Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66

http://france.elsevier.com/direct/CULHER/

Case Study

Capillary-rising salt pollution and granitic stone erosive

decay in the parish church of Torre de Moncorvo
(NE Portugal)-implications for conservation strategy
Filipa Moreno 1, Sónia A.G. Vilela 2, Ângela Sandra G. Antunes 2, Carlos Alberto S. Alves *
Centro de Investigação Geológica, Ordenamento e Valorização de Recursos, Earth Sciences Department, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal

Received 5 October 2005; accepted 19 October 2005

Abstract
The study of a full-scale granitic building (the parish church of Torre de Moncorvo, NE Portugal, 16th–17th centuries) allowed the investiga-
tion of geochemical characteristics of capillary-rising salt pollution and their relation to the development of erosive-decay features on granitic
building stones. There is visible evidence of erosive decay affecting both stone and mortars in the parish church, with height-related distribution
patterns that indicate the influence of capillary-rising solutions in the decay processes. Salt efflorescences detected in the parish church and in
several places of the town evidence a widespread salt pollution affecting granitic stones and other building materials. Erosive decay in the parish
church is more pronounced and extensive in the walls, principally in the portals (east, north and south). The sampling program included decayed
granitic stones (to study the characteristic of salt pollution affecting the stones), soils between pavement slabs and lime mortar joints (considering
that these media constitute passive and cumulative indicators of salt-pollution sources and conditions). Results of water-soluble extracts indicate
geochemical patterns with height that support the importance of capillary-rising pollution and which indicate that erosive-decay features affecting
granitic stones occur associated with a range of total salt load and with diverse ionic compositions in a single monument. Distribution of stone
erosive-decay features and geochemical characteristics of water-soluble extracts of decayed building stones, lime mortar joints and soils also
indicate that cycles of capillary-rising contamination and drying of stones are predominant factors in the development of erosive decay features
that affect the granitic stones, favouring salt fractionation with height and surface concentration of soluble salts. These processes are especially
active in the walls (particularly in the portals), which are more exposed to cycles of capillary rise of solutions (namely, by rainwater accumulation
near the walls). The existence of level differences between outside pavement and inside floor (as observed in the south wall) constitutes an
additional solutions reservoir that favour stone decay. Lime mortar joints in the columns of the church’s nave show accentuated salt pollution,
but the granitic stones in these columns do not evidence the accentuated erosive decay features found in the walls, highlighting the influence of
cycles of capillary rise of solutions and drying of stones. These results are relevant to the conservation strategy of this monument. Conservation
measures must include isolation from soils (moisture- and salt-contamination reservoirs) and removal of mortar joints (salt-contamination reser-
voirs). Since intense and extensive erosion of ornamental stone elements is observed, almost obliterating their artistic value, replacement of some
stones should be pondered. Remediation of the present salt-contamination (desalination) on the remaining stones needs to be considered and
applied soon after isolation from solutions sources (or even begun simultaneously), since the removal of capillary-rising moisture would favour
crystallisation of soluble salts from salt solutions inside the porous media of the stones and further promote stone decay. Consolidation proce-
dures are proposed after the contamination-sources removal and desalination procedures. Given the size of the affected volume, a phased inter-
vention is proposed, beginning with the portals.
© 2006 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Salt pollution; Salt weathering; Granitic stones; Decay diagnosis; Conservation strategy

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: casaix@dct.uminho.pt (C.A.S. Alves).
1
Postdoctoral scholarship from the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, with FEDER funding.
2
Research scholarship from Project POCTI/1999/CTA 35600, of the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia.

