the single carburetor and the intake manifold.
3. Since the servicing period of the fuel injection system of CI engine is longer, its
Maintenance cost is less than that of the SI engine.
4. The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine; therefore, the
Heat loss to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than that of the SI engine.
Consequently, the cooling system of the CI engine can be of smaller dimensions.

5. The torque characteristics of the CI engine are more uniform which results in better top
Gear performance.
6. The CI engine can be switched over from part load to full load soon after starting from
Cold, whereas the SI engine requires warming up.
7. The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper than the fuel (petrol) for SI engine.
8. The fire risk in the CI engine is minimized due to the absence of the ignition system.
9. On part load, the specific fuel consumption of the CI engine is low.
RESULT: - Study of Four stroke petrol and four stroke diesel engine has been done.

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM
Study of working of two stroke petrol engine and two stroke diesel engine with the help
of cut section model.
EQUIPMENTS: - Cut Section model of Two Stroke Petrol and Diesel Engine.
Basic Concept: Two Stroke Engine

A two-stroke (or two-cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion engine that
completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during
only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to a "four-stroke engine", which
requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle during two crankshaft
revolutions. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning
of the compression stroke happen simultaneously, with the intake and exhaust
(or scavenging) functions occurring at the same time.
Two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a
narrow range of rotational speeds called the "power band". Compared to four-stroke
engines, two-stroke engines have a greatly reduced number of moving parts.
TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE): Working Principle

In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression,
power and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the
crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through
holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which the
crankshaft rotates.
Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression) When the piston moves upward it
covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which are normally almost

opposite to each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in to the
cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston compresses the charge and also
uncovers the suction port. Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the
crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a
spark plug. Thus, during this stroke both suction and compression events are completed.
Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust) Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and
pressure of the gases which forces the piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston
moves down, it closes the suction port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the crankcase
during the previous upward stroke. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers
first the exhaust port and then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves
in to the cylinder through the transfer port driving out the burnt gases through the exhaust
port. Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so
that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases. During the downward stroke of the
piston power and exhaust events are completed.

Fig: Two Stoke Petrol Engine

The two-cycle carburettor type engine makes use of an airtight crankcase for partially
compressing the air-fuel mixture As the piston travels down, the mixture previously
drawn into the crankcase is partially compressed. As the piston nears the bottom of the
stroke, it uncovers the exhaust and intake ports. The exhaust flows out, reducing the
pressure in the cylinder. When the pressure in the combustion chamber is lower than the
pressure in the crankcase through the port openings to the combustion chamber, the
incoming mixture is deflected upward by a baffle on the piston. As the piston moves up,
it compresses the mixture above and draws into the crankcase below a new air-fuel
mixture. The, two-stroke cycle engine can be easily identified by the air-fuel mixture
valve attached to the crankcase and the exhaust Port located at the bottom of the cylinder.
TWO-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:

The cycle of the four-stroke of the piston (the suction, compression, power and exhaust
strokes) is completed only in two strokes in the case of a two-stroke engine. The air is
drawn into the crankcase due to the suction created by the upward stroke of the piston.
On the down stroke of the piston it is compressed in the crankcase, The compression
pressure is usually very low, being just sufficient to enable the air to flow into the
cylinder through the transfer port when the piston reaches near the bottom of its down
stroke. The air thus flows into the cylinder, where the piston compresses it as it ascends,
till the piston is nearly at the top of its stroke. The compression pressure is increased
sufficiently high to raise the temperature of the air above the self-ignition point of the
fuel used. The fuel is injected into the cylinder head just before the completion of the
compression stroke and only for a short period. The burnt gases expand during the next
10 | P a g e TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL
downward stroke of the piston. These gases escape into the exhaust pipe to the
atmosphere through the piston uncovering the exhaust port. Modern Two-Stroke Cycle
Diesel Engine The crankcase method of air compression is unsatisfactory, as the exhaust
gases do not escape the cylinder during port opening. Also there is a loss of air through
the exhaust ports during the cylinder charging process. To overcome these disadvantages
blowers are used to pre-compress the air. This pre-compressed air enters the cylinder
through the port. An exhaust valve is also provided which opens mechanically just before
the opening of the inlet ports.
Fig: Two Stroke Diesel Engine

Applications: Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light
weight, and high power-to-weight ratio are design priorities. By mixing oil with fuel, they
can operate in any orientation as the oil reservoir does not depend on gravity. This is an
essential property for hand-held power tools. They are also common in power tools used
outdoors, such as lawn mowers, chainsaws, and weed-wackers. With direct fuel injection
and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no
worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore,
the cycle has historically also been used in large diesel engines, mostly large industrial
and marine engines, as well as some trucks and heavy machinery.
Working Principle of Two Stroke Engine: Uniflow scavenging
Fig: Two Stroke Engine
The uniflow two-stroke cycle
1. Top dead center (TDC)

2. Bottom dead center (BDC)
A: Intake (effective scavenging, 135°–225°; necessarily symmetric about BDC; Diesel
injection is usually initiated at 4° before TDC)
B: Exhaust
C: Compression
D: Expansion (power)
In a uniflow engine, the mixture, or "charge air" in the case of a diesel, enters at one end
of the cylinder controlled by the piston and the exhaust exits at the other end controlled
by an exhaust valve or piston. The scavenging gas-flow is, therefore, in one direction
only, hence the name uniflow. The valve arrangement is common in on-road, off-road,
and stationary two-stroke engines (Detroit Diesel), certain small marine two-stroke
engines (Gray Marine), certain railroad two-stroke diesel locomotives (Electro-Motive
Diesel) and large marine two-stroke main propulsion engines. Ported types are
represented by the opposed piston design in which two pistons are in each cylinder,
working in opposite directions such as the Junkers Jumo 205 and Napier Deltaic. The
once-popular split-single design falls into this class, being effectively a folded uniflow.
With advanced-angle exhaust timing, uniflow engines can be supercharged with a
crankshaft-driven (piston or Roots) blower.
Direct injection
Direct injection has considerable advantages in two-stroke engines. In carburetted two-
strokes, a major problem is a portion of the fuel/air mixture going directly out, unburned,
through the exhaust port, and direct injection effectively eliminates this problem. Two
systems are in use, low-pressure air-assisted injection and high-pressure injection.
Since the fuel does not pass through the crankcase, a separate source of lubrication is
needed.
COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO STROKE AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES
Four stroke engine Two stroke engine
One power stroke for every two revolutions One power stroke for each revolution of the
of the crankshaft. crankshaft
2. There are inlet and exhaust valves in the There are inlet and exhaust ports instead of
engine. valves.
3. Crankcase is not fully closed and air Crankcase is fully closed and air tight.
tight.
4. Top of the piston compresses the charge Both sides of the piston compress the
charge.
5. Size of the flywheel is comparatively Size of the flywheel is comparatively

larger. smaller.
6. Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.
7. Weight of engine per hp is high. Weight of engine per hp is comparatively

low.
8. Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively low.
9. Removal or exhaust gases easy. Removal of exhaust gases comparatively

difficult.
10. Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.
11. For a given weight, engine would give For same weight, two stroke engine gives
only half the power of two stroke twice the power that of four stroke engine.
RESULT: - Study of Two stroke petrol and two stroke diesel engine has been done.
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM
To draw a valve timing diagram of a single cylinder diesel engine.
APPARATUS USED :- Four-Stroke, Single-Cylinder Diesel Engine Test Rig, Sprit