1296-2074/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.culher.2005.10.006
 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66
1. Research aims
Laboratory and theoretical research are of paramount impor-
tance to understand salt-weathering processes affecting archi-
tectural-heritage objects, but need to be validated by field stu-
dies of real-scale objects, namely, in order to be useful for
conservation strategies.
The main aim of the present work is to study the geochem-
ical characteristics of capillary-rising salt pollution in a real-
scale granitic monument case study (the parish church of Torre
de Moncorvo, NE Portugal) and its relation to the development
of erosive-decay features on granitic building stones. This de-
cay diagnosis supports a discussion of possible conservation
measures for a monument with the size, architectural and en-
vironmental characteristics considered.
2. Experimental section
2.1. Introduction
Soluble salts are recognised as an important decay agent of
architectural works, affecting diverse building materials [1,2].
There have been several laboratory attempts to model the effect
of soluble salts on building stones [2–8]. However, in buildings
or portions of buildings, diverse environmental and geochem-
ical conditions affect stones with variable characteristics, justi-
fying the need and usefulness of field studies of stone-decay
distribution patterns and geochemical patterns to support the
characterisation of salt weathering that affect the monuments.
The diagnosis of decay processes should be the basis for
conservation strategies of cultural-heritage objects. One general
technique for the conservation of stone objects is treatment
with products to achieve consolidation and water repellency
(several examples of laboratory research, specifically for gran-
ites, can be found in Rodrigues and Costa [9]). However, there
are several questions regarding effectiveness and long-term be-
haviour of these products in moist- and salt-laden stones. For
example, the experiments of Ashurst, referred by Watt and
Colston [10], in the desalination and consolidation of nave col-
umns of a church indicated that silane treatments would not be
successful in very contaminated stones unless some salts are
removed. Watt and Colston compared three columns of this
monument (untreated, treated by poulticing and treated by
poulticing and consolidation) and found that there were “appre-
ciable accumulations of dust” around the bases of both the trea-
ted columns, even if “marginally less” than in the untreated
column. There have also been observations of ongoing decay
after consolidation of salt-contaminated stones in museum
pieces [11].
The removal of salts from the stone surface and the disper-
sion of salts found within the stones are referred by Young et
al. [12] as mechanisms that result in reduced rates of stone
decay.
Removal of salt contamination (desalination) is frequently
attempted by using poultices, which could be combined with
impregnation of the stone elements with distilled water by irri-
57
gation [13,14]. Several materials can be used [15] and the che-
mical characteristics of salt pollution should be considered
[16].
A more radical approach consists in removing the affected
element and immersing it in distilled water [17,18], a technique
that could present significant technical problems and costs for
large-size elements, besides the additional peril for weakened
objects.
Another desalination methodology is the use of surface ren-
derings with characteristics that favour salt extraction from the
treated materials [15,19,20,21]. The substitution of old mortar
joints with new, salt-free, mortars between the affected stones
[22] could also contribute to absorbing the salts from the
stones.
There are also rarer references to desalination by application
of electrical currents [17,23,24]. Palem [24] refers that electri-
cal techniques showed higher efficacy in the removal of salt
contamination than the application of poultices.
The use of additives that act as crystallisation inhibitors and/
or habit modifiers of soluble salts has also been tested in la-
boratory experiments [6,25]. Selwitz and Doehne [6] found
that the addition of potassium ferrocyanide was useful for pre-
venting crystallisation of NaCl, but did not appear to enhance
salt dissolution and, therefore, will not be useful for desalina-
tion. Rodriguez-Navarro et al. [25] found that the addition of
potassium and sodium ferrocyanides did not change the saline-
solution evaporation rate, but induced significant increases in
critical supersaturation, hence promoting the formation of ef-
florescences rather than subefflorescences. According to Rodri-
guez-Navarro and collaborators, these results suggested that the
application of poultices with ferrocyanides could be useful for
desalination.
2.2. Parish church of Torre de Moncorvo
Torre de Moncorvo (Fig. 1) is situated near the Douro Riv-
er, in Cambric alloctonous metasedimentary terrains [26]. Re-
garding the main climatic characteristics of the region, data
from the Portuguese Institute of Meteorology for the 1925–
1954 period [27] indicate:
● average total annual rainfall of 505.7 mm;
● monthly-average minimum temperatures as low as 3.4 °C
and monthly-average maximum temperatures as high as
30.9 °C;
● monthly-average relative humidity values (15:00 hours)
generally below 75%, being even below 35% in July and
August.
Our Lady of the Assumption church (details can be found
in www.ippar.pt/english/monumentos/se_moncorvo.html), par-
ish church of Torre de Moncorvo, is found in the centre of the
town (Fig. 1). A description of the church’s history and archi-
tecture can be found in Cavalheiro and Rebanda [28]. The
church was built mainly with granitic stones in the 16th–17th
centuries, with restorations in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is
58 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66

Fig. 1. Localisation and frontal view of parish church.