Level, Marking Pencil, and Device for measuring crank angle.
THEORY: In four- stroke S. I. Engine the opening and closing of the valves, and the
ignition of the air fuel mixture do not take place exactly at the dead centre positions. The
valve open slightly earlier and close after their respective dead centre positions. The
ignition also occurs prior, to the mixture is fully compressed, and the piston reaches the
top dead centre position. Similarly in a C. I. Engine both the valves do not open and close
exactly at dead centre positions, rather operate at some degree on either side in terms of
the crank angles from the dead centre positions. The injection of the fuel is also timed to
occur earlier.
INLET VALVE: - During the suction stroke the Inlet valve must be open to admit
charge into the cylinder, the inlet valve opens slightly before the piston starts downward
on the suction stroke. The reason that the inlet valve is open before the start of suction
stroke is that the valve is necessary to permit this valve to be open and close slowly to
provide quite operations under high speed condition.
INLET VALVE OPENS (IVO):- It is done at 10to 25 θ in advance of TDC position.
INLET VALVE CLOSES (IVC):- It is done at 25 to 50θ after BDC position.

EXHAUST VALVE: - As the piston is forced out on the outstroke by the expanding
gases, it has been found necessary to open the exhaust valve before the piston reaches the
end of the stroke. By opening the exhaust valve before the piston reaches the end of its
own power stroke, the gases have an outlet for expansion begin to rush out of their own
accord. This removes the greater part of the burnt gases reducing the amount of work to
be done by the piston on its return stroke.
EXHAUST VALVE OPENS (EVO):- It is done at 30 to 50θ in advance of BDC

position.
EXHAUST VALVE CLOSES (EVC):- It is done at 10 to 15 θ after the TDC position.
PROCEDURE:-
1) Fix a plate on the body of the Engine touching the flywheel.
2) Mark the positions of the both the dead centers on the flywheel with the
reference to the fixed plate. TDC and BDC in case of vertical Engines, IDC and
ODC in case of horizontal Engines.
3) Mark on the flywheel when the inlet and exhaust valves open and close as the
flywheel is rotated slowly.
4) Measure the valves (Tappet) Clearance.
5) Mark the spark ignition timing in case of petrol Engine and fuel injection
timing in case of Diesel Engine.
6) Measure the angles of the various events and plot the valve timing diagram.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:-
S.NO. Valve Position Arc Length, S Angle θ in

CM Mm degree
1 TDC-Inlet Valve Open
2 BDC-Inlet Valve Close
3 TDC-Exhaust Valve Open
4 BDC-Exhaust Valve Close
CALCULATIONS:-
The valve timing diagram of 4-stroke diesel engine is studied with the help of given cut
section model
1. Suction covered =
2. Compression covered =
3. Expansion covered =
4. Exhaust covered =
5. Overlap =
RESULT:-Based on final calculation valve timing diagram is drawn and compare with
the standard valve timing diagram.
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM
To study various types of boilers.
EQUIPMENT:- Model of various type of Boilers.
BASIC CONCEPT
Boiler: It is a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of
fuel. A boiler is a closed vessel which is used to convert the water into high pressure
steam. The high pressure steam so generated is used to generate power.
Fig: Steam Boiler
Working Principle of a Boiler
The boiler works on the same principle as the water is heated in a closed vessel and due
to heating, the water changes into steam. This steam possesses high-pressure kinetic
energy. The boiler contains water. The water is heated to its boiling temperature by the
use of heat from the furnace. Due to the heating of water, it gets converted into high-
pressure steam. The steam generated is passed through the steam turbines. As the high-
pressure steam strikes the turbine, it rotates the turbine. A generator is attached to the
turbine and the generator also starts to rotate with the turbine and produces electricity.
Different Types of Boiler

Boilers can be classified on the different basis but here I am discussing the only
important basis of boiler classification.
Classification of Boilers:
1. According to their Axis (Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined)
i. If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal.
ii. If the axis is vertical, it is called vertical boiler.
iii. If the axis is inclined it is known as inclined boiler.
2. Fire Tube and Water Tube

i. In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and the water surrounds the
tubes, Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
ii. In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them,
Examples: Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
Fig: Fire Tube and Water Tube Boiler
3. Externally Fired and Internally Fired

i. The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the shell, Examples:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
ii. The furnace is located inside the boiler shell, Examples: Cochran, Lancashire boiler
etc.
4. Forced Circulation and Natural Circulation

i. In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is done by a forced pump.
ii. In natural circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due
to natural convention currents produced by the application of heat, Examples: Lancashire,
Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.
5. High Pressure and Low Pressure Boilers

i. The boilers which produce steam at pressures of 80 bar and above are called high
pressure boilers, Examples: Babcock and’ Wilcox boilers.
ii. The boilers which produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure
boilers, Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
6. Stationary and Portable

i. Stationary boilers are used for power plant-steam, for central station utility power
plants, for plant process steam etc.
ii. Mobile boilers or portable boilers include locomotive type, and other small units for
temporary use at sites (Large Ships).
7. Single Tube and Multi-tube Boilers

The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi-tube boilers, depending upon
whether the fire tube is one or more than one.
Boiler Mountings: These are the fitting and devices which are necessary for the operation
and safety of a boiler.
Boiler Accessories: These are auxiliary plants required for steam boilers for the proper
operation and for the increase of their efficiency.
RESULT: Study of various type of boiler and accessories have done.
EXPERIMENT NO.5
AIM
To study various types of mountings and accessories.
EQUIPMENT:- Model of various type of Boilers.
Boiler fittings and accessories
Fig: Boiler Accessories and Mountings
 Pressure Valve to control the steam pressure in the boiler. Boilers generally
have 2 or 3 pressure valve: a manual-reset pressure valve, which functions as
a safety by setting the upper limit of steam pressure, the operating pressure
valve, which controls when the boiler fires to maintain pressure, and for
boilers equipped with a modulating burner, a modulating pressure valve
which controls the amount of fire.
 Safety valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a
boiler.
 Water level indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in the
boiler, also known as a sight glass, water gauge or water column.
 Bottom blowdown valves: They provide a means for removing solid
particulates that condense and lie on the bottom of a boiler. As the name
implies, this valve is usually located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and
is occasionally opened to use the pressure in the boiler to push these
particulates out.
 Continuous blowdown valve: This allows a small quantity of water to
escape continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler
becoming saturated with dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming
and cause water droplets to be carried over with the steam – a condition
known as priming. Blowdown is also often used to monitor the chemistry of