Fig. 2. Indication of significant erosive depths and sampling distribution (stone decay features, soil and lime mortar joints samples). Note that in the south side the
outside pavement is higher than the inside floor. Architectural plan drawn from plan in “Igreja Matriz de Torre de Moncorvo—Guia Português”, IPPAR, 2001.
 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66
rectangular in plan (Fig. 2), without a transept, and it has three
portals: a main east portal, giving access to a porch, a south
portal under a galilee porch and a north portal. One relevant
aspect for the present work is that the outside pavement is
higher in relation to the inside floor in the south side (Fig. 2).
The pavement of the southern end of the east façade is lower
than the street pavement.
The study of the granitic building stones applied in the
church [29] indicated stones mostly of the Arejadouro–Jun-
queira–Adeganha granite facies [26], a fine- to coarse-grained
muscovite granite. There are also applications of the Lousa–
Larinho granite facies [26], a fine- to medium-grained two-
mica granite. Studies of the < 2 μm fraction [29] showed the
predominance, among the alteration minerals of kaolinite and
gibbsite, typical minerals of the weathering processes of grani-
tic massifs in NW Portugal [30], that evidence the weathering
state that the stones brought from the quarries. These quarry-
inherited weathering characteristics of granitic stones mark the
development of a porous network that allows capillary migra-
tion of solutions through the granitic stones [31–35].
Efflorescences of salt minerals constitute a clear indication
of salt contamination and were detected in the parish church
[36] and in several places of the town. Both in the parish
church and in other places of the town, there is widespread
occurrence of alkaline nitrates (niter and nitratine), halite and
gypsum, results that are similar to those found in other histor-
ical centres of towns in mainland Portugal [37,38]. These salts
indicate the contribution of anthropogenic and other organic
contamination sources [39]. Occasionally, there are occur-
rences of alkaline and magnesium sulphates in the parish
church, salts usually ascribed to the influence of mortars [39,
40].
In the parish church and in several other places of Torre de
Moncorvo, there is visible evidence of erosive decay affecting
both stone and mortars, showing height-related distribution
patterns that indicate the influence of capillary-rising solutions.
Erosive-decay features affecting granitic stones of the parish
church can result in erosion depths of several mm (Fig. 2), with
a maximum erosion depth of 170 mm in the south portal. As is
also shown in Fig. 2, in the south side of the church, the out-
side pavement is placed at a higher level than the interior floor
and than the east pavement. Erosive processes also affect mor-
tar joints, usually following the decay patterns of building
stones, as has been observed in other granitic buildings [37,
38].
A detailed study of decay of chromatic and erosive-decay
forms in the parish Church stones was presented in Antunes
et al. [36] and the main features of the erosive-decay patterns
ascribable to capillary-rising solutions are briefly presented in
the following paragraphs.
Erosion features affecting granitic stones are found all
around the outside face of the parish church’s walls (up to
4 m high), reaching a wider extension in the portals; in parti-
cular, in the south portal, where significant fragments of stone
had been detached and erosion depth is more pronounced (as
indicated by erosion depths in Fig. 2). In the east façade, ero-
59
sive decay attains a higher height in the south end (that is
placed several centimetres below the street pavement) than in
the north side.
Inside the church, erosive decay is observed in the north,
south and east walls of the church. In the east and north walls,
erosive-decay features extend from the floor up to nearly 3 and
2.6 m, respectively (decay height is higher in the south end of
the east wall). In the south wall, decay attains higher heights
(3.5–4 m) and the stones nearer the floor (up to 1–1.5 m) did
not evidence, in general, accentuated erosion features. Erosive
features are very scarce in the nave columns, also built with
granitic stones, while stones of the columns in the north and
south walls show a wide occurrence of erosive decay.
2.3. Materials and methods
Based on the field observations of stone decay, 24 samples
of erosive-decay features affecting granitic stones (decayed
stone samples) were collected at different heights in the three
walls of the parish church that showed the most accentuated
decay (Fig. 2). Sampling was performed in the sheltered por-
tions of the parish church, since they represent points where the
geochemical characteristics of capillary-rising solutions would
be better assessed (without rain-mixing and -washing effects).
Considering its possible utility as passive and cumulative indi-
cators of salt-pollution sources and conditions, samples of lime
mortar joints (ten samples) and samples of soils between the
pavement slabs (six samples) were also collected (Fig. 2).
All samples were laboratory dried at 30 °C. Decayed stone
samples and lime mortar joint samples were ground, while soil
samples were sieved through a 2 mm plastic mesh. Extraction
of water-soluble fraction was performed by mixing a fixed
amount of sample with 100 ml of Milli-Q water for 2 hours,
followed by centrifugation and filtration (0.45 μm membrane).
Electrical conductivity was measured in an unfiltered aliquot of
water-soluble extract. Water-soluble anions (Cl–, SO42– and
NO3–) were analysed by Ion Chromatography and the main
cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+) were analysed by induc-
tively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) by
Actlabs, Activation Laboratories Ltd., Ontario, Canada.
2.4. Chemical results of water-soluble extracts
2.4.1. Decayed stone samples
The results of the chemical analysis of water-soluble ex-
tracts of decayed stone samples show variable total salt con-
tent, from 0.59% to 4.75% in weight (25th percentile: 0.95%;
median: 1.51%; 75th percentile: 2.05%). Ionic compositions
are also variable. To discuss the geochemistry of water-soluble
extracts, three groups of samples were defined according to
their position in the church plan: east, south and north group.
Electrical conductivity values plot very near the sum of the
analysed ions (Fig. 3), being generally slightly higher. Samples
from the south group tend to have higher salt content (except-
ing one sample from the east group).
60 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66