the boiler water.
 Trycock: a type of valve that is often use to manually check a liquid level in a
tank. Most commonly found on a water boiler.
 Flash tank: High-pressure blowdown enters this vessel where the steam can
'flash' safely and be used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere
while the ambient pressure blowdown flows to drain.
 Automatic blowdown/continuous heat recovery system: This system
allows the boiler to blowdown only when makeup water is flowing to the
boiler, thereby transferring the maximum amount of heat possible from the
blowdown to the makeup water. No flash tank is generally needed as the
blowdown discharged is close to the temperature of the makeup water.
 Hand holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow
for inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of internal surfaces.
 Steam drum internals, a series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone
separators).
 Low-water cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) or an
electrode with a safety switch that is used to turn off the burner or shut off
fuel to the boiler to prevent it from running once the water goes below a
certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it) it can cause
rupture or catastrophic failure.
 Surface blowdown line: It provides a means for removing foam or other
lightweight non-condensable substances that tend to float on top of the water
inside the boiler.
 Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler after it
has expelled some of its heat.
 Feed water check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in the feed
water line. This may be fitted to the side of the boiler, just below the water
level, or to the top of the boiler.
 Top feed: In this design for feedwater injection, the water is fed to the top of
the boiler. This can reduce boiler fatigue caused by thermal stress. By
spraying the feedwater over a series of trays the water is quickly heated and
this can reduce lime scale.
 Desuperheater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of tubes in the
water drum or the steam drum designed to cool superheated steam, in order to
supply auxiliary equipment that does not need, or may be damaged by, dry
steam.
 Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling
feedwater PH.
Steam accessories
 Main steam stop valve:

 Steam traps:
 Main steam stop/check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.
Combustion accessories
 Fuel oil system: fuel oil heaters

 Gas system:
 Coal system:
Other essential items
 Pressure gauges:
 Feed pumps:
 Fusible plug:
 Insulation and lagging;
 Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
 Name plate:
 Registration plate:
Draught
A fuel-heated boiler must provide air to oxidize its fuel. Early boilers provided this
stream of air, or draught, through the natural action of convection in
a chimney connected to the exhaust of the combustion chamber. Since the heated flue gas
is less dense than the ambient air surrounding the boiler, the flue gas rises in the chimney,
pulling denser, fresh air into the combustion chamber.
Most modern boilers depend on mechanical draught rather than natural draught. This is
because natural draught is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases
leaving the furnace, as well as the chimney height. All these factors make proper draught
hard to attain and therefore make mechanical draught equipment much more reliable and
economical.
Types of draught can also be divided into induced draught, where exhaust gases are
pulled out of the boiler; forced draught, where fresh air is pushed into the boiler;
and balanced draught, where both effects are employed. Natural draught through the use
of a chimney is a type of induced draught; mechanical draught can be induced, forced or
balanced.
There are two types of mechanical induced draught. The first is through use of a steam
jet. The steam jet oriented in the direction of flue gas flow induces flue gases into the
stack and allows for a greater flue gas velocity increasing the overall draught in the
furnace. This method was common on steam driven locomotives which could not have
tall chimneys. The second method is by simply using an induced draught fan (ID fan)
which removes flue gases from the furnace and forces the exhaust gas up the stack.
Almost all induced draught furnaces operate with a slightly negative pressure.
Mechanical forced draught is provided by means of a fan forcing air into the combustion
chamber. Air is often passed through an air heater; which, as the name suggests, heats the
air going into the furnace in order to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler.
Dampers are used to control the quantity of air admitted to the furnace. Forced draught
furnaces usually have a positive pressure.
Balanced draught is obtained through use of both induced and forced draught. This is
more common with larger boilers where the flue gases have to travel a long distance
through many boiler passes. The induced draught fan works in conjunction with the
forced draught fan allowing the furnace pressure to be maintained slightly below
atmospheric.
Types of Mountings:
· Safety valves
· Water level indicator
· A pressure gauge
· A steam stop valve
· A feed check valve
· A Fusible plug
· A blow-off cock
Types of Accessories:
· Feed pumps
· Injector
· Economiser
· Air preheater
· Superheated
· Steam separator
Fig: Boiler with mounting and accessories

Mountings:
1. SAFETY VALVES: It is use for release the excess steam when the pressure of
steam inside the boiler exceeds the rated pressure. Types of safety valve are the
following:
· Dead weight safety valve

· Lever safety valve
· Spring loaded safety valve
· Gravity safety valve
3. WATER LEVEL INDICATOR: It is use to indicate the level of water in the

boiler constantly.
4. PRESSURE GAUGE: It is use to measure the pressure exerted inside the vessel.
5. STEAM STOP VALVE: It is use to regulate the flow of steam from the boiler to
the steam pipe.
6. FEED CHECK VALVE: It is use to control the supply the water to the boiler
and to prevent the escaping of water from the boiler when the pump is stopped.
7. FUSIBLE PLUG: It is use to protect the boiler against damage due to

overheating for low water level.
8. BLOW-OFF COCK: It is use to discharge a portion of water when the boiler is
empty when necessary for cleaning, inspection, repair, mud, scale and sludge.
Accessories:
1. FEED PUMPS: It is used to deliver feed water to the boiler by the pump.
2. INJECTOR: The water is delivered to the boiler by steam pressure; The Kinetic
energy of steam is used to increase the pressure and velocity of feed water.
3. ECONOMISER: It is a device in which the waste heat of flue gases is utilized
for heating the feed water.
4. AIR PREHEATER: It is use to increase the temperature of air before it enters
the furnace.
5. SUPERHEATER: It is use to increase the temperature of steam above it
saturation point.
STEAM SEPARATOR: It is use to separate the water particles from the steam to the
steam engine or steam turbine
RESULT: Study about All mounting and accessories have done.
EXPERIMENT NO.6
AIM
Demonstration of steering system and measurement of steering geometry angles and their
impact on vehicle performance.
EQUIPMENT: A working or a non working model of steering mechanism.
THEORY:
The steering system allows the driver to control the direction of the automobile by means
of two major components. : the steering gears, which multiply the driver’s effort at the
steering wheel; and the steering linkage, which connects the gear box to the front wheels.
How well the system works depends on proper alignment of the front wheels for
directional control and ease of steering.
1. To convert rotary movement of the steering wheel into angular motion of the front road
Wheels.
2. To provide directional stability to the vehicle.
3. To minimize wear of tyres.
4. To turn vehicle at driver’s will.
5. To provide perfect rolling motion of the road wheels at all times.
6. To multiply the effort of the driver by leverage so that turning of wheels is easy.
7. To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.
8. To absorb road shocks thus preventing them to get transmitted to the hands of the
Driver.
9. To swing the wheels to the left or right. To achieve correct steering, two types of
Steering mechanisms are used.
i) Davis Steering Mechanism
ii) Ackermann Steering Mechanism
The main difference between these two is that the Davis mechanism has sliding pairs,
whereas the Ackermann mechanism has only turning pairs. The sliding pair has more
friction than the turning pair and hence Davis mechanism will wear out after certain time.
Therefore Ackermann mechanism is preferred to the Davis mechanism.
Fig: Steering Mechanism