Fig. 3. Plot of electrical conductivity values against the sum of analysed ions in
water-soluble extracts of decayed stone samples.

The plot of sulphate against calcium is made in log–log dia-

gram, due to the wide range of values obtained (Fig. 4a, line of
Ca=SO4 is also plotted). Sulphate values are lower than cal-
cium values in all the groups studied, approaching the line of
equality in the higher range of values. The Cl vs. Na plot
(Fig. 4b) shows a certain trend of association between these
ions that is clearer (and nearer the line of equality) in the higher
values range, with sodium being generally higher than chloride
in the lower range of values. The plot of nitrate against potas-
sium evidences the association between these ions, nitrate le-
vels being always higher than potassium levels (Fig. 4c). Re-
sults of these plots are in agreement with the main
mineralogical characteristics of salt efflorescences found in
the parish church (referred in Antunes et al. [36]).
The plots of ion pairs also allows the study of ionic contents
by sample groups. Contents of potassium, nitrate, sulphate and
calcium are similar in the three groups of samples, excluding a
sample from the east group with anomalous levels of calcium
and sulphate and higher contents of nitrate and potassium in
two south samples. Contents of chloride and sodium tend to
be higher in the south-group samples.
The study of geochemical trends with sample height (Figs. 5
and 6) was undertaken with samples from profiles on the east
porch and south portal and with all the samples of the north
wall.
Electrical conductivity and sulphate and calcium content in
the east-porch profile and in the north wall decrease with sam-
ple height. Possible patterns of variation with height may differ
for these several parameters but they are similar between the Fig. 4. Plots of ionic compositions in the water-soluble extracts of decayed
east and north samples. Nitrate levels (Fig. 5d) in the north- stone samples: (A) sulphate against calcium; (B) chloride against sodium and
(C) nitrate against potassium.
wall samples show a trend towards linear decrease with height
that also describes most of the east-porch samples.
Positive linear associations with height are observed on the ferentiation processes both in monuments, by capillary-rising
south-porch profile for electrical conductivity, chloride and so- [39] and in natural evaporites. The results of Cardell et al. [7]
dium (with similar regression lines for these two ions). Chlor- show a significant enrichment of sulphate and calcium in rela-
ide also shows a positive relation with height in the east-porch tion to chloride in the surface of granites subjected to sea-salt
profile (Fig. 5c). spray (compared with the composition of the initial solution),
The early fixation of calcium and sulphate, related to the indicating that early fixation of calcium and sulphate occur
low solubility of gypsum, is a typical result of soluble-salt dif- even in situations where these ions are not dominant in the
 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66 61