For effective control of the vehicle throughout its speed range with safety and without
much conscious effort on wide variety of road surfaces providing bumps and bounces to
the vehicle, proper steering is necessary. Moreover, it is the basic feature of the vehicle to
be steered straight and maintained at that position or deviated from it at the driver’s will
without much effort on his part. The control of an automobile is done by means of a
steering system, which provides directional changes to the moving automobile and with
the help of accelerator and gear shift lever as well as the brakes.
The steering system in addition to directing the vehicle in a particular direction must be
arranged geometrically in such away so that the wheels undergo true rolling motion
without slipping or scuffing, Moreover, the steering must be light, stable with a certain
degree of self adjusting ability.
To convert the rotary motion of the driver’s steering wheel into the angular turning of the
front wheels as well as to multiply the driver’s effort with leverage or mechanical
advantage for turning the wheel fairly is the function of the steering system. The front
heels are carried on the spindles of the knuckles. They run in tapered roller or ball
bearings. In order to prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the driver and the
passengers, the steering system should also absorb these shocks. For this purpose,
steering gears attached to the front wheels are used.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Steering gear is a device for converting the rotary motion of driver’s steering wheel into
the straight-line motion of the linkages or angular turning of the front wheels. It consists
of mainly two parts: a worm on the end of the steering shaft and a pitman-arm shaft.
There is a gear sector, toothed roller or stud fitted on the pitman arm shaft. A steering
gear consists of certain type of worm drive in which the driving worm is fastened to
steering tube end. A cross shaft placed at right angles to the steering tube is rotated by the
driven gear. Due to turning of the steering wheel by the driver, this motion is transmitted
to through a steering gear fitted at its end.
Fig: Steering Geometry
The twisting force is multiplied by the steering gear according to the gear ratio. The
output shaft or roller shaft is rotated to move the pitman arm. The motion to the steering
knuckles is transmitted through drag link intermediate steering pivoted in a frame
bracket, two tie rods and two steering arms by the pitman arm.
The operations, which will take place when a right turn is made by steering wheel, are as
under:
(a) The steering wheel and steering tube are turned clockwise for causing the steering
gear to rotate the roller shaft.
(b) Pitman arm is moved by this action resulting its bottom end to move forward for
pushing the drag link.
(c) The tie rods are moved to the left by intermediate steering arm, which gets a push of
the drag link.
(d) To turn the right steering knuckle and wheel to the right, the right tie rod will pull the
right steering arm.
(e) For turning the left steering knuckle and wheel to the right the left tie rod pushes the
left steering arm.
Wheel alignment
Wheel alignment sometimes referred to as breaking, or tracking is part of
standard automobile maintenance that consists of adjusting the angles of wheels to the car
manufacturer specifications. The purpose of these adjustments is to reduce tire wear and
to ensure that vehicle travel is straight and true (without "pulling" to one side). Alignment
angles can also be altered beyond the maker's specifications to obtain a specific handling
characteristic. Motorsport and off-road applications may call for angles to be adjusted
well beyond normal, for a variety of reasons.
An increasing number of modern vehicles have advanced driver assistance systems
(ADAS) such as electronic stability control, anti-lock brakes, lane departure warning,
adaptive cruise control and traction control. These systems can be affected by mechanical
alignment adjustments. This has led many manufacturers to require electronic resets for
these systems after a mechanical alignment is performed.
Fig: Wheel Geometry angle Measurements
Primary angles
The primary angles are the basic angle alignment of the wheels relative to each other and
to the car body. These adjustments are the camber, caster and toe. On some cars, not all
of these can be adjusted on every wheel.
These three parameters can be further categorized into front and rear (with no caster on
the rear, typically not being steered wheels). In summary, the parameters are:
 Front: Caster (left & right)

 Front: Camber (left & right)
 Front: Toe (left, right & total)
 Rear: Camber (left & right)
 Rear: Toe (left, right & total)
Secondary angles
The secondary angles include numerous other adjustments, such as:
 SAI (Steering Axis Inclination) (left & right)

 Included angle (left & right)
 Toe out on turns (left & right)
 Maximum Turns (left & right)
 Toe curve change (left & right)
 Track width difference
 Wheelbase difference
 Front ride height (left & right)
 Rear ride height (left & right)
 Frame angle
 Setback (front & rear)
Setback is the difference between right side and left side wheelbase length. It can also be
measured as an angle. Setback less than the manufacturer specified tolerance (for
example about 6mm) does not affect car handling. That's because, when the vehicle is
turning, one wheel is ahead of the other by several centimetres and therefore the setback
is negligible. There are even some car models with different factory setting for right and
left side wheelbase length, for various design reasons. An off-spec setback may occur
because of a collision or a difference between right and left caster.[2]
Rake is the difference between the front ride heights and the rear ride heights, a positive
number when the rear ride height is larger.
Measurement
A camera unit (sometimes called a "head") is attached to a specially designed clamp
which holds on to a wheel. There are usually four camera units in a wheel alignment
system (a camera unit for each wheel). The camera units communicate their physical
positioning with respect to other camera units to a central computer which calculates and
displays.
Often with alignment equipment, these "heads" can be a large precision reflector. In this
case, the alignment "tower" contains the cameras as well as arrays of LEDs. This system
flashes one array of LEDs for each reflector whilst a camera centrally located in the LED
array "looks for" an image of the reflectors patterned face. These cameras perform the
same function as the other style of alignment equipment, yet alleviate numerous issues
prone to relocating a heavy precision camera assembly on each vehicle serviced.
Camber
Camber is the angle which the vertical axis of the wheel makes with the vertical axis of
the vehicle. This angle is very important for the cornering performance of the vehicles.
Generally a Camber around 0.5-2 degrees is given on the vehicles. Depending upon
wheel orientation, Camber can be of three types.
1. Positive Camber
The Camber would be called positive when the top of the wheels lean outwards. Positive
Camber is generally used in off-road vehicles. This is because, it improves the steering
response and decreases the steering efforts required for turning the vehicle. Positive
Camber is also provided in load carrying vehicles. This is because the heavy load on
these vehicles cause outward leaning wheels to straighten up, improving the vehicle
stability.
2. Zero Camber
The vehicle is said to have zero Camber when the wheels stand perfectly straight on the
ground.
3. Negative Camber
Negative Camber is encountered when the top of the wheels lean inwards. Providing
Negative Camber improves the cornering performance. When the vehicle turns on a
corner, it performs a circular motion. Hence, it experiences equal and opposite centripetal
& centrifugal forces. The centripetal force is experienced in the form of friction on tyres.
The centrifugal force experienced by the car tries to throw it away from the turning
center. This increases the normal reaction on the outer wheels. Due to increase in normal
reaction, the frictional force on the outer tyres also increase. This friction acts as
centripetal force and tries to bend the outer tires inwards. The tires get deformed due to
bending and the contact area between the wheels and the ground decreases. This in turns
decreases the frictional force between the outer tires and the ground causing the vehicle
to drift during cornering. Hence a negative Camber is given to the vehicles. The
negatively cambered wheels lean inwards. So during cornering when the frictional forces
try to deform the outer wheels, they just simply get flat on ground increasing the friction
with road surface.
Signs of a Bad Wheel Alignment
 The vehicle pulls to one side

 The steering wheel doesn’t return to center
 The steering wheel is off center
 Excessive tire wear in certain spots
 Loose steering
Conditions for correct measurement of wheel angles

It is important to eliminate the different sources of inaccuracy in the measurement of the
wheel angles.
Before measuring
1. The lift shall be level including the turntables and roller plates. A difference left/right
of 5mm on the level of a typical vehicle gives a fault of 10' on the Camber value.
2. For the same reason the tyre pattern shall have the same height on all 4 wheels, and of
course the tyres shall be of the same type.
3. Tyre pressure shall be correct and the loading of the vehicle according to manufacturer
specifications.
4. Turntables and roller plates shall move easily and freely to avoid that the suspension is
blocked.
5. Check that the rims are undamaged and meet the specifications from the manufacturer.
6. Check ball joints and bearings for play. Check for broken springs, worn bushings and
improper shock absorbers.
7. Check that the suspension height is correct and that the steering gear is correctly
mounted.
8. In case the measured values are severely out of tolerance look for chassis damage.
Before performing Wheel Alignment all mechanical faults should be corrected.
During measurement
1. Perform run-out compensation carefully.

2. Bump the vehicle. Correct Toe and Camber values are measured with the front wheels
in straight ahead position. Before Printout the front wheels shall be in straight ahead
Position and the measuring units in level.
Impact of steering geometry on vehicle performance

Steering Geometry Diagnostics
When you’re in the wheel alignment trade, you will inevitably have a vehicle come back
with steering quality complaints or uneven tire wear after having the alignment
Fig: Pre alignment Inspection
Adjusted. Tire casing problems aside, the fault would almost always be found in
defective steering geometry caused by a bent steering knuckle assembly. Bent steering
knuckle assemblies are easy to ignore simply because they do require extra time and
effort to measure and evaluate in today’s fast-paced undercar service market but, the
symptoms of bent steering knuckles are easy to spot, if we do a thorough pre-alignment
inspection.
Camber, Caster, and Toe
Fig: Camber and caster
Let’s begin with a recap. Positive caster angle is best illustrated by the rearward tilt of the
steering fork on a bicycle. Positive caster obviously places the front wheel ahead of its
pivot point and most vehicles are designed with positive caster angle. A negative caster
angle is best illustrated by the casters on a tool box trailing their pivot points. When
weight is applied to the two front wheels of a vehicle, positive or negative caster forces
the front wheels to a centered position which helps reduce steering wander. Camber is the
vertical position of the wheels in relation to the road surface. Negative camber results
when the tops of the two front wheels tilt inward toward the chassis
Fig: Camber and Caster, Toe
Centreline. Positive camber results when the tops of the wheels tilt outward from the
chassis centerline. Positive camber works in conjunction with king pin or steering axis
inclination (SAI) to reduce steering effort. On older vehicles with individually
replaceable wheel bearings, positive camber places the vehicle weight squarely on the
larger inner wheel bearing. Toe is the most critical tire-wearing angle. Wheels pointed
inward from the centerline are “toed” in, wheels pointed outward from centerline are
“toed” out. A slight amount of toe-in is required to prevent the front wheels from
following ruts or contours in the road, and compensates for flexing and wear in the tie
rods and tie rod ends, as well as for minor changes in suspension height and geometry.
SAI and Steering Radius