Fig. 5. Plot against height of electrical conductivity (A) and anions content (B) sulphate, (C) chloride and (D) nitrate) of the water-soluble extracts of decayed stone
samples.

contamination solution. Other more soluble salts (chlorides and
nitrates) achieve higher heights, in accordance with usual geo-
chemical differentiation trends related to capillary-rising solu-
tions. In the south profile, calcium and sulphate do not tend to
decrease with height, which could be explained by the higher
salinity content (mainly related to higher chloride and sodium
content, see Figs. 4–6) that, lowering the activity of the ions,
would allow rising of calcium and sulphate ions to higher
heights [41]. The level difference between the outside pave-
ment and the inside floor at the south wall, creating a greater
moisture-feeding volume and a higher water content, could
also contribute to these height-related patterns.
62 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66

Fig. 6. Plot against height of calcium (A) and sodium (B) contents in the water-
soluble extract of decayed stone samples.

In addition to the comparison of absolute ion contents, geo-

chemical trends in stone-decay processes can be studied by
plotting ionic milliequivalent proportions in triangular dia-
grams SO42––Cl––NO3– and Ca2+–Na+–K+ [37]. The plot of
the results from the three height-profiles of the parish church
(Fig. 7) also supports the hypothesis of evolution towards more
soluble salts with height. It can be seen that the composition of
samples along a profile moves away from the calcium and sul-
phate apex and towards the sodium and chloride apex with in-
creasing height, a trend that is especially accentuated in the
east profile (but also very clear for the cations, Fig. 7b, in the
south profile).

2.4.2. Soil and lime mortar joints samples

Plotting of water-soluble extracts of soil samples in the an-
ions triangular diagram shows nitrate as the dominant anion
(Fig. 8a), but samples nearer the walls and the sample from
the south porch (see localisation in Fig. 2) are nearer the chlor-
ide apex. These characteristics and the detection of phosphates
in the water-soluble extract of soil samples support the impor-
tance of organic contribution. Regarding cationic results, it can
be seen (Fig. 8b) that:
● calcium is the dominant cation in the soil samples;
● samples nearer the walls (as well as the sample from the
south porch) are nearer the sodium and potassium apexes
Fig. 7. Plot of ionic composition (mEq/kg) of the water-soluble extracts of the
decayed stone samples in triangular diagrams: (A) SO42–-Cl–-NO3– and (B)
Ca2+-Na+-K+. Samples are numbered according to increasing average sampling
height (C).
when compared to samples from the same place farther
away from the wall.
Results of samples of lime mortar joints (Fig. 9) from col-
umns of the nave (samples M1–M8, see localisation in Fig. 2)
suggest that these parts of the monument had also been pol-
luted by capillary-rising solutions, specifically, the following
variations with height:
 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66
Fig. 8. Plot of ionic composition (mEq/kg) of the aqueous extracts of the soil
samples in triangular diagrams: (A) SO42–-Cl–-NO3– and (B) Ca2+-Na+-K+.
● decrease of calcium, sulphate and potassium content in the
four profiles and of electrical conductivity and nitrate con-
tent in three of the four profiles;
● increase in chloride in all the four profiles (similarly to what
was observed in decayed stone samples from the east and
south walls).
It is curious to note that the dominant anion in the water-
soluble extract of the lime mortar joint samples set is nitrate, as
in the soil samples set (see Fig. 8a).
Ionic contents in the lime mortar joint samples from the
south wall (samples M9 and M10, see localisation in Fig. 2)
are similar to those in the samples from the columns of the
nave (with the exception of sulphate, which is much higher in
the south-wall samples). These results indicate that present
mortar joints constitute salt-pollution reservoirs that need to
be addressed by future conservation interventions.
63
Fig. 9. Plot of the water-soluble extracts of lime mortar joints samples: (A)
height (m), electrical conductivity (μS/cm) and anions content (sulphate,
chloride and nitrate, in mEq/kg); (B) cations content (calcium, magnesium,
sodium and potassium, in mEq/kg).
Chemical results of the water-soluble extract of the lime
mortar joint samples suggest that the central portions of the
church are also affected by capillary-rising salt contamination.
However, this capillary-rising salt pollution in the central area
of the church is not associated with accentuated stone erosive-
decay features as those that are observed in the walls (namely,
in the portals).
3. Conclusions and a contribution towards discussion
of conservation strategies
Results from the study of erosive granitic stone decay asso-
ciated with capillary-rising salt pollution in the parish church
of Torre de Moncorvo allow the following main conclusions:
64 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66
● The development of the erosive-decay features that affect
granitic stones is related to diverse geochemical characteris-
tics of salt pollution (both total salt content and ionic com-
positions) in a single monument;
● Decay effects of capillary-rising salt pollution are related to
environmental and building conditions (namely, cycles of
capillary rise of solutions and drying of stones) favouring
salt fractionation with height and surface concentration of
soluble salts. Stone decay is much more pronounced in the
walls (especially in the portals), which are more exposed to
cycles of capillary-rising moisture (namely, by rainwater ac-
cumulation near the walls), followed by drying of stones
(enhanced by regional climatic characteristics). The exis-
tence of level differences between the outside pavement
and the inside floor, favouring capillary-rising moisture con-
ditions, contributes to a more extensive decay, as is ob-
served in the south wall and in the south end of the east
wall.
Mortar joints of the nave columns evidence important salt-
contamination levels that seem related to capillary-rising solu-
tions, but stone decay in these columns is rarer and signifi-
cantly less accentuated than in the walls. These differences of
intensity of decay effects in contaminated stones according to
the position on the church highlight the influence of cycles of
capillary rise of solutions and drying of granitic stones.
The diagnosis of erosive-decay processes will be considered
in the following discussion of intervention procedures. How-
ever, it is necessary to keep in mind that final decisions regard-
ing interventions in a cultural-heritage object are not only con-
cerned with technical issues, but also with financial, cultural
and aesthetic ones.
Given the mechanism proposed to explain granitic stone salt
weathering in this monument, the following sequence of inter-
vention procedures is proposed:
3.1. Removal of pollution sources
The soil and mortar joints studies indicate the existence of
pollution reservoirs that would continue to feed the salt pollu-
tion affecting granitic stones. The soils constitute, furthermore,
moisture reservoirs that favour salt migration. Therefore, isola-
tion of wall stones from soils is required. Differences of pave-
ment levels in the south wall and in the southern end of the east
wall constitute an additional problem to achieve isolation of the
walls from the soils. Given the salt-contamination levels pre-
sented by the mortar joints, to substitute the present mortar
joints to avoid further salt contamination of the stones is neces-
sary.
3.2. Stone replacement
It is always a polemic measure that must be contemplated in
the present case study, given the intense erosive-decay of some
stones (that has almost obliterated the artistic value of these