Two steering geometry angles, SAI and steering radius, are built into the steering knuckle
and are non-adjustable. In the real world, defects in SAI and steering radius often go
unnoticed if the vehicle is driven on interstate-style highways and not through turns on
Fig: SAI and Steering Radius
City streets. The upper ball joint or strut support bearing on a front suspension is closer to
the chassis centerline than the lower ball joint. An imaginary line drawn through the
upper strut support bearing or ball joint and lower ball joint should theoretically intersect
with the centerline of the tire at the point of road contact. SAI consequently allows the
wheel to pivot on its centerline. If the SAI is incorrect, the tires begin to swing in a radius
around this theoretical pivot point. Incorrect SAI caused by bent struts, bent spindles or
excessively offset wheels results in greater steering effort and accelerated suspension
system wear. SAI also tends to return the front wheels to center because, when combined
with caster angle, SAI to apply more weight on the inside front wheel by lifting the
chassis an inch or two. At center, SAI acts in combination with the caster angle to reach
equilibrium on both wheels reducing steering wander. SAI and caster angle generally
increase the positive camber angle of the inside tire and decreases positive camber angle
of the outside tire during a turn. This camber change counteracts the tendency of the tire
tread to lift from the road surface during a turn.
Steering Radius
Because the inside wheel turns through a shorter radius than the outside wheel, the
steering system must change from toe-in to toe-out to reduce tire scrub when navigating a
sharp corner. The portion of steering knuckle responsible for turning the inner wheel
through a sharper turning radius is the steering arm. The angle of the steering arm
intersects the vehicle centerline at approximately the length of the vehicle’s wheelbase.
The angle of the steering arms allows the rear wheels to track more closely with the front
when turning a corner. The actual process of going from toe-in (or toe zero) to toe-out
Fig: Steering Radius
When navigating a turn is known as the Ackerman Effect. The Ackerman Effect is
always a compromise between different driving conditions. A NASCAR Toyota, for
example, might have very little Ackerman angle because the car is driven through long,
sweeping curves, often at a slight drift angle. In this case, two degrees of Ackerman
would increase tire wear and negatively affect the driver’s control of the vehicle. Most
NASCAR vehicles feature a slotted steering arm that allows Ackerman angle to be
adjusted on each steering arm to meet track conditions. At the other extreme, a metro-
area delivery van steering around 90-degree street corners and into very confined turn-
around areas would need at least two degrees differential in Ackerman angle to make
precise turns and reduce front tire wear. Without a sufficient Ackerman angle, the vehicle
would tend to “push” going around a sharp corner, which would result in poor steering
response and accelerated tire wear.
Tire Issues
Fig: Impact on Tyre
Old bias-ply designs from the 60s produced very high rolling friction and were very
sensitive to incorrect camber and toe angles. The bias-ply belted tires of the 70s and 80s
were an improvement on the original design, but developed problems when used on
vehicles with steering geometries designed for bias-ply tires. Current passenger tire
designs use a flexible sidewall and a firm tread belt to deal with the negative camber and
high caster angles used in modern steering geometries. Negative camber angles and
increased caster angles increase the tread contact patch at high cornering speeds, which
improves steering quality and response. Toe angles have been reduced because modern
suspension produces much less toe variation. Always inspect tire pressure, matching
casing design, and size and tread pattern before road testing. Test for loose steering
components by rocking the steering wheel key-on, engine off. Badly worn steering shaft
couplers and tie rod ends will generally make a knocking sound. The steering should be
checked hands-off when starting the engine. If the steering wheel rocks as the engine
starts, the pressure metering system in the power steering gear might be defective.
RESULT: Model of steering system of an automobile has been visualized and studied.
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
AIM: - Study of braking system with specific reference to types of braking system,
master cylinder, brake shoes.
THEORY
A brake is an appliance by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a
moving body or part of a machine in order to stop or retard its motion or prevent increase
in its speed. In the process of performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic
energy of the moving member or potential energy given up by objects being lowered by
hoists, elevators etc. The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This
heat is dissipated in the surrounding air (or water which is circulated through the passages
in the brake drum) so that excessive heating of the brake lining does not take place. The
capacity of a brake depends upon the following factors.
1. The unit pressure between the braking surfaces,
2. The coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces,
3. The peripheral velocity of the brake drum,
4. The projected area of the friction surfaces, and
5. The ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy Bing to stop a
Moving member or to control its speed.
The brakes, according to the means used for transforming the energy by the braking
element, are classified as:
1. Hydraulic brakes e.g. pumps or hydrodynamic brake and fluid agitator,
2. Electric brakes e.g. generators and eddy current brakes, and
3. Mechanical brakes.
MECHANICAL BRAKES:
Since we are to limit ourselves to only mechanical brakes, these brakes are classified as:
(1) Block or shoe brake,
(2) Band brake,
(3) Band and block brake and
(4) Internal expanding shoe brake.
The Block Shoe Brake can be classified as:
(a) Single block or shoe brake,
(b) Pivoted block or shoe brake and
(c) Double block or shoe brake.
Single Block or Shoe Brake:
A single block or shoe brake consists of a block or shoe, which is pressed against the rim
of a revolving brake wheel drum. The block is made of a softer material than the rim of
the wheel. This type of a brake is commonly used in railway coaches and tram cars. The
friction between the block and the wheel causes a tangential braking force to act on the
wheel, which retard the rotation of the wheel. The block is pressed against the wheel by a
force applied to one end of a lever to which the block is rigidly fixed. The other end of
the lever is pivoted on a fixed fulcrum O.
Let P = Force applied at the end of the lever
F= Normal force pressing the brake block on the wheel,
R= Radius of the wheel
2θ=Angle of contact surface of the block
µ = Coefficient of friction, and
Ft= Tangential braking force or the frictional force acting at the contact surface of the
block and the wheel. (Show Ft on the diagrams)
If the angle of contact is less than 60θ, then it may be assumed that the normal pressure
between the block and the wheel is uniform. In such cases, tangential braking force on
the wheel,
Ft = µ.RN
Braking torque,
TB = Ft.r= µRN.r
Double Shoe Brake:
Fig: Double Shoe Brake
When a single block brake is applied to a rolling wheel, an additional load is thrown on
the shaft bearings due to the normal force. This produces bending of the shaft. In order to
overcome this drawback, a double block or shoe brake as shown is used. It consists of
two brake blocks applied at the opposite ends of a diameter of the wheel, which eliminate
or reduce the unbalanced force on the shaft.
The brake is set by a spring, which pulls the upper ends of the brake arms together. When
a force is applied to the bell crank lever, the spring is compressed and the brake is
released. This type of brake is often used on electric cranes and the force is produced by
an electromagnet or solenoid. When the current is switched off, there is no force on the
bell crank lever and the brake is engaged automatically due to the spring force and thus
there will be no downward movement of the load.
In a double block brake, the braking action is doubled by the use of two blocks and the
two blocks may be operated practically by the same force, which will operate one. In case
of double block or shoe brake, the braking torque is given by
TB = (FR + FL) r
Where FR and FL are the braking forces on the two blocks.
Simple Band Brake:
A band brake consists of a flexible band of leather, one or more ropes, or steel lined with
friction material, which embraces a part of the circumference of the drum. A band brake
is called a simple band brake in which one end of the band is attached to a fixed pin or
fulcrum of the lever while the other end is attached to the lever at a distance b from the
fulcrum.
Fig: Simple Band brake
When a force P is applied to the lever at C(show on the diagram), the lever turns about
the fulcrum pin O and tightens the band on the drum and hence the brakes are applied.
The friction C(?) may be determined as discussed below:
Let T1 = Tension on the tight side of the band,
T2 = Tension on the slack side of the band,
θ = Angle of lap (or embrace) of the band on the drum,
µ = Coefficient of friction between the band and the drum,
r = Radius of the drum,
t= Thickness of the band, and
re= Effective radius of the drum = r+ t/2
Braking torque on the drum,
TB = (T1-T2) r (Neglecting thickness of band)
= (T1-T2) re (Considering thickness of band)
Band and Block Brake:
Fig: Block and Band Brake
The band brake may be lined with blocks of wood & other material. The friction between
the blocks and the drum provides braking action. The advantage of providing wooden
blocks is to give a higher coefficient of friction and they can be easily replaced after
being worn out. Let there are ‘n’ numbers of blocks, each subtending an angle 2θ at the
center and the drum rotates in anticlockwise direction.
Consider one of the blocks is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces:
To = tight-side tension in the band on the first block
T1 = slack-side tension in the band on the first block Tn = slack-side tension in the band
on the nth block
2 θ = angle subtended by the block at the drum centre
In case of band and block brake, the braking torque is given by
Tb = (To + Tn) r (Neglecting thickness of band)
Internal Expanding Brake:
An internal expanding brake consists of two shoes S1 and S2. The outer surface of the
shoes are lined with some friction material to increase the coefficient of friction and to
prevent wearing away of the metal.
Each shoe is pivoted at one end about a fixed fulcrum O1 and O2 and made to contact a
cam at the other end.
When the cam rotates, the shows are pushed outwards against the rim of the drum. The
friction between the shoes and the drum produces the braking torque and hence reduces
the speed of the drum. The shoes are normally held in off position by a spring.
The drum encloses the entire mechanism to keep out dust and moisture. This type of
brake is commonly used in motorcars and light trucks.
It may be noted that for the anticlockwise direction, the left hand shoe is known as
leading or primary show while the right hand show is known as trailing or secondary
show.
Disc Brake:
As compared to the drum brakes, the disc brakes are the development of later years.
Basically they are also friction brakes but with practicable differences. They had been
used on aircrafts in the past, have been successfully used on racing cars, and are now
used as standard equipment on various vehicles. Advances in disc brakes are seen as a
sign of ousting of drum brakes.
Fig: Disk Brake
A disc brake resembles a flat clutch fitted on each wheel. The generally adopted type disc
brake is referred as spot brake. The main parts are caliper or cylinder casing: outer &
inner, rotor disc, piston, friction pad, pad supporting plate and bleeder plug. Besides
these, the disc brake assembly also encloses piston seal, dust boot, pad wear indicator,
anti squeal shim etc.
The cylinder casing is made in two halves named outer and inner cylinders and resembles
a caliper. That is the disc brake is named caliper-type. The caliper is attached to the axle
housing in a rear-wheel brake and to the steering knuckle in a front wheel brake. The
rotor disc is connected to the road wheels through axle shaft. The assembly houses two
friction pads, one on each side of the disc. These pads are held in position by steel pad
plates.
Depending upon the constructional features of the caliper and the disc, the spot type disc
brakes may be classified into the different types (1) Swinging caliper type disc brake, (2)
Sliding caliper type disc brake, (3) Solid disc type disc brake and (4) Ventilated disc type
disc brake.
The disc brake pads are made of high friction materials, preferably asbestos. Asbestos
disc brake pads having a random asbestos fiber base are incorporated with copper/brass
particles. Being resistant to fade and abrasion over a wide temperature range, the disc
brake pads are integrally moulded with steel braking plates and are suitable for use in dry
operations only (i.e. these are not suitable for uses in oil). Disc brake pads provide
progressive, consistent and repeatable controlled braking on the wet or on dry roads, with
the loaded or unloaded vehicle, in town traffic or on motorways, on the flat road or on
mountainous road. From the first step to the end of a along arduous drive, these disc
brake pads perform free of noise and judder for a long time and without damaging any
disc or drum surface. The discs are then, flat, circular wheels mounted on the rotating
axles. The pads stop their motion, when the pads are pressed hydraulically on them. The
discs are generally made of steel or cast iron. They are usually chromium faced to make
them corrosion resistive.
HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM:
A hydraulic braking essentially consists of (i) A brake pedal, (ii) a master cylinder and
piston connected by tubing to hydraulic wheel cylinders, (iii) pipelines and houses for
conveying the fluid under pressure to the wheel brake shoe operating units and(the wheel
cylinders whose position move out for applying the pressure to the wheel brakes.
Fig: Hydraulic Braking System
The pedal force in this system is transmitted to the brake shoes for its actuation through a
confined liquid known as brake fluid. The fluid pressure acting upon positions in the
wheel brake operating causes the brake shoes to expand. A system of force transmission
based on Pascal’s Law (i.e. confined liquids transmit pressure without loss equally in all
direction) helps to multiply and transmit the force applied on the pedal to the brake shoes.
The hydraulic braking system is fully compensated due to the use of hydraulic fluid as
the transmission medium because the pressure is transmitted to pistons of each wheel
cylinder with equal and undiminished force resulting in the pressure applied to brake
shoes to be identical.
Master cylinder is the central unit in the hydraulic braking system. The hydraulic pressure
required to operate the system is produced here. The pressure of the driver’s pedal
through different linkage arrangements is transmitted to the master cylinder piston. It can
be considered as the heart of the hydraulic braking system. The purpose served by a
master cylinder is as under:
(a) The hydraulic pressure required to operate the system is built up. (b) Due to the
reservoir provided with it, it serves to maintain a constant volume of fluid in the system.
(c) To bleed or force air out of the brake line and wheel cylinders
The brake system consists of Internal expanding type brake, which consists of brake
shoes, which are made to contact an auxiliary wheel known as drum. To keep out the dust
and the moisture the entire mechanism is enclosed in the drum. The wheel brake unit
consists of a drum, anchor plate or back plate, two shoes, and operating unit and an
adjuster unit. The anchor plate, which contains the shoes pivoted on an anchor pin, allows
them to expand while the friction linings help it to make contact with the drum. In order
to bring the shoes back to the off position when the brake is released return springs are
used. The shoes of the brake consists of segmental castings with a web and a relatively
wide flange, A strip of friction material is externally secured to the flange. Fitted inside
the flanged drum, the shoes are expanded by some type of a operating unit. To allow the
drum to revolve freely with the wheel the diameter of the shoes is kept little less than the
internal diameter of the drum when they are at rest. By operating the shoes, they are
forced against the inner surface of the drum. This results in stoppage of the further
rotation of the drum with the wheels becoming stationary.
RESULT:- Models of different types of brakes have been visualized and studied.
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM:- Study of transmission system including clutches, gear box assembly and
differential box.
THEORY:
CLUTCHES:
Introduction & Theory:

A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at well, without stopping the driving shaft. The use
of a clutch is mostly found in automobiles.
A little consideration will show that in order to change gears or to stop the vehicle, it is
required that the driven shaft should stop, but the engine should continue to run. It is,
therefore, necessary that the driven shaft should be disengaged from the driving shaft.
The engagement and disengagement of the shafts is obtained by means of a clutch, which
is operated by a lever.
There are two main types of clutches commonly used in engineering practice
(1) Positive clutches and (2) Friction clutches.
Positive Clutches: The positive clutches are used when a positive drive is required.
The simplest type of a positive clutch is Claw Clutch.
Claw Clutch:
The claw clutch permits one shaft to drive another through a direct contact of interlocking
claw. It consists of two halves, one of which is permanently fastened to the driving shaft
by a sunk key. The other half of the clutch is movable and it is free to slide axially on the
driven shaft, but it is prevented from turning relatively to its shaft by means of feather
key. The claw of the clutch may be of squire type or of spiral type.
A square claw type is used where engagement and disengagement in motion and under
load is not necessary. This type of clutch will transmit power in either direction of
rotation. The uses of claw clutches are frequently applied to sprocket wheels, gears and
pulleys. In such a case, the non-sliding part is made integral with the hub.
Frictional Clutches:
A frictional clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and
machines, which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in
cases in which power is to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of
friction is used to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually bring up to the proper
speed without excessive slipping of the friction surfaces. In automobiles, friction clutch is
used to connect the engine to the drive shaft. In operating such a clutch, care should be
taken so that the friction surfaces engage easily and gradually bring the driven shaft up to
proper speed. The proper alignment of the bearings must be maintained and it should be
located as close to the clutch as possible. It may be noted that
1. The contact surface should develop a frictional force that may pick up and hold
the load with reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces.
2. The heat of friction should be rapidly dissipated and tendency to grab should
be at a minimum.
3. The surface should be backed by a material stiff enough to ensure a reasonably