stones). Intensively eroded granitic stones could be replaced
with new stones, since quarries with similar stones have been
referred [29]. These new replacement stones could be treated in
order to be isolated from the pollution sources referred to.
It would be necessary to clearly define the stones that could
be replaced with new stones and those that would remain in
place and that should be treated by desalination and consolida-
tion.
3.3. Desalination of affected stones
It is necessary to be aware that cutting capillary-rising
moisture (as a result of the application of point 1 of the pro-
posed procedures) would favour crystallisation of soluble salts
from salt solutions inside the porous media of contaminated
granitic stones and, hence, could promote further stone decay
(the importance of moisture balance is suggested by erosive-
decay features distribution in the south wall). Therefore, reme-
diation of the present salt contamination needs to be applied
soon after isolation from solutions sources (or even begun si-
multaneously) in the stones that would not be replaced. Several
methodologies are available, which should be discussed, taking
into consideration the characteristics of the affected monument.
However, the technical implementation and efficacy of these
possible desalination measures need to be evaluated by in situ
field tests.
Simultaneous use of capillary-feeding with distilled water
and poultice application on the affected stones would allow
desalination under conditions that do not favour salt crystalli-
sation inside the porous media of the stones. If capillary-feed-
ing procedures are used, it is advisable to define an outer limit
of the treated zone, which should be isolated from the neigh-
bouring stones in order to avoid the propagation of salt pollu-
tants to other unaffected portions of the monument as a result
of moisture increase. Given the geochemical variability of salt
pollution affecting the granitic stones of the parish church, the
effectiveness of a general poulticing formula should be as-
sessed by in-situ tests, which should be performed on the
stones sampled in this study (in order to be able to use the
salt-chemistry data available). The possible addition of crystal-
lisation-modifier additives could help to prevent crystallisation
of salts, but it is necessary to choose which additives to use
(and their performance) in these chemically variable solutions.
It is also necessary to note that, while the use of crystallisation-
modifiers increased supersaturation of salt solutions and fa-
voured the formation of efflorescences in small-scale experi-
ments [6,25], it cannot be ruled out that a supersaturation in-
crease could favour an even more intense decay in building
stones, if salt crystallisation occurs within the stones’ porous
media.
The use of special wall renderings, with porous structures
that absorb and retain the salts, constitutes a technical alterna-
tive to poulticing, but effectiveness and treatment time needs to
be assessed. It would be also necessary to evaluate the possible
presence of salt contaminants in the applied materials. Further-
more, mortar rendering could find serious resistance due to its
aesthetic impact (being hardly viable, for example, for the por-
 F. Moreno et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 7 (2006) 56–66
tals) and its removal afterwards could contribute to the erosion
of weakened stones.
The use of electrical currents could be contemplated as a
general methodology to desalinate large masonry portions of
the parish church walls. However, the efficacy that can be at-
tained in these salt-polluted granitic stones must be assessed, as
well as the feasibility of the technical installation necessary to
apply the method.
Substitution of old, salt-polluted mortar joints with new,
salt-clean, mortars that absorb the salts from the stones would
also contribute to desalination.
One general question that remains is related to the salt levels
that could be considered safe. Given the extensive sampling
that was performed in this case study, minimum levels of salt
content found on the decayed stone samples could be consid-
ered a minimum-level guide for desalination (but, possibly, not
sufficiently low enough).
3.4. Consolidation of stones
The removal of the salts will not necessarily stop the pro-
gress of physical erosive decay (which could continue as a re-
sult of the several microfissures associated with salt crystallisa-
tion) and consolidation procedures could be performed after
removing contamination sources and performing the desalina-
tion of stones.
The application and success of the proposed intervention
measures could be limited and hindered by the area under con-
sideration and the ignorance of in-depth salt content inside the
masonry stones. A phased intervention is proposed, initially
focused on the conservation of portals (especially, the south
one) due to their ornamental value and their “welcoming” po-
sition in the monument. Attending also to their ornamental va-
lue, the columns of the wall should be addressed next. In the
rest of the walls (after an analysis of time, cost and aesthetics
components), a general desalination methodology could be
chosen for the treatment of the rest of the walls.
Acknowledgements
To Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico
(IPPAR). To architect João Carlos Santos for the initial gui-
dance. To Dr. Nelson Rebanda for all the support (especially
regarding historic information). To Mrs. Maria L. da Assunção
L. Rodrigues, Mrs. Susana Paula M. de Sousa Fernandes Dio-
go and Father Eugénio Sobrinho for their collaboration. To two
anonymous reviewers and to Dr. Eleonora Stella for sugges-
tions and corrections that contributed to improve the text.
Supported by project POCTI/1999/CTA 35600, of the Por-
tuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Operational
Program for Science, Technology and Innovation, with finan-
cial contribution from the European Union Fund FEDER and
from the Portuguese National Budget
65
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