uniform distribution of pressure.
The friction clutch can be classified as (1) Disc or plate clutches (single disc or multiple
disc clutch), (2) Cone clutches and (3) Centrifugal clutches.
A single disc or plate clutch consists of a clutch plate whose both sides are faced with a
frictional material. It is mounted on the hub, which is free to move axially along the
splines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the clutch body, which is
bolted to the flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate with the engine
crankshaft or the driving shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate towards the
flywheel by a set of strong springs, which are arranged radially inside the body. The three
levers (also known as release levers or fingers) are carried on pivots suspended from the
case of the body. These are arranged in such a manner so that the pressure plate moves
away from a flywheel by the inward movement of a thrust bearing. The bearing is
mounted upon a forked shaft and moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed. When
the clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in
towards the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of the levers inward. The levers are
forced to turn on their suspended pivot and the pressure plate moves way from the fly
wheel by the knife edges, thereby compressing the clutch springs. This action removes
the pressure from the clutch plate and thus moves back from the flywheel and the driven
shaft becomes stationary. On the other hand, when the foot is taken off from the clutch
pedal, the thrust bearing is moved back by the levers. This allows the springs to extend
and thus the pressure plate pushes the clutch plate back towards the flywheel.
The axial pressure exerted by the spring provides a frictional force in the circumferential
direction when the relative motion between the driving and driven members tends to take
place. If the torque due to this frictional force exceeds the torque to be transmitted, then
no slipping takes place and the power is transmitted from the driving shaft to the driven
shaft.
Multiple Disc Clutch:
Fig: Multiplate Clutch
Multiple disc clutch may be used when a large torque is to be transmitted. The inside
discs (usually of steel) are fastened to the driven shaft to permit axial motion (except for
the last disc). The outside discs (usually of bronze) are held by bolts and are fastened to
the housing which is keyed to the driving shaft. The multiple disc clutches are
extensively used in motorcars, machine tools etc.
Cone Clutch:
A cone clutch was extensively used in automobiles but now a days it has been replaced
completely by the disc clutch. It consists of one pair of friction surface only. In a cone
clutch, the driver is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has an inside conical
surface or face which exactly fits into the outside conical surface of the driven.
The driven member resting on the feather key in the driven shaft, may be shifted along
the shaft by a forked lever provided at B, in order to engage the clutch by bringing the
two conical surface in contact. Due to the frictional resistance set up at this contact
surface, the torque is transmitted from one shaft to another. In some cases, a spring is
placed around the driven shaft in contact with the hub of the driven.
This spring holds the clutch faces in contact and maintains the pressure between them,
and the forked lever is used only for disengagement of the clutch. The contact surfaces of
the clutches may be metal contact, but more often the driven member is lined with some
material like wood, leather, cork or asbestos etc. The material of the clutch faces depends
upon the allowable normal pressure and the coefficient or friction.
A little consideration will show that the area of contact of a pair of friction surface is a
frustum of a cone.
Let Pn = Intensity of pressure with which the conical friction surfaces are held
together (i.e., normal pressure between the contact surfaces).
R1 = Outer radius of friction surface,
R2 = Inner radius of friction surface,
r1 + r2
r = Mean radius of friction surface = ⎯⎯⎯ ,
α = Semi-angle of the cone (also called face angle of the cone) or angle of the friction
surface with the axis of the clutch,
µ = Coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces, and
b = Width of the friction surface (also known as face width or cone face).
Centrifugal Clutch:
The centrifugal clutches are usually incorporated into the motor pulleys. It consists of a
number of shoes on the inside of a rim of the pulley. The outer surface of the shoes is
covered with a friction material. These shoes, which can move radially in guides, are held
against the boss on the driving shaft by means of springs. The springs exert a radially
inward force, which is assumed constant. The weight of the shoe, when revolving causes
it to exert a radially outward force (i.e. centrifugal force).
The magnitude of this centrifugal force depends upon the speed at which the shoe is
revolving. A little consideration will show that when the centrifugal force is less than the
spring force, the shoe remains in the same position as when the driving shaft was
stationary, but when the centrifugal force is equal to the spring force, the shoe is just
floating. When the centrifugal force exceeds the spring force, the shoe moves outward
and comes into contact with the driven member and pressure against it. The force with
which the shoe pressure acts against the driven member is the difference of the
centrifugal force and the spring force.
DIFFERENTIAL GEAR BOX: -

The differential gear used in the rear drive of an automobile is shown in Fig. Its function
is (a) to transmit motion from the engine shaft to the rear driving wheels, and (b) to rotate
the rear wheels at different speeds while the automobile is taking a turn. As long as the
automobile is running on a straight path, the rear wheels are driven directly by the engine
and speed of both the wheels is same. But when the automobile is taking a turn, the outer
wheel will run faster than the * inner wheel because at that time the outer rear wheel has
to cover more distance than the inner rear wheel. This is achieved by epicyclic gear train
with bevel gears as shown in fig.
Differential gear, in automotive mechanics, gear arrangement that permits power

from the engine to be transmitted to a pair of driving wheels, dividing the force equally
between them but permitting them to follow paths of different lengths, as when turning a
corner or traversing an uneven road. On a straight road the wheels rotate at the same
speed; when turning a corner the outside wheel has farther to go and will turn faster than
the inner wheel if unrestrained.
The power from the transmission is delivered to the bevel ring gear by the drive-shaft
pinion, both of which are held in bearings (not shown) in the rear-axle housing. The case
is an open boxlike structure that is bolted to the ring gear and contains bearings to support
one or two pairs of diametrically opposite differential bevel pinions. Each wheel axle is
attached to a differential side gear, which meshes with the differential pinions. On a
straight road the wheels and the side gears rotate at the same speed, there is no relative
motion between the differential side gears and pinions, and they all rotate as a unit with
the case and ring gear. If the vehicle turns to the left, the right-hand wheel will be forced
to rotate faster than the left-hand wheel, and the side gears and the pinions will rotate
relative to one another. The ring gear rotates at a speed that is equal to the mean speed of
the left and right wheels. If the wheels are jacked up with the transmission in neutral and
one of the wheels is turned, the opposite wheel will turn in the opposite direction at the
same speed.
The torque (turning moment) transmitted to the two wheels with the differential is the
same? Consequently, if one wheel slips, as in ice or mud, the torque to the other wheel is
reduced. This disadvantage can be overcome somewhat by the use of a limited-slip
differential. In one version a clutch connects one of the axles and the ring gear. When one
wheel encounters low traction, its tendency to spin is resisted by the clutch, thus
providing greater torque for the other wheel.
RESULT: Study of transmission system including clutches, gear box assembly and
Differential box done successfully.

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SSCE, Udaipur Lab: THERMAL LAB-I

Sr. Date of Detail of The Experiment Date of Remark Faculty

Study of working of four stroke

Study of working of two stroke

To draw a valve timing diagram

To study various types of boilers.

To study various types of

Demonstration of steering system

Study of braking system with

Study of transmission system

2|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

FOUR-STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

3|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

Fig: Working Principle of Four Stroke Petrol Engine

Basic Concept Diesel engine

A four-stroke diesel engine resembles a gasoline engine as it works on the four-stroke

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

5|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

Fig: Working Principle of Four Stroke Diesel Engine

Comparison of CI and SI Engines:-

The CI engine has the following advantages over the SI engine.

6|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

7|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

Basic Concept: Two Stroke Engine

TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE): Working Principle

8|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

9|Page TE LABORATORY-I MANUAL

Fig: Two Stoke Petrol Engine

TWO-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:

Fig: Two Stroke Diesel Engine

Fig: Two Stroke Engine

The uniflow two-stroke cycle

1. Top dead center (TDC)

COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO STROKE AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES

Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

5. Size of the flywheel is comparatively Size of the flywheel is comparatively

6. Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.

7. Weight of engine per hp is high. Weight of engine per hp is comparatively

8. Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively low.

9. Removal or exhaust gases easy. Removal of exhaust gases comparatively

10. Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.

APPARATUS USED :- Four-Stroke, Single-Cylinder Diesel Engine Test Rig, Sprit

INLET VALVE OPENS (IVO):- It is done at 10to 25 θ in advance of TDC position.

INLET VALVE CLOSES (IVC):- It is done at 25 to 50θ after BDC position.

EXHAUST VALVE OPENS (EVO):- It is done at 30 to 50θ in advance of BDC

EXHAUST VALVE CLOSES (EVC):- It is done at 10 to 15 θ after the TDC position.

S.NO. Valve Position Arc Length, S Angle θ in

EQUIPMENT:- Model of various type of Boilers.

Fig: Steam Boiler

Working Principle of a Boiler

Different Types of Boiler

2. Fire Tube and Water Tube

Fig: Fire Tube and Water Tube Boiler

3. Externally Fired and Internally Fired

4. Forced Circulation and Natural Circulation

5. High Pressure and Low Pressure Boilers

6. Stationary and Portable

7. Single Tube and Multi-tube Boilers

RESULT: Study of various type of boiler and accessories have done.

EQUIPMENT:- Model of various type of Boilers.

Boiler fittings and accessories

Fig: Boiler Accessories and Mountings

known as priming. Blowdown is also often used to monitor the chemistry of